Partnership Ready Ethiopia: Construction

Current situation country’s budget was allocated to the expansion of economic

infrastructure (railways, roads, telecom, power, irrigation) being
critical towards achieving the country’s Growth and Transformation
Plan (GTP) II as it has set a vision of becoming a middle-income
The construction sector in Ethiopia can be categorized into four economy by 2025. An example of this development is the largest
segments. These are: Transport Infrastructure – Road Construction, government housing projects in Africa since 2006. More than
Railway and Aviation, Sewage and Energy Projects, Real Estate and 32,000 housing units per year are being built, especially for the
Industrial Parks. These segments of the construction sector form poorer population. The demand for housing is enormous, in Addis
one of the fastest growing sectors of the Ethiopian economy. Ababa alone more than 750,000 inhabitants have registered for
social housing – nationwide there are about 1.8 million people. This
In Ethiopia, the construction sector has registered remarkable offers considerable opportunities for specialized German construc-
growth in the last decade. Over the last 11 years there has been tion companies in residential construction. Especially in mechanical
increased investment on the development and expansion of various engineering, as well as in the areas of sanitary, wood and metal
infrastructure projects. The government of Ethiopia is immensely processing and implementation, insulation and lighting systems.
investing in mega social and economic infrastructure projects Same goes for the Addis Ababa’s master plan (and other Ethiopian
including power generation projects, industrial zones and parks, cities) for restructuring and expanding – taking into account that
housing construction, water system and irrigation projects, roads expansion of the capital is an extremely political issue. Mid of
and railways, airports and dry ports, telecommunication infra- February the allocation of the condominiums (social housing) led
structure, and sugar and fertilizer factories. 61 % of the 2017/2018 to demonstrations in several cities in Oromia.
 PARTNERSHIP READY ETHIOPIA: CONSTRUCTION

In addition, up to 30 industrial parks – among those seven

private – are operational, under construction or in the planning
Legal Framework
phase. The Bole International Airport is under expansion and a new
airport will be built with annual capacity of 80 million passengers
as well as an accompanying hotel in Bishoftu (48km southeast of All local and international construction companies active in Ethio-
the capital Addis Ababa). Further infrastructure measures embrace pia have to be registered with the Ministry of Urban Development
energy plants (hydro, wind, solar and geothermal), road construc- and Construction before undertaking any construction work in
tion and the expansion of the railway-network. According to the the country. International companies are also required to obtain
GTP II, the road projects were expected to reach 220,000 km in investment permits from the Ethiopian Investment Commission.
network across the country by 2020 but reached only 121,196 km The Ethiopian construction sector is governed by several policies.
by 2017. In this context, the Ethiopian Roads Authority awarded The most important are the Ethiopian Building Proclamation
five local and five foreign firms with 10 road projects (724 km for 624/2009, Registration and Control of Construction Machinery,
16.3 billion Birr) in December 2018. Building Regulation no. 243/2011 and the fourteen Ethiopian
Building Code Standards, which detail construction standards
More than 80 % of the construction projects in Ethiopia run over regarding requirements for operation, system design, installation
budget and experience delays according to an article published by and implementation, inspection, handover as well as maintenance
the International Research Journal of Engineering & Technology in of corresponding construction facilities. Furthermore, they spell
March 2017. Lack of proper cost planning and monitoring during out in detail the quality and strength of materials to be used in
pre- and post-construction stages, improvements to standard construction.
drawings during the construction stage and design changes,
inaccurate quantity take-off, fluctuations in the cost of building The fourteen Ethiopian Building Code standards cover all aspects
materials and lack of planning and coordination are the significant of single, two and multi-family construction, including structural
causes for project delays. This provides opportunities for qualified and electrical elements, plumbing, heating, ventilation and air
consultancies and project management companies for offering conditioning systems, energy conservation requirements and all
experienced and efficient services. components of the sector. A construction council, which manages
the implementation of the code, oversees the construction sector
The wastewater sector offers another chance, both in consulting and binds sector players to the uniform standards provided by the
services and in the supply function, as the Ethiopian government code. Unfortunately, however, buildings in Ethiopia continue to
is investing in improving and developing the country’s sewage show significant deficits in materials and implementation, e.g. in
disposal system. Almost two thirds of the more than 100 million fire bombardment systems, earthquake protection, etc. Corruption,
inhabitants have access to clean drinking water, but only 6 % have health and safety issues also remain a concern.
access to a sewage system (10  % in Addis Ababa). Another area of
opportunity is the export of construction materials to Ethiopia. To work as a contractor and participate in construction within
Presently, Ethiopia has no significant local manufacturing industry, Ethiopia, one needs to have a construction license from the Minis-
therefore most materials and products are imported from coun- try of Urban Development and Construction. There are 10 grades
tries such as China, Turkey and United Arab Emirates (UAE). which are categorized accordingly based on the construction cost
of the project that the contractor is seeking to undertake. Foreign
companies are only allowed to register in the 1st class category
(Grade 1) of General, Building, Road and Special contractors.
General contractors (GC 1−10) work any civil construction except
water ones. Building contractors (BC 1−10) work in construction of
buildings. Road contractors (RC 1−10) participate in road con-
struction. Special contractors (SC 1−4) specialize in single areas of
construction like foundation drilling. A company only registers as
Grade 1 if the construction costs of their projects will be above 20
million Birr.

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 PARTNERSHIP READY ETHIOPIA: CONSTRUCTION

Large-scale, infrastructure and special projects are open to foreign ƒƒ Share Company: Requires a minimum of five shareholders
contractors due to know-how and technological requirements for and three directors who can either be individuals or corporate
machinery and equipment. In contrast, Ethiopian law investment bodies to be incorporated. The directors and shareholders
proclamation No. 849/2014 stipulates that foreign companies are can be of any nationality and must not be resident in Ethiopia.
not allowed to participate in investment areas exclusively reserved
for the government and domestic investors. Therefore, complex ƒƒ The Ethiopian commercial law allows foreign companies
construction projects, both public and private, are usually carried looking to establish business in Ethiopia to open branch
out by foreign construction companies or supported as local sub- offices in the country. The branch must seek approval from
contractors. the Ethiopian Investment Commission before commencing
operations in Ethiopia. At least one director of any nationality
All investment relevant specification regarding investment in all must be appointed to be the legal representative of the branch
sectors including the construction sector are outlined in Proclama- office in Ethiopia.
tion No. 270/2012 and No.849/2014. Investment in construction
contracting (including water well and mineral exploration drilling), The Ethiopia Ministry of Trade recently introduced mandatory
real estate development, architectural and engineering works, testing and verification according to 124 Compulsory Ethiopian
technical testing and analysis is not subject of any tax exemptions. Standards (CES). This list of 124 compulsory standards and regu-
Nevertheless, the import of construction materials is free of import lated products embrace measurement equipment and construction
tax in several investment areas if they are necessary for the estab- materials (such as steel, concrete, cement). Exporters who ship
lishment of a new enterprise or the expansion or upgrading of an to Ethiopia, require a certificate of conformity, which should be
existing enterprise. In addition, investments in the sectors (among acquired pre-shipment and importers will be required to present
others) cement, metals and engineering, renewable energy receive the original document to Ethiopian customs for clearance. An elec-
tax and duty incentives (as established in Investment Proclamation tronic copy will be held by the authority for authentication if and
769/2012). The proclamation No. 769/2012 on investment explains when needed. While in the past the role of the private sector was
all relevant processes and requirements for investments in Ethio- limited to contractor, the Ethiopian government is in the process of
pia. Additionally, all minimum capital to be allocated depending opening the economy. This now allows participation of the private
on the investment are outlined. Any foreign investor is required to sector in PPP-models for infrastructure projects. As of July 2017,
allocate a minimum capital of USD 200,000 for a single investment a PPP-law was enacted and last year a PPP-unit was established
project, for a foreign investor investing jointly with a domestic for approving and managing PPP-projects from government-side.
investor the minimum capital of USD 150,000 is needed. The mini- The energy sector will be the first sector where PPP-models will
mum capital required of a foreign investor investing in architectur- be considered.
al or engineering works or related technical consultancy services,
technical testing and analysis is USD 100,000 if the investment is
→→ REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
made wholly on its own and USD 50,000 if the investment is made
jointly with a domestic investor. A foreign investor re-investing his
PPP-unit (Ministry of Finance and Economic Cooperation): The
profits or dividends generated from his existing enterprise is not
Private Partnership proclamation No. 1076/2018 sets out the new
required to allocate a minimum capital.
PPP legislative framework with a view to promoting and imple-
menting privately financed infrastructure projects by enhancing
Some of the common business operations for foreigners to
transparency, fairness, value for money and efficiency through
establish are:
the establishment of specific procedures. PPP-projects may be
for either new or existing facilities and include design, financing,
ƒƒ Private Limited Liability Company: Is the preferred legal construction, rehabilitation, expansion, modernization, operation,
entity used by entrepreneurs up setting a business in Ethiopia.
maintenance, administration and/or management. The PPP-unit
Requires at least one director and two shareholders who can
and the Board of the PPP-unit are responsible for approving the
either be individuals or legal entities. The director and share-
PPP-projects.
holder can be of any nationality and must not be resident of
Ethiopia.

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 PARTNERSHIP READY ETHIOPIA: CONSTRUCTION

Ethiopian Investment Commission (EIC) is the primary govern- The Ministry of Works and Urban Development (MoWUD) is the
ment organ that serves as a nucleus for investment matters and lead agency entrusted with the responsibility of providing housing.
is given the power and duty to promote, coordinate and enhance The ministry is responsible for preparing the country’s building
investment activities. It is one of the first stops for an investor code, issuing standards for design and construction works. It also
wishing to apply for an Ethiopian business and investment license. ensures that buildings comply with the minimum requirements
As a national requirement, all business entities operating in Ethio- for design, safety, construction and quality of materials set down
pia must first be registered with the Ministry of Trade and obtain by the 14 Ethiopian Building Code Standards which detail the
a tax identification number (TIN) from the Ethiopian Revenue minimum requirements for design, constructions and quality of
and Customs Authority (ERCA). The institution also issues Custom materials. In addition, the Ministry is responsible for the classifi-
Duty-Free permission letter. www.investethiopia.gov.et cation (grades 1 to 10, depending on size, expertise and financial
means) for contractors. www.mudc.gov.et/web/guest
Addis Ababa Construction Bureau has taken over the responsibility
of managing all construction projects in the capital at the begin-
ning of 2019. It is responsible for preparing bidding documents, →→ P
 ARTICIPATION IN GOVERNMENT TENDERS
announcing tenders, selecting contractors and consultants, clear- OR BIDS
ing land and fulfilling infrastructure for any project that takes place
within the city. Previously, the projects used to be managed by dif- There are two types of government tenders, national and inter-
ferent offices under the City Administration using the supervision, national. National tenders are restricted to local companies’ while
consultancy and regulatory manpower of the Bureau. Currently, international tenders are open to all including foreign companies.
200 projects are delayed for which 2 Billion Birr are allocated in Foreign companies that do not have a local office in the country
this fiscal year under the responsibility of the Construction Bureau. should have a local agent to successfully bid on international ten-
In general, the construction sector consumes 75  %−80   % of the ders. It is advisable for foreign companies to carefully select their
city’s aggregate budget. The new procedure compels all the local partners based on a thorough due diligence investigation.
contractors and consultants in the city to register at the Bureau
to participate in any kind of projects in the city. Due to lack of capacity within Ethiopia, State Owned Enterprises
(SOE’s) may seek bids from foreign companies to accomplish their
Ethiopian Standards Agency has three core business areas which procurement requirements subject to these thresholds; for works
mainly focus on standard formulation, training and technical above 50 million Birr, for goods above 10 million Birr, for consul-
support and organizing and disseminating standards, conformity tancy services above 2.5 million Birr and for other services above
assessment procedures and technical regulation. 7 million Birr.
www.ethiostandards.org

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 PARTNERSHIP READY ETHIOPIA: CONSTRUCTION

International companies should be prepared to submit the follow- The booming construction activities in Ethiopia have also led to the
ing evidence to be considered eligible in a tender invitation bid: growth of the cement industry in the country. The Derba Midroc
Cement project, a USD 350 million project, consists of a cement
ƒƒ Business organization registration certificate or trade plant to develop the Derba-Muger limestone deposit. The plant
license issued by the country of establishment was built by MIDROC Construction Ethiopia PLC, co-financing
ƒƒ Professional and technical qualifications and competence was provided by the European Investment Bank, the International
to undertake the work/supply/service for which they are Finance Corporation and the African Development Bank.
bidding
ƒƒ Registration in the Public Procurement and Property The European Investment Bank has also financed projects in cru-
Administration Agency supplier list cial sectors such as water and sanitation, supported by the Water
ƒƒ Satisfactory financial capability and resources. Resources Development Fund as well as three European partners
ƒƒ Plus all other relevant documents as per the specific that agreed to provide more than EUR 81 million for the project.
requirement on the bid documents. This includes EUR 40 million from the European Investment Bank,
EUR 20 million from the African Development Bank Group and
Tenders are published in newspapers with a wide circulation EUR 15 million from Italian development cooperation. A further
(e.g. Ethiopian Herald, Capital Ethiopia, The Reporter) and are also EUR 6.4 million in grant funding from the three partners comple-
published on the PPA’s website (www.ppa.gov.et). mented the loans.

The African Development Bank Group has also invested a loan of

→→ PROJECT FINANCING USD 42.89 million and a grant of USD 54.79 million to develop the
Djibouti-Ethiopia Power Interconnection, co-financed with the
Access to finance is a challenge for the Ethiopian local market. Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation and the Ministry of Economy,
According to the National Bank of Ethiopia, there are currently Finance and Planning Electricité de Djibouti.
19 local banks and local private banks often require a large
percentage as collateral, which must usually consist of cash, real
estate or durable capital physically located in Ethiopia. Foreign
banking institutions with representative offices in Addis Ababa German business engagement in Ethiopia
include the European Investment Bank and Germany’s Commerz-
ROCKSTONE is a real estate development and investment
bank.
firm headquartered in Germany with offices in Berlin,
Hamburg, Munich, Lisbon and Addis Ababa. The business
Many State-Owned Enterprises lack the capital to build infrastruc- segments include commercial as well as residential value-
ture, and therefore prefer contractors that come with financial add and opportunistic real estate, projects generally have a
packages. As Chinese enterprises come with the support of policy- total investment of EUR 20 − 60 million and ROCKSTONE
bank loans, they have a considerable advantage in winning interna- currently has EUR 350 million under management. In 2018
tional projects in Ethiopia that are in need of large-volume capital ROCKSTONE entered Ethiopia with its first office in Africa
for infrastructure. For example, in 2006, the Chinese Development and its first project there is a EUR 25 million condominium
Bank (CDB) offered a USD 15 billion loan to Chinese telecommu- development in Addis Ababa.
nication company ZTE to build a mobile network in Ethiopia. The
MC-Bauchemie Müller GmbH und Co. KG with its Ethiopian
bank’s financial package allowed ZTE to acquire this contract and
subsidiary is one of the leading international construction
build the first mobile network in Ethiopia.
chemical producers which locally produces in Ethiopia. For
the last decade the well-trained staff has provided products
Capital for development finance comes from multiple sources, and service for individuals and mega projects. The product
from multilateral financial institutions, such as the World Bank, the range includes but is not limited to concrete admixtures,
Asian Development Bank, the European Investment Bank, to name decorative plasters, tile adhesives, repair and flooring
a few, or public financial agencies of particular countries, such as solutions.
the China Development Bank and the KfW Development Bank.

5
 PARTNERSHIP READY ETHIOPIA: CONSTRUCTION

Ethiopian Building Code of Standards (EBCS)

CODE TITLE DESCRIPTION

1 Basis of Designs and

Actions on Structures
• T
 his Code establishes principles and requirements for safety and serviceability, describes the basis for design
and verification and gives guidelines for related aspects of structural reliability.

2 Structural Use of
Concrete
• T
 his Code applies to the design of buildings and civil engineering works in plain, reinforced and pre-stressed
concrete made with normal weight aggregates.
• It is only concerned with requirements for resistance, serviceability and durability (not covered: thermal or
sound insulation).
• Construction is covered to the extent that is necessary to indicate the quality of construction materials and
products as well as the standard of workmanship.

3 Design of Steel
Structures
• This Code applies to the design of buildings and civil engineering works in steel.
• It is only concerned with requirements for resistance, serviceability and durability (not covered: thermal
or sound insulation).
• Construction is covered to the extent that is necessary to indicate the quality of construction materials
and products as well as the standard of workmanship.

4 Design of Composite
Steel and Concrete
Structures
• This Code applies to the design of composite structures and members, made from structural steel and rein-
forced or pre-stressed concrete connected together to resist loads, for buildings and civil engineering works.
• It is only concerned with requirements for resistance, serviceability and durability (not covered: thermal or
sound insulation).
• Execution is covered (reference to EBCS 2 – Structural Use of Concrete and EBCS 3 – Design of Steel
Structures) indicating quality of construction materials and products and standard of workmanship.

5 Utilization of Timber • T
 his Code includes specifications concerning the utilization of timber about the following aspects: Milled
Products and Sawn Boards; Wood Testing Methods; Stress-, Visual- and Mechanical Grading of Hard- and
Softwoods; Wood Frames; Timber Floor Framing and Flooring; Timber Wall Framing; Timber Roof Framing;
Timber Doors and Windows including Frames and Linings; Plywood Construction and Structural Timbers
and Glue-laminated Members; Wood Flooring Blocks; Scaffold Planks; Timber Fastener and Connectors.

6 Masonry • T
 his Code includes specifications concerning masonry about the following aspects: Materials for Masonry
Construction; Masonry Construction; General Design Principles of Masonry Wall; General Requirements
for Structural Design; Design of Unreinforced Masonry; Design of Reinforced Masonry; Design for Fire
Resistance; Workmanship and Site Control.

7 Foundations • This Code applies to geotechnical aspects of the design of buildings and civil engineering works.
• It covers requirements for strength, stability, serviceability and durability of structures.
• It gives rules to calculate actions originating from the ground, such as earth pressures.
• Rules related to execution are covered, indicating the quality of construction materials and standard
of workmanship
• This Code shall be used in conjunction with EBCS 1 – Basis of Designs and Actions on Structures

8 Design of Structures
for Earthquake
Resistance
• T
 his Code provides rules for seismic design, completing or adapting the rules of the previous Code
(EBCS 7 - Foundations).

9 Plumbing Services
of Buildings
• T
 his Standard lays down requirements for and gives recommendations on the design, installation, testing,
and maintenance of plumbing fixtures, water supply for domestic and fire-fighting systems, drainage and
venting of disposal systems for water born domestic waste, and storm-water drainage on the premises.

10 Electrical
Installation of
Buildings
• T
 his Code applies to the design, selection, erection, inspection and testing of electrical installations for
residential, commercial, public and industrial premises, including prefabricated buildings, construction sites,
exhibitions, fairs and other temporary installations up to and including 1000.0V a.c. or 1500.0V d.c.
• T
 his Code does not apply to: electric traction equipment; electrical equipment of automobiles, -on board
ships, -in aircrafts; public street-lighting installations; installations in mines, radio interference suppression
equipment (except s it affects safety of the installation); fixed wiring for telecommunication and signaling
and control and the like; internal wiring of apparatus; systems for distribution of energy to the public or
power generation and transmission for such systems.

6
 PARTNERSHIP READY ETHIOPIA: CONSTRUCTION

11 Ventilation and
Air Conditioning of
Buildings
• T
 his Code specifies requirements for and gives recommendations on the design, installation, testing and
maintenance of ventilation and air conditioning systems.

12 Fire Precautions
during Building
Construction Design,
• T
 his Code covers Fire precautions bases during building design services, works and uses; Fire safety and
means of escape; Fire safety and construction details; Fire related ancillary engineering services; Fire, smoke
and heat transmission, detection and control system; Firefighting system and Fire safety and firefighting
Works and Use management.

13 Health and Safety • T

 his Code applies, to Building Construction, Maintenance, Renovation, Demolishing and other associated
activities to all Classes of Buildings stated in Ethiopian Building Proclamation. This Code covers the Health
and Safety precautions for the most common construction activities. If a building construction involves
special method/s of construction, the builder needs to come up with the associated Health and Safety
precautionary measures for such method/s. The occupational health and safety requirements specified in
this document are only the minimum requirements. Other equivalent or better approaches are also accept-
able if proven.

Development cooperation in the construction

sector
i Sources and useful links:

• E
 thiopian Building Proclamation 624/2009
The Federal Ministry of Economy Cooperation and Develop- www.fsc.gov.et/Negarits/GetPdf/123
ment (BMZ) has commissioned Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH to implement • R
 egistration and Control of Construction Machinery
the Sustainable Training and Education Programme (STEP) www.fsc.gov.et
which focuses on providing special training in the construc- • B
 uilding Regulation no. 243/2011
tion sector: www.ethioconstruction.net
• Vocational: A cooperative training model is in develop-
• I nvestment proclamation no. 849/2014
ment, focusing on hotel maintenance, i.e. electrical,
www.addischamber.com/
plumbing and furniture installations, with the main coop-
investment-proclamation-and-regulation
eration partner being Bahir Dar Polytechnic College.
• I nvestment Proclamation 769/2012
• Short-term: The Graduates Anchoring Program (GAP)
www.mot.gov.et
aims at bridging the skills gap of TVET and higher-
education graduates in the field of electrical installations, • T
 he Ministry of Works and Urban Development
plumbing, finishing and soft skills. The program will train (MoWUD)
380 trainees in four 3-month cohorts and consists of www.mudc.gov.et/web/guest
on-the-job training in host companies and theory inputs
• I nvest Ethiopia
to improve their employability on construction sites. GAP
www.investethiopia.gov.et
is implemented in cooperation with the Construction
Contractors Association of Ethiopia (CCAE) and the Addis • E
 thiopian Standards Agency
Ababa Construction Bureau. Another short-term training www.ethiostandards.org
focuses on increasing institutional capacity to support
micro, small and medium enterprises by providing know-
how in financial, organizational and project management
as well as in sector-specific areas.
• Industry-wide: In order to complement the existing
cooperative training and to enhance workers’ qualifica-
tions in the construction sector, tailored and job-specific
courses are offered in cooperation with CCAE.

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 PARTNERSHIP READY ETHIOPIA: CONSTRUCTION

YOUR PARTNER FOR NEW MARKETS – NEW OPPORTUNITIES:

DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION ETHIOPIA
Economic growth creates jobs, improves people’s incomes, In order to support the sustainable engagement of
and promotes innovation. That is why the United Nations German companies in emerging and developing countries,
2030 Agenda provides for the active involvement of the Germany Trade & Invest (GTAI), Deutsche Gesellschaft
private sector in the implementation of the Sustainable für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH and the
Development Goals (SDGs). The Global Business Network German Chambers of Commerce Abroad (AHKs) as well as
(GBN) Programme encourages local and German companies other partners combined their expertise in the publication
to get involved in sustainable economic development series “New Markets – New Opportunities”.
in selected countries in Africa and Asia. Via Business &
The booklet shows companies the economic potential of
Cooperation Desks the GBN-Coordinators provide infor-
future markets as well as the funding and consulting
mation, advice and guidance for businesses on existing
opportunities offered by the German development coop-
support, financing and cooperation instruments of German
eration. “New Markets – New Opportunities: A Guide for
development cooperation. The GBN-Coordinators work
German Companies” is supported by the Federal Ministry
closely with the German Chamber of Commerce Abroad
for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). All
(AHK) regional offices. The GBN is funded by the German
issues are published on the websites of GTAI and GIZ. You
Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Develop-
can find selected issues, for example on Ethiopia also at
ment (BMZ) and implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft
für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. www.bmz.de/ez-scouts

www.bmz.de/gbn

Published by In cooperation with:

Published by Deutsche Gesellschaft für URL-links Responsibility for the content of external websites
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH linked in this publication always lies with their
respective publishers. GIZ expressly dissociates itself
Registered offices from such content.
Bonn and Eschborn, Germany
GIZ is responsible for the content of this publication.
Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1–5
65760 Eschborn, Germany
T +49 6196 79-0 On behalf of German Federal Ministry for Economic
F +49 6196 79-11 15 Cooperation and Development (BMZ)
[email protected]
Division Division 110
www.giz.de
Cooperation with the private sector, sustainable
Project Global Business Network (GBN) Programme economic policy
Berlin
Responsible Linda Schraml
[email protected]

Layout www.w4gestaltung.de

Photo credit © GIZ / Selahadin Ali Bekri (p 1),

Mulugeta Gebrekidan (p 4)

As at Eschborn, May 2020