IS TECHNOLOGY A NEW CHALLENGE FOR THE

FIELD OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT?1

André Dorée2 and Seirgei Miller

Civil Engineering & Management Department, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, En-
schede, THE NETHERLANDS

ABSTRACT

The central theme in Construction Management (CM) and CM research is improving

the performance of construction industry. Much effort and thought is given to improv-
ing project performance. Within CM there is a natural inclination to focus on projects
and project management (PM). Companies in the construction industry also see pro-
ject management as their key competence. Both have little appreciation for technolo-
gies other than those that support project management tasks. Technology – other than
PM support – is often seen as an outside resource that is "contracted in". By taking
such a neutral position regarding technology, CM and construction companies not
only disregard the potential of these technologies, but also fail to notice the adverse
effects when new technologies are "contracted in". This paper argues that CM as well
as companies in construction can gain by reconsidering their stance towards technol-
ogy. This argument is built on the case of road construction – in particular the asphalt
paving process. The case shows that development of the new technologies and the de-
velopment of the skills and operational practice of the people that are expected to use
the technologies are not in harmony. Projections for the upcoming decade indicate a
sharp rise and proliferation of SMART technologies – this too for the construction in-
dustry. Construction companies need to take a more proactive and involved stance
towards these technologies to be able to reap the benefits. If not, then the gap between
technologies and construction will grow and the risks for the companies increase with
it. CM and CM research needs to address this gap, support the introduction of new
technologies and the synchronisation of new technology development and the devel-
opment of skills and working. If it fails to do so CM and CM research will struggle to
maintain its meaningful contribution in the improvement of the construction industry.

Keywords: asphalt, construction management, GPS technology, process control.

INTRODUCTION
The strength and vitality of the field of CM is visible in the attendance of and number
of papers for the ARCOM conferences, the pressure on the CM journals to increase
the number of annual issues (e.g. Construction management and Economics), and the
growing delay and number of papers "accepted in print" (e.g. Construction Innova-
tion). The field of CM originated as a reaction to an academic tradition skewed to-
wards Engineering and Technology. The introduction of CM journals was a logic re-

1
Published as: Dorée, A.G. and Miller, S.R., Is technology a new challenge for the field of Construc-
tion Management?, in 24th Annual ARCOM Conference, A. Dainty, Editor. 2008, Association of Re-
searchers in Construction Management: Cardiff, UK. p. 175-184.
2
[email protected]
Dorée and Miller

sponse to the near impenetrability of the technical journal for CM issues. A first gen-
eration of rather mathematical approaches to scheduling, planning, resource allocation
and project management opened up the new fields of project management and subse-
quently CM. The evolvement and growth of the more general management studies –
with areas such as marketing, strategic management, production operation manage-
ment, organisation design, organisation behaviour, human resource management, etc –
brought new angles into the field of CM and into the CM journals. Nevertheless, the
new influx of issues from a project performance perspective still dominates the field
of CM as one of the recurring angles. This of course is a mirror and consequence of
construction industry's focus on projects and project management (Pries et al. 2004).
Given the origin of the CM journals, it is not unusual that CM has an orientation that
is rather unsympathetic towards technology. This situation is seldom challenged be-
cause authors that write papers on technology and engineering rather publish in the
earlier established engineering journals. These older journals not only provide them
feedback from their selected peers, but often also offer better impact factors. As such,
a trajectory once logical and explicable is perpetuated. Just as the QWERTY layout
once sensible in the era of the mechanical typewriter is still the dominant layout on
computer keyboards. This even though the initial reasons for this layout are all elimi-
nated.
In this paper, we argue that the neglect of technology in the field of CM must be chal-
lenged. This is particularly so because we can expect an influx of new SMART tech-
nologies into the construction industry and into the construction practice. To illustrate
this argument we present an innovation project in road construction that took place in
2007 in the Netherlands. The observations made related to this case study underline
the growing gap between the trajectories of new technologies on the one hand, and the
skills and explicit process insights on the other. New technologies are developed and
introduced into the construction industry without in-depth knowledge of the construc-
tion practice and operational strategies. The operators and site crews involved are not
able to use the new technologies. The technologies do not match their operational
strategies. On the other hand, the operators and site crews, who mainly work on intui-
tion and implicit routines, are not able to explain what their operational strategies are.
As such, they can hardly play a role in shaping the scope and direction for the devel-
opment of new technology.
This paper is structured as follows. After the introduction, we provide a short litera-
ture review of technology and the asphalt paving process. Thereafter we explain the
background to the Dutch Ministry of Transport sponsored innovation project, BAM
Wegen’s innovation role and objectives for the project. This is followed by a descrip-
tion of the data collection using new technology, the analysis and a discussion of the
results. Finally, we outline the challenges we see ahead for CM and CM research in
the context of a changing business environment for the construction industry.

TECHNOLOGY AND THE ASPHALT PAVING PROCESS

There have been several organized industry-aided research efforts for the development
of state-of-the-art technologies for real-time locating and positioning systems for con-
struction operations (Abourizk et al. 1994, Pampagnin et al. 1998, Bouvet et al. 2001,
Navon et al. 2004). They include efforts to develop automated methods for monitor-
ing asphalt laying and compaction using GPS and other IT technologies. Li et al.
(1996) reported on a system to map moving compaction equipment. Krishnamurthy et
 Technology neglect in construction

al. (1998) developed an Automated Paving System (AUTOPAVE) for asphalt com-
paction operations. Peyret et al. (2000) developed the Computer Integrated Construc-
tion systems for the real-time control and monitoring of work performed by road con-
struction equipment, namely compactors (CIRCOM) and pavers (CIRPAV). Oloufa
(2002) described the development of a GPS-based automated quality control system
for tracking pavement compaction. Hence, it appears that several GPS experiments to
map the asphalt paving experience were conducted in recent years. However, although
some of these technological experiments were developed into industrial applications,
it appears that it is not yet part of operational strategies and working practice in as-
phalt processes. Also, several authors argue that the construction industry typically
lags behind other industries in adopting technology (AbouRizk et al. 1992, Halpin et
al. 1999, Halpin et al. 2002, Bowden et al. 2006). For his MSc thesis Simons (2007)
interviewed 28 compactor-, paver- and screed operators actively involved in the as-
phalt paving process. The interview results confirmed that the paving process largely
depends on tradition and custom i.e. the knowledge and experience of the compaction
team. Machine settings are mainly done based on “feeling and experience”. Compac-
tor operators visually note the behaviour of the mix to determine if the desired density
has been achieved. Although the interviewees all refer to common and proven practice
in machine setting, the actual settings and operational strategies varied widely from
team to team. Therefore, there is not really one common practice, but a wide array of
"common practices". In addition, most operators acknowledged that they hardly made
use of the technology available on the compactor or even simple temperature meas-
urement instruments to assist them in the compaction process. The interviews con-
ducted with operators confirmed anecdotal evidence, which suggested that in The
Netherlands, work in the asphalt paving process depends heavily on craftsmanship,
that work is being carried out without measuring the key process parameters (tempera-
ture, density and layer thickness), and that the work methods and equipment are se-
lected based on tradition and custom (Dorée et al. 2005). This "business as usual" sce-
nario occurs despite road construction companies having an array of new technologies
at their disposal.

THE INNOVATION PROJECT

In 2006, the Dutch Ministry of Transport organized an innovation competition, chal-
lenging commercial parties to put forward ideas to extend the mean service life of the
dual layer porous asphalt system from seven to nine years. The porous asphalt system
consists of a 25 mm thick upper layer with a maximum grain size of 8 mm and a 45
mm thick lower layer with a maximum grain size of 16 mm. It is specially designed
for high reductions of traffic noise (5-7 dB (A) at normal traffic speed). BAM Wegen
joined forces with the University of Twente and various other parties to enter the in-
novation competition. The group’s focus was on extending the service life of the dual
layer porous asphalt and involved improving the whole process from the choice of raw
materials and mix design, to monitoring of the finished product. The aim of this pro-
ject was to improve the homogeneity of the asphalt mix during production, transport
and application. The realisation phase of the project was a 460m long section of resur-
facing of the A35 highway in the east of The Netherlands. BAM Wegen developed,
planned and carried out the construction of the test section. The scope of the project
required the removal of the existing surfacing layer followed by repaving with the
dual layer porous asphalt system. The layers were laid simultaneously with a special
machine, the Twin-lay asphalt paver (Dutch abbreviation TAS). The 12m wide high-
Dorée and Miller

way was divided into three paving lanes viz. 5m, 4m and 3m wide. Construction work
was carried out over two nights during April 2007.
The University of Twente research team monitored a number of key process parame-
ters during construction. The team focuses on innovation and performance in the as-
phalt paving process, having recently consulted key role players in the industry (Dorée
et al. 2003, Dorée et al. 2005) and subsequently publishing a number of conference
papers in this research area (Huerne ter et al. 2007, Miller et al. 2007, Miller et al.
2007). Their research is aimed at improving quality and consistent reduction of qual-
ity variability in the hot mix asphalt (HMA) paving process. Two key research ques-
tions are addressed. The first tackles the main causes of variability in the asphalt pav-
ing process whilst the second focuses on the effect of revised operational strategies on
quality in the paving process.
So, what triggered the research into monitoring of key process parameters? Why did
BAM Wegen involve the "academics"? For BAM Wegen this was the second serious
project for their Twin-lay asphalt paving machine. The first project was not problem-
free. The surface was corrugated unacceptably and had to be milled off and repaved, a
time-consuming and costly repair operation. Analysis of the project raised the suspi-
cion that the roller operators had not waited long enough for the fresh layer to cool to
temperatures suitable for compaction. Compaction of the too hot asphalt was seen as
the cause of the corrugations. The question then was why the roller operators started
compacting the too hot layer? This question was particularly puzzling since the rollers
were equipped with temperature sensors that produce continuous temperature read-
ings. What was happening and why did it happen? These questions needed answers
before the TAS machine could be used again with some degree of confidence. There-
fore, BAM Wegen invited the researchers to participate in the tender for the innova-
tion project. Together it was decided to focus on extensive asphalt temperature meas-
urements and GPS monitoring of the paving machine and the two rollers.

OBJECTIVES
Contractor BAM Wegen set two main objectives for the project. First, to work to-
wards a 25% increase of the service life of the dual layer porous asphalt by improving
the total process from choice of raw materials and mix design to the monitoring of the
finished product. Second, to develop innovative monitoring techniques of the asphalt
paving process since major developments in road paving are often hampered by insuf-
ficient feedback from finished products. The latter objective led to the contractor in-
troducing two innovations for the project. Firstly, to use a Twin-lay asphalt paving
machine in combination with a shuttle buggy for improved temperature homogeneity;
and secondly, to use thermographic imagery and continuous GPS (Global Positioning
Systems) tracking on the paver and compactor rollers for improved process control
during the asphalt paving process.

USING TECHNOLOGY TO ANALYSE OPERATIONS

Infrared camera images were used to document temperature differentials during the
hot mix asphalt paving operations with more than 400 photographs taken in a prede-
termined regime. A GPS system with 10cm accuracy was used to collect positioning
data for all equipment movements over the two-night period.
 Technology neglect in construction

Temperature profiling
The temperature profiling enabled the contractor to measure the extent of variability in
surface temperature and hence draw a number of conclusions about temperature ho-
mogeneity. There is evidence of a distinct lack of consistent repetitive temperature
contours during continuous paving operations for all lanes and the surface temperature
varies appreciably both longitudinally and transversely leading to extensive variability
in temperature homogeneity (see the typical Temperature Contour Plot in Figure 1).
Operational discontinuities affecting the paving process were identified. The rate of
cooling of the asphalt mat is clearly visible when the paver stops during continuous
paving operations and at the end of paved lanes; and the initial movement of the paver
and subsequent initial coolness of the mix are clearly visible through narrow bands of
contours at the start of paving operations. Also, in-asphalt temperature and surface
temperature measurements were compared.
170-175
165-170
160-165
155-160
150-155
145-150
140-145

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 135-140

00:00:00 00:06:22 00:14:18 00:20:14 00:26:05 00:32:17 00:37:55 00:43:20 00:48:56 00:54:28 01:00:07 01:05:59 130-135
22:42:09 22:48:31 22:56:27 23:02:23 23:08:14 23:14:26 23:20:04 23:25:29 23:31:05 23:36:37 23:42:16 23:48:08 125-130
120-125

Figure 1 - Temperature contour plot (TCP) for Wed Lane 1

GPS monitoring
The monitoring of equipment movements using GPS systems highlighted a number of
operational issues. The paver speeds vary between 3,5m/min to 5,5m/min. The time
between the start of paving and the start of compaction varies with rollers starting
compaction activities between 2 minutes and 41 minutes after paving operations.
Animations showing equipment
movements were produced from the
GPS data. Several views were devel-
oped to provide perspectives from
those closest to the process i.e. from the
seats of the paver operator, roller op-
erators and the close-up “freecam”
view shown in Figure 2. The anima-
tions provide accurate explicit evidence
of all paving and compaction activities
on distance and time-lines and the ex-
tent of co-operation between the paver
and the roller compactors.
Dorée and Miller

Figure 2 - "Freecam" view for Wednesday Lane 3

In addition to being able to analyse the operational behaviour of the compaction roll-
ers using the animations, the GPS data were used to prepare Compaction Contour
Plots (CCP) showing the number of passes applied to specific areas of the paved
lanes. Scrutiny of the total number of passes shows compaction inconsistencies for all
paved lanes. For Thursday's lane 1, the Compaction Contour plot shows that number
of compaction passes tends to decrease as you move from the left to the right side of
the lane as shown in Figure 3.
Total roller passes for Thursday Lane 1
18-20
S4 16-18
14-16
S3 12-14
10-12
S2
8-10

S1 6-8
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 4-6
Distance in m etres 2-4
0-2

Figure 3 - Compaction Contour Plot (CCP) for Thursday Lane 1

OBSERVATIONS AND FIRST ANALYSIS

The described A35 project resulted in several new ways to picture and present the
temperature data, the cooling process of the asphalt layer (at the surface as well as "in-
asphalt"), the movements of paver and rollers, and the process of compaction. It also
confirmed a strong correlation between surface and in-asphalt temperature. For a more
extensive description of the A35 project and the results see Miller et al (2008).
Overall, a number of monitoring benefits are apparent. The consequences of on-site
operational behaviour and discontinuities are made explicit. The temperature profiling
highlights the resultant variability in temperature homogeneity and identifies poten-
tially segregated areas. Temperature contour maps and compaction coverage plots are
digitally “geo-referenced in layers” and saved in permanent records. Thus, future re-
viewing and matching with on-site pavement distress and failure is possible. Logging
the movements of the equipment using GPS captures the results of the operational
choices made by the paver and roller operators. The animations of the moving equip-
ment provide evidence of the rolling patterns and of how rolling is undertaken during
the construction process. Mapping the heuristics the operators use allows a deeper un-
derstanding of the on-site paving process. This systematic analysis and mapping of the
asphalt paving process should lead to firstly, addressing the important issue of reduc-
ing variability in operational behaviour and secondly, to an improvement in consis-
tency and quality in the final product.
Let's revisit the problem that started off the research project on the A35: The corruga-
tions in the first Twin-lay project and the questions of why the roller operators started
compaction the asphalt while it was still too hot. In a post analysis based on the in-
sights gained in the A35 project and three related MSc projects, a number of possible
scenario's was put forward. First of all the asphalt layer was thicker than the crew was
used to. The thicker the layer the longer the cooling takes (Asphalt-Institute 1989,
NCAT 1996). The roller operators generally base their operational choices on the dis-
tance to the paver (interviews). Their rationale: the closer to the paver, the closer to
 Technology neglect in construction

the initial temperature. How far the roller operator drives towards the paver is based
on experience and intuition. However, with the thicker layer their experience and in-
tuition failed them. They drove too close to the paver. The temperature sensor is not
accurate either. The sensor measures the surface temperature which is consistently
lower than the in-asphalt temperature. The difference between these two temperatures
depends on several parameters - thickness of the layer being one. The temperature
contour plots of the A35 show quite a variety in initial surface temperature (up to 35
degrees Celsius within 10 metres). For the operators the temperature indication must
be quite erratic. In the interviews the majority of roller operators confess to ignore the
temperature sensor anyway. The information provided by their new instruments is not
relevant for them since it does not fit into their operational reasoning and strategies.
They rather trust their intuition and experience. For a more extensive discussion on
craftsmanship in the road construction industry see Miller et al (2007).
The interesting observation that this paper focuses on is the mismatch between the
new technologies put onto the machinery and the operational strategies of the opera-
tors. In the interviews some operators praised their equipment but declared the new
technologies pointless ("you can remove this stuff"). This gap between the sophistica-
tion of the equipment and the practice guided by intuition and experience is due to two
separate market dynamics. On the one hand, there is the market driven technology tra-
jectory of the equipment manufacturers. The companies are subsidiaries of multina-
tional conglomerates. The equipment manufacturers compete and operate on global
scale. Their main areas of advancement are [a] new technologies (sensors, telecom,
and intelligence) and [b] comfort for the operator. The new technologies are mostly
selected and developed without in-depth knowledge of the construction process, and
certainly without considering local (regional) practice. The advancements in comfort
for the operator have improved the working environment for the operators, but have
also created a distance between the operator and work in progress. Ergonomic chairs
take away the feedback (bumps) normally received from surface irregularities. Air-
conditioned cabins take away the feel for heat radiating from the asphalt surface and
the feel for ambient temperature and wind speed. Stereos in the cabins reduce oppor-
tunities to communicate with other team members.
The road construction industry - on the other hand - still operates with a market strat-
egy that pivots around (high) volume and (low) costs. Consequently, the contractors
are reluctant to spend money on higher wages, education and training. At the same
time, the actual construction work is shifted to nights and weekends. These working
conditions do not attract the best equipped and educated personnel. People that are
able to do calculations and more abstract tasks rather work in the office during the day
than on site during the night. This process of self-selection results in a situation where
the average operator on site has difficulties in dealing with abstract information. The
new technologies on the equipment create an information overload for the operators,
who solve this situation by just disregarding the "bells and whistles" on their new ma-
chines. Intuition and past experience becomes their prime source for operational
choices. Subsequently learning becomes a lengthy process of trial and error. When the
asphalt mixtures and the designs are frequently changed, this learning process cannot
keep up with the changes and as a result, the quality of the paving work will suffer.
This is demonstrated in both twin-lay projects.
Dorée and Miller

CHANGES IN THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT

The mismatch between the intuition and the experience-based operational approach of
the operators and the technology trajectories of the equipment manufacturers inevita-
bly leads to quality control issues. Given the development of new sensors, improved
communication (pervasive internet), increasing micro computing powers, RFID tag-
ging, track and tracing, GPS application, etc., the equipment will become more so-
phisticated. This trend is not stoppable. The road construction industry will have to
cope with this trend and at the same time reduce the variability as exposed by the A35
project. The seriousness of this issue is underlined by changes in the public procure-
ment strategies that lead to higher risk profiles for the road builders.
Over the last four years since the Dutch parliamentary enquiry into the construction
sector, the business environment within the road construction sector has changed dra-
matically. According to Dorée (2004) the collusion structure that regulated competi-
tion has fallen apart. Public clients have introduced new contracting schemes contain-
ing incentives for better quality of work (Sijpersma et al. 2005) and therefore play a
critical role in the construction innovation process. This prominent role allows them to
stimulate and support the implementation of innovative solutions such as process per-
formance (Manley and Karen 2006, Ling et al. 2007). The new public sector procure-
ment is about performance contracting and longer guarantee periods. No longer is the
asphalt mix and surfacing design specified by the client. The contractor now has to
develop a solution that fits the performance specifications. The guarantee period is
stretched from three years up to seven years with ten years as maximum. Contractors
needing to close roads for repair work can face lane rental agreements scenarios or
even severe penalties for causing traffic congestion. This new condition creates a new
set of risks and business incentives (Ang et al. 2005). Road construction companies,
therefore, seek better control over the construction process, over the planning and
scheduling of resources and work, and over performance. Improved control would
also reduce the risks of failure during the guarantee period. The observations related to
the A35 project, the interviews and the participation in asphalt teams, show that add-
ing more technologies to the machinery is not necessary the viable route for risk re-
duction. To be able to achieve these goals, the relevant on-site operational parameters
need to be known and the relationships between these parameters need to be thor-
oughly understood. For asphalt paving companies to be able to improve product and
process performance, they now more than ever acknowledge they need to develop in-
tricate understanding of the asphalt paving process and the interdependencies within
the process. The ideal route would be to co-develop the insights into process, skills &
education of operators, and supporting (SMART) technologies on site and on the
equipment. It seems a task suited to CM and CM research.

CM TO MATCH TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE

In the sections above, the argument is that technology and construction practice grows
apart in a way that adding new technology for process control rather increases than
mitigates risks. New technology should be co-developed with skills, education and in-
depth process knowledge. So why is CM suited for this task? It fits perfectly with the
objective of CM - improving project performance. Given the claim that CM improves
the performance of the project and the construction industry, it is even obliged to in-
volve itself in this co-development. Otherwise, the success of CM will be spoilt by
quality problems due to new technologies that are disrupting the construction practice
 Technology neglect in construction

rather than supporting it. Furthermore: no other field of research will be able or urged
to bring the three areas together in a co-developing manner for the field of construc-
tion. CM and CM research needs to bridge the gap between the new upcoming
SMART technologies and the construction processes.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper dealt with the complexity of technology adoption and innovation in a
changing construction industry. Road construction is a typical segment of the con-
struction industry that faces new risks and business opportunities due to more chal-
lenging public procurement strategies. The research showed that seeking competitive
advantage in new products and new technologies may go against practices, cultures
and resources that are shaped in a certain (market) tradition. Reducing the variability
and improving quality consistency is the key to risk management. Now that the com-
panies are aware of the higher risk profiles they acknowledge the need to make ex-
plicit the implicit working practice and operational strategies. To really take advantage
of the new SMART technologies the introduction must be in co-development with in-
depth process knowledge, skills, training & education. This particularly is an area for
CM and CM research to contribute and flourish. In our case: BAM Wegen, through
this innovation project, has shown courage and a conscious desire to adopt and inte-
grate new technology for firstly, monitoring the equipment movements and secondly,
to interrogate and change their operational strategies and methods. They now ac-
knowledge that explicit knowledge, systematic and easily communicated in the form
of hard data provides support for and a deeper understanding of the operational proc-
ess being followed. For them the documented operations provide the lever to discuss
and confront the operational choices made by management and more importantly,
those choices made by the paving team during construction operations.

REFERENCES
AbouRizk et al. (1992) State of the art in construction simulation. In: (Eds), "Proceedings of
the 1992 Winter Simulation Conference", USA.
Abourizk et al. (1994) Automated Construction-Simulation Optimization. "Journal of Con-
struction Engineering and Management-Asce", 120(2), 374-385.
Ang et al. (2005) Dutch performance-based approach to building regulations and public pro-
curement. "Building Research & Information", 33(2), 107 - 119.
Asphalt-Institute (1989) "The Asphalt Handbook". Lexington, USA. The Asphalt Institute.
Bouvet et al. (2001) A real-time localization system for compactors. "Automation in Con-
struction", 10(4), 417-428.
Bowden et al. (2006) Mobile ICT support for construction process improvement. "Automation
in Construction", 15(5), 664-676.
Dorée (2004) Collusion in the Dutch construction industry: an industrial organization perspec-
tive. "Building Research and Information", 32(2), 146-156.
Dorée et al. (2003) Co-operation and competition in the construction industry in The Nether-
lands. In: Greenwwod and D. (Eds), "ARCOM 2003 - 19th Annual Conference",
Brighton, UK. ARCOM, 2, 817 - 826.
Dorée and Miller

Halpin et al. (2002) Lean Construction and Simulation. In: (Eds), "Proceedings of the 2002
Winter Simulation Conference", USA.
Halpin et al. (1999) Real World Applications of Construction Process Simulation. In: (Eds),
"Proceedings of the 1999 Winter Simulation Conference", USA.
Huerne ter et al. (2007) New technologies in the paving process need to be based on "common
practice" and operator's heuristics. In: Lee and Asghar Bhatti (Eds), "5th International
Conference on Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Con-
trol", 8 - 10 August, Utah, USA. 109 - 114.
Krishnamurthy et al. (1998) AutoPave: towards an automated paving system for asphalt
pavement compaction operations. "Automation in Construction", 8(2), 165.
Li et al. (1996) A GIS-based system for tracking pavement compaction. "Automation in Con-
struction", 5(1), 51.
Ling et al. (2007) Influences on Innovation Benefits during Implementation: Client's Perspec-
tive. "Journal of Construction Engineering and Management", 133(4), 306.
Manley and Karen (2006) The innovation competence of repeat public sector clients in the
Australian construction industry. "Construction Management and Economics",
24(12), 1295 - 1304.
Miller et al. (2008) Paving the way forward: A case study in process control. In: Beuving
(Eds), "4th Eurasphalt and Eurobitume Congress", 21-23 May, Copenhagen, Den-
mark. 204-215.
Miller et al. (2007) The asphalt paving process: plans for action research. In: Borgbrant, J.,
Atkin and B. (Eds), "4th Nordic Conference in Construction Economics and Organi-
sation", 14 - 15 June, Luleå, Sweden. 37-46.
Miller et al. (2007) Understanding Asphalt Compaction: An Action Research Strategy. In:
Amaratunga, D., Ruddock, L., Haigh, R., Alshawi and M. (Eds), "7th International
Postgraduate Research Conference in the Built and Human Environment", 27 - 29
March, Salford, UK. 456 - 466.
Navon et al. (2004) A concept proving prototype of automated earthmoving control. "Auto-
mation in Construction", 13(2), 225-239.
NCAT (1996) "Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction". Second Edi-
tion, NAPA Research and Education Foundation.
Oloufa (2002) Quality control of asphalt compaction using GPS-based system architecture.
"Ieee Robotics & Automation Magazine", 9(1), 29-35.
Pampagnin et al. (1998) Architecture of a GPS-based guiding system for road compaction. In:
Anon (Eds), "Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automa-
tion", Leuven, Belgium. IEEE, 3, 2422.
Peyret et al. (2000) The Computer Integrated Road Construction project. "Automation in Con-
struction", 9(5-6), 447-461.
Pries et al. (2004) The role of leaders' paradigm in construction industry change. "Construc-
tion Management & Economics", 22(1), 7-10.
Sijpersma et al. (2005) "Bouworganisatievorm in beweging", Economisch Instituut voor de
Bouwnijverheid, 66.
Simons (2007) "Op weg naar een beheerst asfaltverwerkingsproces", M.Sc., Civil Engineering
and Management, University of Twente.