Introduction To Civil Engineering

Introduction to Civil Engineering
Authors
Prof. Manabendra Saharia, Prof. Nagendra R. Velaga,

Assistant Professor, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering,
Hauz Khas, IIT Delhi, IIT Bombay
Reviewer
Dr. Sumant Kulkarni,
Associate Professor,
Civil Engineering (CE), D. Y. Patil University Pune Ambi,
Talegaon Dabhade, Pune, Maharashtra
All India Council for Technical Education

Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj,
New Delhi, 110070
BOOK AUTHOR DETAILS
Prof. Manabendra Saharia, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering (CE), V-224, Department of
Civil Engineering, Hauz Khas, IIT Delhi, Delhi 110016, New Delhi.
Email ID: [email protected]
Prof. Nagendra R. Velaga, Professor, Civil Engineering (CE), Department of Civil Engineering,
IIT Bombay.
BOOK REVIEWER DETAILS

Dr. Sumant Kulkarni, Associate Professor, Civil Engineering (CE), D. Y. Patil University Pune
Ambi, Talegaon Dabhade, Pune, Maharashtra - India, 410507
BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version

1. Dr. Amit Kumar Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell, All India Council for
Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Phone Number: 011-29581312
2. Mr. Sanjoy Das, Assistant Director, Faculty Development Cell, All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE), New Delhi, India
Phone Number: 011-29581339
January, 2023
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
ISBN : 978-81-960386-4-9
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or
any other means, without permission in writing from the All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE).
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obtained from the Council Office at Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070.
Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.
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the speaker / content of the said weblinks. In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be settled under
Delhi Jurisdiction, only.
iii
iv
FOREWORD ABOUT THE BOOK
I am delighted to introduce this book, "Introduction to Civil Engineering," to the next generation of
aspiring civil engineers. Civil Engineering is the mother of engineering, and a student is expected to
acquire a variety of skills such as excellent scientific and mathematical temper, sound health,
common sense, excellent interpersonal and communication skills.
Domain of civil engineering can be divided in many sub-areas such as Structural engineering,
Transportation engineering, Hydraulics and Water Resources engineering, Geotechnical
engineering, Geomatics engineering, Environmental engineering, Port and Harbour engineering, etc.
Structural engineering is concerned with the analysis and design of structures such as dams,
weirs, bridges, skyscrapers, tunnels, and so on. The structures should have desired strength,
durability, and stability; they should be aesthetically appealing, and should be economical.
Transportation engineering focuses on the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of
transportation systems and infrastructure, including roads, highways, airports, and railways.
Hydraulics and Water Resources engineering deals with the principles of water and
sediment/pollutant flow, and development and management of water resources for meeting needs of
municipal and industrial water supply, irrigation, hydropower generation, flood and drought control,
and recreation. It also includes water supply, treatment, and distribution systems. Geotechnical
engineering deals with the properties and behavior of soils and rocks and finds applications in the
design and construction of foundations, slopes, and tunnels. Environmental engineering focuses on
the protection of human health and environment and involves the application of scientific and
engineering principles to prevent, control, and remediate environmental problems. Geomatics
engineering deals with surveying and measurements of terrestrial features using earth- or space-
based instruments/sensors. Port and Harbor engineering is concerned with planning, design,
construction, and running of marine-based transport systems. Sustainability is an over-arching
concept of civil engineering since the solutions provided should be environment-friendly, socially,
and culturally acceptable, economically viable, and sustainable.
This book provides a solid foundation in the core disciplines of civil engineering. It also
includes numerous QR codes that help readers to access additional resources and interactive contents,
such as videos, animations, and simulations. The book also contextualizes civil engineering in India,
highlighting the challenges and opportunities in this rapidly developing country.
I am confident that as a first course in a civil engineering undergraduate program, this book
will be an invaluable resource for students who are eager to learn about the exciting and rewarding
field of civil engineering. It will provide them with the knowledge and skills they need to tackle the
complex and pressing challenges facing our world today, and to help build a more sustainable and
livable future for all.
Sharad K Jain
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Former Director, National Institute of Hydrology
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. T. G. Sitharam, Chairman;
Prof. M. P. Poonia, Vice-Chairman; Prof. Rajive Kumar, Member-Secretary and Dr Amit Kumar
Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell for their planning to publish the book on
“Introduction to Civil Engineering.” We sincerely acknowledge the valuable contributions of the
reviewer of the book, Dr. Sumant Kulkarni, REVA University.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and authors who
shared their opinion and thought to further develop engineering education in our country.
Acknowledgements are due to the different professionals in this field whose published books, review
articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references, and other valuable information enriched us at
the time of writing the book.
Manabendra Saharia dedicates this book to his late mother, Ms. Nilakhi Sahariah. He would
also like to acknowledge the support of his wife, Prof. Shrutidhara Sarma, and his father, brother,
father-in-law, and mother-in-law. He acknowledges the extraordinary debt he owes to his well-
wishers over the years: Prof. Rajib Bhattacharjya, Prof. Sharad K. Jain, Prof. Parthajit Roy, Prof.
Parthasarathi Choudhury, Prof. Ramgopal Rao, Prof. G. V. Ramana, Prof. A.K. Nema, Prof.
Sumedha Chakma, Prof. DR Kaushal, Prof. Rangan Banerjee, Prof. Pierre Kirstetter, Dr. Jonathan J.
Gourley, and Prof. Yang Hong. Nagendra R. Velaga dedicates this book to his parents (Velaga
Subbarao and Velaga Rama devi) and family members Dr. Sree Lalitha, Jaya, and Shiv. This work
is also dedicated to his teachers, who have spent a significant amount of their life in building him.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the heroic efforts of our students at IIT Delhi and IIT
Bombay, without which writing this book would not have been possible.
Prof. Manabendra Saharia, IIT Delhi

Prof. Nagendra R. Velaga, IIT Bombay
vi
PREFACE
The book titled “Introduction to Civil Engineering” is an outcome of the rich experience of our teaching
of basic and advanced Civil Engineering subjects at IIT Delhi and IIT Bombay. The initiation of writing
this book is to expose the extraordinary breadth of civil engineering to undergraduate students as a first
course in civil engineering. Keeping in mind the purpose of wide coverage as well as to provide essential
supplementary information, we have included the topics recommended by AICTE, in a very systematic and
orderly manner throughout the book. Efforts have been made to explain the fundamental concepts of the
subject in the simplest possible way.
During the process of preparation of the book, we have considered various standard textbooks and
reports. While preparing the different sections, emphasis has also been laid to provide an overview of a
vast array of civil engineering topics, but also delve a little deep into their applications in the real world.
We have made extensive use of illustrations and examples to enrich this book for proper understanding of
the related topics. Under the common title “Introduction to Civil Engineering,” we cover 6 units dealing
with the various subfields of Civil Engineering. They include structural engineering, water resources
engineering, geotechnical engineering, transportation engineering, etc. We also provide a chapter on
practical applications where we provide examples from different areas of civil engineering for classroom
practice as well as stoking the personal interests of students. We have inserted QR codes into every chapter
to point towards resources that students might want to explore beyond the textbook.
As far as the present book is concerned, it will allow civil engineering students to appreciate the
breadth and depth of civil engineering as a topic and prepare them for upper-level courses.
We sincerely hope that the book will inspire the students to learn and discuss the ideas behind basic
principles of civil engineering and will surely contribute to the development of a solid foundation of the
subject. We would be thankful to all beneficial comments and suggestions which will contribute to the
improvement of the future editions of the book. It gives us immense pleasure to place this book in the hands
of the teachers and students. It was indeed a big pleasure to work on different aspects covered in the book.
Authors
Chapter-wise presentations for this book have been uploaded here for the
convenience of students and educators
https://introtocivilengg.wixsite.com/book
vii
CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS BOOK
Dr Nishant M. Pawar Monik Gupta

Postdoctoral Research Fellow PhD Candidate
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Priyam Deka Rohan Bargoti
PhD Candidate M.Tech. Scholar
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Ved Prakash Dr. Satyadhrik Sharma
PhD Candidate Department of Materials, Mechanics,
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Management & Design
Technische Universiteit Delft
Shashank Roohmoney
M.Tech. Scholar PhD Candidate
Anagha P. Bhanu Magotra
PhD Candidate PhD Candidate
Ravi Raj Sai Kiran Kuntla
Nirdesh Kumar Sharma Prateek Sharma
Suneet Bansal Prof. Prashanth Vangla
M.Tech. Scholar Assistant Professor
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi
Prof. Sahil Bansal Prof. Deepanshu Shirole
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi Dept. of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi
viii
OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION
For the implementation of an outcome-based education the first requirement is to develop an outcome-
based curriculum and incorporate an outcome-based assessment in the education system. By going through
outcome-based assessments, evaluators will be able to evaluate whether the students have achieved the
outlined standard, specific and measurable outcomes. With the proper incorporation of outcome-based
education there will be a definite commitment to achieve a minimum standard for all learners without
giving up at any level. At the end of the programme running with the aid of outcome-based education, a
student will be able to arrive at the following outcomes:
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using principles of mathematics, natural
sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues, and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
of the engineering practice.
PO9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
ix
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
x
COURSE OUTCOMES
After completion of the course, the students will be able to:

CO-1: Understand the basics and breath of Civil Engineering as a field
CO-2: Understand the basics of Structural Engineering and its applications
CO-3: Understand the basics of Geotechnical Engineering and its applications
CO-4: Understand the basics of Water Resources Engineering and Sustainability and its applications
CO-5: Understand the basics of Traffic and Transportation Engineering and its applications
CO-6: Perform hands-on experiments and computations relevant to civil engineering
Course Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

Outcome (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
s PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1 3 - - - 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 1
CO-2 3 2 2 1 2 - - - - - - -
CO-3 3 2 2 1 2 - - - - - - -
CO-4 3 2 2 1 2 - 3 - - - - -
CO-5 3 2 2 1 2 - - - - - - -
CO-6 3 3 3 2 3 - - - - 3 3 -
xi
GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the students should be
enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper implementation of OBE. Some of
the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in OBE system may be as follows:
● Within reasonable constraints, they should maneuver time to the best advantage of all students.
● They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without considering any other
potential ineligibility to discriminate against them.
● They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before they leave
the institute.
● They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with quality knowledge as well as
competence after they finish their education.
● They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance capabilities.
● They should facilitate and encourage group work and teamwork to consolidate newer approaches.
● They should follow Bloom’s taxonomy in every part of the assessment.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Students should Possible Mode of

Level
Check be able to Assessment
Students’ ability to
Create Design or Create Mini project
create
Evaluate Argue or Defend Assignment
justify
Students’ ability to Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analyze
distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Technical
Students’ ability to Operate or
Apply Presentation/
use information Demonstrate
Demonstration
Students’ ability to Explain or Presentation/
Understand
explain the ideas Classify Seminar
Remember recall (or Define or Recall Quiz
remember)
xii
GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS
Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not
limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
● Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and every course.
● Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
● Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the program.
● Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
● Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real-life
consequences.
● Students should be aware of their competency at every level of OBE.
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Kailasa temple in ellora caves (source: wikipedia) 4

Figure 2: Theodolite in surveying (source: www.dreamcivil.com) 11
Figure 3: Traversing: a) open traversing; b) closed traversing (source: www.theconstructor.org) 12
Figure 4: Bhupen hazarika bridge (source: wikipedia) 13
Figure 5: Terratec epb tbm used for tunneling in the delhi metro (source: https://tunnelingonline.com/) 15
Figure 6: Namami gange project details 18
Figure 7: India’s longest expressway on track to bring two metropolises closer (source: hindustan times) 20
Figure 8: Sardar sarovar project: the largest water resources projects in india 21
Figure 9: Asce’s fundamental principles 23
Figure 10: The three articles provided by the engineering council of india in their code of ethics 24
Figure 11: Tensile strength of material. 29
Figure 12: compressive strength of material. 30
Figure 13: shear stress between two surfaces 30
Figure 14: torsion in a circular rod. (source: ceschinski, h. Et al., 2000). 30
Figure 15: load diagram leading to bending moment 31
Figure 16: wind tunnel 34
Figure 17: howrah bridge steel structure 38
Figure 18: conceptually, repair/retrofit methods can again be broadly classified as (macchi et al., 2018) 47
Figure 19: types of soil particles (source: thomas higher education) 56
Figure 20: throw ball test (source: food and agriculture organization, united nations) 56
Figure 21: bottle test which determines proportion of sand, silt, and clay (source: food and agriculture
organization, united nations) 57
Figure 22: major soil types of india. (source: wikipedia) 59
Figure 23: a ternary diagram of the soil texture triangle (source: united states department of agriculture -
usda) 60
Figure 24: plasticity cart for united soil classification system (uscs) (source: https://dot.ca.gov/). 61
Figure 25: three phase diagram (source: https://edtech.engineering.utoronto.ca/) 62
Figure 26: atterberg's limit (source: civil engineering, texas tech university) 63
Figure 27: phase diagram for compaction and consolidation. 66
Figure 28: underground structure. (source: http://www.quantity-takeoff.com) 67
Figure 29: classification of rocks 68
Figure 30: (a) basalt (b) trap (c) granite (d) diorite (e) pegmatite (source: wikipedia) 69
Figure 31: (a) sandstone (b) limestone (c) shale (d) gypsum (e) laterite (source: wikipedia) 69
Figure 32: (a) marble (b) quartz (c) gneiss (source: wikipedia) 70
Figure 33: rock failure types. (source: michael kimberly, https://earthquake.usgs.gov/) 71
Figure 34: strike & dip. (source: physical geology book, dr. Karla panchuk, 2018) 72
Figure 35: joint. (source: hylgeriak, 2010) 72
Figure 36: parts of folds (source: physical geology book, dr. Karla panchuk, 2018) 73
Figure 37: strike-slip fault (source: physical geology book, dr. Karla panchuk, 2018) 74
Figure 38: dip-slip fault (source: physical geology book, dr. Karla panchuk, 2018) 74
xiv
Figure 39: shallow foundation (source: project lead the way, pltw) 75
Figure 40: deep foundation (source: pltw) 76
Figure 41: pile foundations in bridges. (source: wu et al. (2002)) 77
Figure 42: steady vs. Non-steady flow (source: meted ucar) 88
Figure 43: uniform and non-uniform flow (source: meted ucar) 89
Figure 44: laminar and turbulent flow. (source: schetz and allen e fuhs, 1999) 90
Figure 45: one dimensional flow, two dimensional and three-dimensional flow. (source: hydraulics & fluid
mechanics including hydraulics machines) 91
Figure 46: rotational flow and irrotational flow (source: eeltink et al. 2020) 91
Figure 47: water cycle (source: h2o distributors) 92
Figure 48: evaporative pan for measuring evaporation (source: meted ucar) 93
Figure 49: rain gauge (source: wikipedia) 94
Figure 50: gyres are circular ocean currents formed by the earth's wind patterns and the forces created by the
rotation of the planet. (source: sciencelearn.org.nz) 97
Figure 51: conveyor belt (source: exploratorium.edu) 98
Figure 52: sediment transport in water (source: los huertos, m. (ed.), 2020.) 98
Figure 53: bombay high oil field 101
Figure 54: water treatment plant for domestic supply (source: cdc.gov/drinkingwater) 104
Figure 55: stages of industrial effluent treatment plant (source: netsolwater) 105
Figure 56: dead end water distribution system (source: swmm) 107
Figure 57: grid iron water distribution system (source: sswm) 107
Figure 58: circular water distribution system (source: swmm) 108
Figure 59: radial water distribution system (source: swmm) 108
Figure 60: indian railways (indian railways civil engineering portal, 2014) 115
Figure 61: delhi metro (delhi metro rail corporation, 2022) 115
Figure 62: mumbai monorail (mmrda, 2013) 115
Figure 63: indian waterways (ministry of ports shipping and waterways government of india, 2018) 116
Figure 64: intermodal transportation (dhl logistics of things, 2022) 117
Figure 65: different types of camber (mathew, 2019) 123
Figure 66: different types of kerbs (mathew, 2019) 124
Figure 67: overtaking sight distance (chhabra, 2017) 126
Figure 68: forces acting on the vehicle while maneuvering through the horizontal curve (apsed, 2022) 128
Figure 69: extra widening (mathew, 2006) 129
Figure 70: types of transition curves (ese notes, 2022) 130
Figure 71: types of summit curves (mathew, 2006) 131
Figure 72: type of valley curves (mathew, 2006) 132
Figure 73: load transfer in granular structure (mathew, 2006) 136
Figure 74: typical cross-section of flexible pavement (mathew, 2006) 137
Figure 75: typical cross-section of rigid pavement (mathew, 2006) 137
Figure 76: concept of elastic plate on viscous foundation (mathew, 2006) 138
Figure 77: ahmedabad brts 140
Figure 78: mysore intelligent transport system (karnataka state road transport corporation, 2016) 141
Figure 79: components of its 146
xv
Figure 80: communication setup (vaculík et al., 2008) 147
Figure 81: concept of dynamic map (maniko et al., 2016) 148
Figure 82: popsicle bridge (source: https://tryengineering.org/) 157
Figure 83: sample sketch of a house 159
Figure 84: a screenshot of the q-gis showing a digital soil map of the world 161
Figure 85: a snapshot of the attribute table of the dsmw 162
Figure 86: a snapshot of exporting soil characteristics for india 162
Figure 87: digital soil map of india containing soil types (source: fao-unesco soil map of the world) 163
Figure 88: long plastic planter box (source: https://tryengineering.org/) 164
Figure 89: writing usually calls for a pyramid of ideas centered on a particular topic (source: minto, b., the
pyramid principle, 2009) 166
Figure 90: a snapshot of the data file downloaded from the grdc website. 169
Figure 91: output of step 2 170
Figure 95: plot of the stream flow time series 172
xvi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword vi
Foreword About The Book v
Acknowledgement viv
Preface vvii
Contributors to this Book viii
Outcome Based Education ix
Course Outcomes xi
Guidelines for Teachers xii
Guidelines for Students xiii
List of Figures xiv
1. OVERVIEW OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

1.1. Basic Understanding and History of Civil engineering 1
1.2. Fundamentals of Civil Architecture and Town Planning 5
1.2.1. Civil Architecture 5
1.2.2. Town Planning 6
1.3. Surveying 8
1.4. Industrial Case Studies of National Infrastructure projects 12
1.4.1. Bhupen Hazarika Setu 12
1.4.2. Delhi Metro 14
1.4.3. Atal Tunnel 15
1.4.4. Namami Gange 18
1.4.5. Mumbai-Delhi Expressway 19
1.4.6. Sardar-Sarovar Project 21
1.5. Professional ethics 22
2. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 25
Unit specifics 25
Rationale 26
Pre-requisites 26
Unit outcomes 26
2.1. Introduction to Mechanics of Structure 27
2.1.1. Basic concepts in structural mechanics 28
2.1.2. Load 31
2.2. Types of structures 32
2.2.1. Buildings 32
2.3. Fundamentals of Building Materials 34
2.3.1. Physical Properties 35
2.3.2. Mechanical Properties 36
2.3.3. Characteristics behavior under Stress 36
2.3.4. Type of Building Material 36
2.4. Sustainability in Construction 38
2.4.1. Evaluating Sustainable Development 39
xvii
2.4.2. Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes 40
2.4.3. Contemporary sustainable practices in civil engineering 40
2.5. Construction and contract management 41
2.5.1. Construction Management 41
2.5.1.1. Project management 41
2.5.1.2. Quality management: 42
2.5.1.3. Safety management: 42
2.5.2. Contract Management 43
2.5.2.1. Importance of Contract Management 43
2.5.2.2. Important Elements of Contract Management 44
2.5.2.3. Stages of Contract Management Process 44
2.6. Repair and rehabilitation of structures 45
2.7. Recycling 50
References and suggested readings 50
Dynamic QR Code for Further Reading 51
3. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 53
Unit specifics 53
Rationale 54
Pre-requisites 54
Unit outcomes 54
3.1. Soil Mechanics 55
3.1.1. Determination of texture of soil 55
3.1.1.1. Throw ball test 56
3.1.1.2. The bottle test 57
3.1.2. Formation of soil 57
3.1.3. Soil deposits in India 58
3.1.4. Classification of soil 59
3.1.5. Phase diagram 61
3.1.6. Volumetric relationships 61
3.1.7. Index properties of soil 62
3.1.8. Engineering properties 65
3.1.9. Scope of soil mechanics 66
3.2. Rock Mechanics and Geology 67
3.2.1. Rock 68
Features of rocks 70
Modes of failure of rocks 70
3.2.2. Importance of engineering geology 71
3.2.2.1. Structural geology 71
3.3. Types of Foundations 74
3.3.1. Classification of foundation 75
3.3.1.1. Shallow foundation 75
3.3.1.2. Deep foundation 76
3.3.2. Types of shear failure 77
3.4. Underground Structures 78
3.4.1. Types of underground structures 78
3.4.2. Surrounding media 79
xviii
3.4.3. Use cases of underground structures 79
3.4.4. Future Perspective 81
3.5. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND LANDFILL 81
3.5.1. Categories of Waste 81
3.5.2. Various Sources of Solid Waste 82
3.5.3. Methods for the Management of Solid Waste 82
Dynamic QR Codes for Further Reading 84
4. WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING AND SUSTAINABILITY 85

Unit specifics 85
Rationale 85
Pre-requisites 86
Unit outcomes 86
4.1. Fluid Properties 86
4.1.1. Types of Fluid Flow 87
4.2. Water cycle and fluid mechanics 91
4.2.1. Water cycle components 93
4.2.2. Water Budget Equation 94
4.3. Wave and Current system 95
4.3.1. Waves 95
4.3.2. Currents 96
4.4. Sediment transport system 98
4.5. Water Resources Structures 99
4.5.1. Dams and Reservoirs 99
4.5.2. Marine Structures 100
4.6. Water Treatment and Supply 102
4.6.1. Water Treatment Systems 102
4.6.2. Effluent treatment systems 104
4.6.3. Water Supply Systems 106
5. TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 111

Unit specifics 111
Rationale 111
Pre-requisites 112
Unit outcomes 112
5.1. Introduction to transportation: Different modes and integration 113
5.1.1. Road transportation 113
5.1.2. Rail transportation 114
5.1.3. Water transportation 115
5.1.4. Air transportation 116
5.1.5. Intermodal transportation 117
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5.2. Major transport infrastructure developments in India 118
5.2.1. Road transport infrastructure development 118
5.2.2. Rail transport infrastructure development 118
5.2.3. Water transport infrastructure development 119
5.2.4. Air transport infrastructure development 119
5.3. Introduction to geometric design 120
Design speed 120
Other factors 120
5.3.1. Road alignment 121
5.3.2. Cross-sectional elements 121
5.3.2.1. Pavement surface characteristics 121
5.3.2.2. Camber 122
5.3.2.3. Width of carriageway 123
5.3.2.4. Kerbs 123
5.3.3. Sight distance 124
5.3.3.1. Stopping Sight Distance 125
5.3.3.2. Overtaking sight distance 125
5.3.4. Horizontal curve 126
5.3.4.1. Superelevation 127
5.3.4.2. Design of other factors 128
5.3.5. Transition curve 129
5.3.5.1. Types of transition curve 130
5.3.6. Vertical curve 130
5.3.6.1. Grade compensation 131
5.3.6.2. Summit curve 131
5.3.6.3. Valley curve 132
5.4. Pavement materials, design, construction, and management 132
5.4.1. Pavement materials 132
5.4.1.1. Soil 133
5.4.1.2. Aggregate 133
5.4.1.3. Bitumen 134
5.4.1.4. Bituminous mixture 134
5.4.2. Pavement design and construction 135
5.4.2.1. Flexible pavement 135
5.4.2.2. Rigid pavement 137
5.4.3. Pavement management 138
5.5. Public transport systems 139
5.5.1. Development of public transport system 139
5.5.2. Promotion of public transport 140
5.5.3. Indian public transportation 140
5.6. Transportation logistics 141
5.6.1. What is logistics? 141
5.6.2. Effect of transportation on logistics 142
5.7. Road safety 142
5.7.1. Causes of road traffic accidents 143
5.7.1.1. Human factors 143
5.7.1.2. Vehicle factors 144
5.7.1.3. Road and environmental factors 144
5.8. Advanced technologies and ITS/IT/IoT 145
xx
5.8.1. What is ITS and why is it necessary? 145
5.8.2. Components of ITS 145
5.8.2.1. ITS configuration 146
5.8.2.2. Communication 146
5.8.2.3. Location information and mapping 147
5.8.3. ITS applications 148
5.9. Public-Private Partnership in transportation 149
5.9.1. Role of private sectors in transport development 149
5.9.2. Different forms of public-private partnership 150
6. PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES 155

Unit specifics 155
Rationale 156
Pre-requisites 156
Unit outcomes 156
6.1. Bridge model construction 157
6.2. House plan and model 158
6.3. Stability of structures 160
6.4. Geology/Soil: 160
6.5. Dam Construction 163
6.6. Technical writing 165
6.7. Computational Methods: 168
6.8. Entrepreneurial opportunities in civil engineering 174
6.9. Popular software packages in Civil Engineering 175
References 176
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1 1. Overview of Civil Engineering
1.1. Basic Understanding and History of Civil engineering

Civil engineering is the oldest discipline of engineering, and its goal is to provide people a livable
and sustainable environment by combining concepts from science, mathematics, and human
experiences. Bridges, dams, barrages, buildings, highways, airports, and railways are a few
significant contributions of civil engineering. Apart from these major contributions, the
discipline has also significantly contributed towards the development of towers, substations for
electricity transmission, offshore platforms, wastewater and drinking water treatment plants,
satellite space stations and traffic signals. In a nutshell, civil engineering is concerned with
building the civilizational requirements of human beings.
Civil engineering covers four basic stages: planning, design, construction, and operation and
maintenance. These stages can sometimes overlap as well. Planning is the first step in any civil
engineering project, whether it is a government or a private project. Feasibility and
environmental impact studies of the projects are also performed during the planning phase. The
Design stage consists of two stages i.e., preliminary, and final. Sometimes preliminary design is
also a part of the planning process. In the construction phase, physical structures of the project
are erected while considering the safety and environmental concerns. The operation and
maintenance phase occurs after the construction phase is completed and the project is handed
over to the owner or client. The project's owner typically assumes full responsibility, although
the contractor is normally obligated by a warranty agreement. The physical structures require
ongoing maintenance after the guarantee period is over.
There are eight broad disciplines under the vast umbrella of Civil Engineering: Structural
Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Water Resources
Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Construction Engineering, and Geomatics (Surveying
Engineering). Structural engineering focuses on the analysis and design of the built structures.
From small micro-electro-mechanical system devices to spaceships, and lofty buildings to
lengthy bridges, require expertise in structural engineering. All these structures are anchored to
the ground. So, there is a need to understand the capacity of the ground to bear those heavy loads.
Here geotechnical engineering comes into the picture. In this branch of civil engineering, the
strength of the soil and rock are investigated to provide a safe ground for structural support. This
branch is concerned with the many forms of foundations that serve as a link between the structure
and the ground. Environmental engineering is that branch of civil engineering in which
applications of engineering principles to manage and develop water, air, and land resources for
1
sustainable development of the natural environment is taught. Water resources engineering is a
branch of civil engineering that deals with the use of water in modern society, including
agricultural, industrial, household, recreational, and environmental needs. This branch also
covers the occurrence and investigation of natural hazards such as floods, droughts, landslides,
Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF), and flash floods like potential disasters. The field of
transportation engineering is concerned with the safe and efficient transportation of people and
goods. Construction engineering is a specialization that deals with the designing, planning, and
management of civil engineering infrastructure. Surveying technology is newly termed as
geomatics engineering and involves the application of measurement science to the collection of
spatial data on land, water, and other natural or man-made objects. Geographic Information
System (GIS) and satellite imagery applications are the newly added sub-disciplines of
geomatics engineering.
Civil engineering works have been the bedrock of civilizational progress. From the ancient
wonders to modern high-rise buildings, from drinking water supply to wastewater treatment,
civil engineers have provided the building blocks for fundamental sectors such as travel,
exchange of ideas, trading, and housing. It would not be an exaggeration to claim that a modern
civilization would be impossible without civil engineers.
Though the oldest engineering discipline, civil engineering has kept up with the times. It provides
diverse career opportunities after graduating in this discipline. With a Bachelor's degree in civil
engineering, one can address challenging problems in civil engineering through government and
private sectors. Government departments include the Public Works Department (PWD), Public
Sector Units such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Electricity Boards, National
Highway Authority of India (NHAI), armed forces, border road organization, Indian Railways,
and municipal corporations. In the private sector, civil engineering graduates can join as a site
engineer, assistant civil engineer, project manager, surveyors, quality-control engineer, and
many more. After having post-graduation in the specialized branches of civil engineering, you
can be a specialist engineer in each stream like a water resources engineer after completion of
post-graduation in water resources engineering. Likewise, you could explore any branch of civil
engineering and contribute to the continuous development and research needed in this industry
for sustainable development.
Since prehistoric times, people have built bridges, dams, canals, amphitheaters, and roads. The
building materials that are currently in use have a rich history, with some of the constructions
dating back thousands of years. The background of the field of construction overlaps with that
of structural engineering and a variety of other fields. Selection of material is a key factor in any
type of construction. In ancient times, buildings or shelters were constructed using leaves, animal
hides, and tree branches. Later materials such as mud, stone, and timber were used for durable
shelters followed by bricks and cement concrete. Later, metals such as steel revolutionized the
field of infrastructure construction. Nowadays, the industry makes extensive usage of the state-
of-the-art composite materials such as glass, polycarbonate sheets, Un-plasticized Polyvinyl
Chloride (UPVC) synthetic sheets which makes construction easier and long lasting with
minimal environmental damage. The methods of construction have also evolved with time.
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Stone-based construction preceded copper and bronze-based construction. Coming up to the
eighteenth century, civil engineers and architects became professionals with increasing
applications of mathematical models and scientific knowledge. In the nineteenth century,
railways, canals, and macadam roads brought industrial revolution in the sector of civil
engineering. The second industrial revolution came in the early 20th century when the use of
cranes and elevators made skyscrapers and high-rise buildings possible. Computer aided designs
and new technologies were also adopted in this century.
Indian Structural Marvels
Civil engineering has a long tradition in India, intertwined with the country's art and cultural
history, and the country has forty UNESCO World Heritage properties, the majority of which
are civil engineering marvels.
Mohenjo-Daro contains the earliest remains of Indian civil engineering. Archaeological ruins
revealed that Mohenjo-Daro was a well-established town, with symmetrical and proportional
buildings and roads. The buildings in Mohenjo-Daro were made of waterproof bricks,
demonstrating advanced construction knowledge about three thousand years ago.
The earliest rulers of various provinces of India placed a significant importance on temples, so
temples became an important exhibit of our structural history. The earliest temples in India are
exquisitely designed, with intricate carvings on the walls (see Figure 1). The Kailasa temple in
Ellora caves is another marvel of ancient India. It is the largest rock-cut temple which is believed
to have been made from a single rock.
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Figure 1: Kailasa temple in Ellora caves (Source: Wikipedia)
In medieval India, Indian structures were mostly dominated by Indo-Islamic architecture. The
structures during this time showcase arches and domes. The buildings also have intricate Jaali
work showcasing the importance of light in Islamic traditions. This period saw the construction
of significant structures such as the Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid.
The British left an indelible mark on Indian architecture by introducing Indo-Saracenic style, a
hybrid of Indian and European styles. Colonial architecture is visible in government buildings
and residences. These structures can be found in Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, and Shimla. Bombay
University, Victoria Terminus, and Mumbai university building are examples of such
architecture.
Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya was a pioneer of modern civil engineering in India. He was
instrumental in many civil engineering projects in India, including serving as the chief engineer
of the flood protection system of Hyderabad. In India, his birthday is observed as Engineers' Day
on 15th September.
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1.2. Fundamentals of Civil Architecture and Town Planning
1.2.1. Civil Architecture
Architecture is the science and art of designing buildings and other physical structures. It enables
us to interact with the buildings we inhabit in a way that feels both functional and aesthetically
pleasing. The architects focus on functional aspects such as form and space while introducing
unique characteristics that reflect the era of society to which a building belongs. Architecture not
only deals with the interior and exterior of buildings but also the environment. It focuses on the
larger aspects of construction, such as design of residential societies, as well as minor elements
such as floor design, color theme, etc. Civil engineering and architecture play pivotal roles in the
construction industry and rely on one another to accomplish the project.
Architectural Design Principles
Design, as an activity, is performed to modify the elements of the environment so that it meets
the requirements. The design is not only concerned with external or internal beautification but
also focuses on the function and costs of the building and involves exploring the creative and
optimal solutions to a problem.
The architectural design of a building focuses on three factors: function, form, and esthetics. The
design of a building primarily depends on the function of the building to be constructed, which
is based on the requirements of a client and is subject to many factors such as the number of
users, building bylaws, approvals, etc. After the function of a building is ascertained, the
architect focuses on the form. The form of a building is dependent on many factors such as
climate, economy, workers' skills, earthquake zone, etc. It also depends on the available
materials, construction methods, and technologies. A residential house built in mountainous
regions will have a different form (e.g., sloping roof, wooden insulation) than a house built in a
plain region. The aesthetics of a building are the most apparent of the three factors and involve
a lot of elements which must be carefully designed so that the building offers an inviting feeling
to the users.
Architectural Design Elements
The elements are various components of the design which can be isolated and defined in such a
way that each carries a unique message and contributes to the overall aesthetics of a structure.
Such elements include point, line, shape, color, texture, etc. The architect utilizes these elements
in the overall architectural composition to bring out the desired expression of the building. For
an effective architectural composition or design, the architect follows a set of principles:
(a) Balance: Balance provided symmetry or asymmetry to the composition. It creates a

state of equilibrium of weight or attention, thus conveying a feeling of stability in the structure.
5
(b) Harmony: Harmony is achieved when the different elements appear connected, and
consistency exists in composition. If all the elements of a building are well blended, it conveys
a sense of harmony among the different parts of the composition.
(c) Rhythm: The repeated use of elements like lines, shapes or colors either regularly or
irregularly results in an appearance of pattern or rhythm. A rhythm could be achieved by
repetition, gradation, or transition.
(d) Contrast: If an architect decides to intensify the features of opposing or dissimilar

elements, the architect can do so by using contrast in the design. Contrast helps create a variety
in visual appearance and can be created using elements like color, texture, or scale.
(e) Proportion: Proportion refers to the relative size of the various elements in architectural
composition. A well-proportioned composition is a result of the creative use of size, color, and
pattern among all the design elements and is therefore pleasant to look at.
(f) Character: The character refers to the overall style of a building that is expressed by a
combination of unity, mass, proportion, etc. The character could be functional or traditional. The
functional character expresses the function of the building and is often dominated by the external
appearance. The traditional character is mainly governed by the culture and religious influences
of the society.
A well-designed building should be functional, spacious, and aesthetically pleasant. It should

exhibit the qualities of completeness, elegance, cohesion, modularity, and vision. With rising
concerns about global climate change, emphasis is placed on "green building" designs that are
energy-efficient and environmentally sustainable. Developing sustainable construction methods
and materials that can be integrated effectively into the design and construction of buildings have
become one of the most exciting problems to solve as a civil engineer.
1.2.2. Town Planning
With the growing human population, the number of industries and urban sprawl, land has become
one of the most critical resources that must be managed optimally and sustainably. Town
planning is a vital part of land resource management, which involves making decisions on the
development and use of land. Town planning involves consideration of the current and future
requirements of a community in order to develop a comprehensive development plan. It includes
designing physical layouts of cities and design of buildings, roads, parks, etc., so that people find
it convenient to live in. Town planning enables the government to control the growth of an urban
settlement in a sustainable manner that ensures equal availability of resources and amenities to
the population.
An unplanned town or city that has grown organically will become an overcrowded and
unsanitary place to live in. Such unplanned cities can be seen across the world, which originated
from early human settlements. The necessity of town planning arose when urban problems
bloomed during the rapid industrialization in the 19th century. Without planning, the residents
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of a city or town would face many problems such as overcrowding, high traffic density, pollution,
slums, lack of open spaces, etc. Moreover, it is nearly impossible and would incur considerable
costs to correct an unplanned city.
Objectives
Generally, a city is characterized by the physical environment such as location and climate, social
environment, which includes the communities dwelling in neighborhoods and the economic
environment represented by the availability of business and job opportunities. The goal of town
planning is to create an environment that is healthy, efficient, convenient and offers equal
opportunities to the population. The primary objectives of town planning are:
(a) Avoid haphazard development of a town or city
(b) Equal availability of amenities to the population
(c) Healthy, pollution-free living environment
(d) Preservation of uniqueness and beauty of a town
(e) Convenient access to city infrastructure
As a town planner, one needs to have a creative imagination and must be able to understand the
current and future needs of a city. It is required to carry out the research and prepare layout plans
so that the town behaves like a living organism while carrying out day-to-day activities. Town
planning is an art and science which involves exhaustive collection and analysis of information
resulting in a planned physical layout that is creative, beautiful, economical, and convenient.
Process and Principles of Town Planning
Town planning is a team effort that involves various professionals such as civil engineers,
architects, sociologists, geologists, administrators, and legal advisors. The planning process
starts with surveying and mapping the area to identify the needs of all stakeholders, followed by
the formulation of broad community goals. The objectives are identified, and possible alternative
plans are developed to achieve the broad goals. The alternative plans are individually and
comparatively analyzed based on various criteria, and the chosen plan is finally implemented.
Overall, the process is guided by a broad set of principles:
(a) The layout of the town must not be haphazard. The housing and civil amenities should
be available to all the residents.
(b) There must be open spaces, recreational centers, and reserved spaces for future
development.
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(c) A zoning system with rules and regulations must be strictly implemented across the
town with neat grouping and distribution of public buildings.
(d) The road system must be efficient and simple, with emphasis on minimizing the
commuting time from residential to work zones.
(e) The provision for a "green belt" must be made to control the town's size by having a
green area around the peripheral limits.
(f) Affordable amenities such as water supply, power and health facilities must be provided
to all the residents.
(g) Healthy living conditions must be maintained by preserving trees and limiting the
pollution to low levels.
(h) If slums arise in the city, provisions for alternate housing and transit camps must be
made to rehabilitate the slum dwellers.
1.3. Surveying
The purpose of surveying is to identify the positions of a point relative to the reference point by
measuring distances, direction, and elevation. Surveying is used in every engineering project
such as the construction of roads, railways, buildings, bridges, water supply, and irrigation
schemes. The surveying is divided into two categories: plane surveying and geodetic surveying.
In the plane surveying, the spheroidal curvature of the Earth is ignored whereas all the lines
measured in the geodetic surveying are considered as curved due to the Earth’s curvature.
Therefore, geodetic surveying requires a larger amount of work and has a higher degree of
precision.
Classification:
The classification of the survey can be done based on the place of the survey, methods and
instruments used for the survey, and the objective of the survey.
1. Based upon the place of the survey:
(a) Land Survey: This can be done in the form of a topological survey which includes linear
and angular measurements to identify horizontal and vertical locations. Cadastral surveys are
another type of land survey which are used for fixing property boundary lines and calculation of
land area.
(b) Hydrographic Survey: This type of survey is done with the water bodies. These surveys
are required for navigation purposes, harbor works, and identifying the sea level.
8
(c) Astronomical Survey: This survey helps in obtaining an absolute location of any point
on the surface of the Earth with respect to the fixed object in space such as the sun or any fixed
star.
2. Based on the purpose of the survey:
(a) Engineering Survey: This survey is conducted to provide sufficient data for designing
engineering works like roads, bridges, or dam construction.
(b) Military Survey: This is used to identify the strategically critical points for military
purposes.
(c) Mine Survey: This survey is done to capture the location of resources and minerals.
(d) Geological Survey: These geological surveys are used to map the different strata within
the Earth’s crust.
(e) Archaeological Survey: This survey is used for unearthing artifacts of ancient times.
3. Based on the instruments and methods used:
(a) Chain Survey
The chain surveying is based only on the linear measurements performed on the field. Therefore,
this can be used effectively in small extent surveys of a piece of land or to take out simple details.
The main station is defined as the start and end points of the chain. The subsidiary and tie station
can be selected at any point of the chain. The biggest line connecting the main stations is termed
as the base line. Moreover, to check the accuracy of the work conducted some check lines or
proof lines are also laid. The length of the check line measured in the field shall match with the
length on the plan.
The steps involved in chain steps are:
i.Reconnaissance: The whole to part method shall be employed before starting any survey. As the
name implies, the surveyor should walk around the area to fix the best position for survey stations
and should examine the inter visibility of survey stations.
ii.Marking and fixing survey stations: After selecting the survey stations, the marking of the
stations can be done using wooden pegs if the ground is soft, nails or spikes can be used in case
of roads or streets, and in case of hard grounds a cement mortar-based marker can be established.
iii.Running survey lines: After completing preliminary work, chaining can start from the baseline.
The process includes chaining the line and locating the nearby objects.
(b) Tacheometric Surveying
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Tacheometry uses angular surveying in which the distances of points are determined by optical
means instead of other slower processes of measurement by tape or chain. However, the accuracy
of the tacheometric surveying is unfavorable with that of chaining. Tacheometric is best
adaptable for places having steep slopes and broken ground. The primary objective of the
tacheometry is to prepare the contour maps of any region.
(c) Theodolite Survey
Theodolite is more precise equipment than chain surveying. It can measure horizontal and
vertical angles, establish grades, determine differences in elevation, etc. (see Figure 2).
Theodolites can be classified into two types a) Transit theodolite and b) Non-transit theodolite.
The transit theodolite provides the flexibility of reversing the line of sight whereas the non-transit
theodolite cannot be transited and has now become obsolete.
10
Figure 2: Theodolite in Surveying (Source: www.dreamcivil.com)
(d) Traverse Surveying
In the traverse surveying method both the direction and length of survey lines are measured. In
a closed traverse, the survey ends at the same point from where it began, however, when the
survey ends elsewhere then it is termed as an open traverse. Refer Figure 3. Closed traversing is
used for small areas such as surveying boundaries of lakes etc., whereas open traversing is used
for the long narrow strip structures such as roads, canals, or the coastline.
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Figure 3: Traversing: a) Open Traversing; b) Closed Traversing (Source: www.theconstructor.org)
1.4. Industrial Case Studies of National Infrastructure projects

1.4.1. Bhupen Hazarika Setu
The Bhupen Hazarika Setu or Dhola-Sadiya bridge is a marvel of civil engineering. It is

illustrated in Figure 4The bridge was designed and constructed despite being located in seismic
zone V and facing high wind loads (design wind speed of 50 m/s) as well as strong water current
(design water speed of 3 m/s). It is the longest bridge in India as of 2022 and is built over the
Lohit River which is a tributary of the Brahmaputra River. The bridge was approved for
construction in 2009. The construction started in November 2011 and finished in 2017. Bhupen
Hazarika bridge connects the village of Dhola in the South to Sadiya in the North hence the name
Dhola-Sadiya bridge. This bridge forms a permanent connection between Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh and decreases the travel time by 6 hours. The Bhupen Hazarika bridge is designed to
handle the weight of battle tanks making the bridge an important defense asset in the North-East.
At the location of Bhupen Hazarika bridge, Lohit River is 4100 m wide during non-flooded
times. The length of the Bhupen Hazarika bridge is 9150m. The excess length is designed to
handle areas adjacent to rivers subject to recurring floods, also known as the floodplain of a river.
Over the floodplains of the river, the Bhupen Hazarika bridge is made using a series of arches
and columns known as viaducts.
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Figure 4: Bhupen Hazarika Bridge (Source: Wikipedia)
The foundation of the bridge is designed separately for river portions and floodplains. The river
portion faces higher water forces, fatigue, current forces, and scour in addition to dead load from
the bridge as well as the live load from vehicles. The bridge is also subject to horizontal forces
from braking vehicles and seismic activities. Bhupen Hazarika bridge has 183 spans of 50m in
length.
The subsoil of the lohit river consists of fine sand and for the foundation cast in situ piles have
been employed. The piles transfer the superstructure load using side friction as well as tip of the
pile. The structure used precast segmental concrete bridges also known as segmental PSC
bridges. Each span of 50m is made up of 15 individual segments. The design of the bridge is as
per Indian Roads Congress (IRC) code 112 and the loads were specified as per IRC code 6.
Seismic:
Bhupen Hazarika bridge is located in seismic zone V making it highly susceptible to earthquakes.
The earthquake forces act horizontally and vertically, therefore the bridge must be designed to
handle both loads. The bridge is a top-heavy structure, since the horizontal forces act through
the center of gravity, the piers and piles are under high bending moment. To effectively transfer
this moment from superstructure to the foundation, seismic arresters are used. Seismic arresters
resist the seismic load and transfer them to the piers, therefore resisting transverse and
longitudinal forces. The bridge is designed with an adequate factor of safety to handle vertical
seismic loads.
Impact of flash floods:
Flash floods are high-intensity floods of small durations. The flash floods in the Lohit River can
be caused by rains as well as lake outbursts, which implied that the construction of the Bhupen
Hazarika bridge was susceptible to flash floods during the rainy as well as the dry seasons. To
counter the impact of flash floods, lookout posts upstream of the lohit river were set up which
provided an early warning in flash floods. Once early warning was received the equipment and
manpower were removed out of the way until the flash flood passed. Despite these measures, a
lot of equipment was lost to the flash floods during construction.
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1.4.2. Delhi Metro
The urbanization of India is happening at an unprecedented pace. However, most cities rely on
road transport, which leads to the congestion of the roads, which is a big problem for cities.
Public transport is the most viable method to improve a city's transportation system. In India,
most cities do not have adequate and efficient public transport. Delhi is one of the cities facing
the same problem in the case of road transportation. Delhi met high population growth from
1961 to 1981, from 2.6 to 6.2 million people, which increased to 13.7 million by 2001. In
addition, from 1981 to 1995, vehicle registration also increased (by 329%) to 2.5 million leading
to greater traffic congestion and air pollution. These challenges not only waste time and
resources but also affect public health. A traffic and travel characteristics study conducted in the
city in 1969 stated the requirement of a mass rapid transit system (MRTS) for New Delhi. The
Urban Arts Commission proposed establishing a multi-modal transportation system in 1984. To
tackle this public transportation problem, the Government of India (GoI) and the Government of
National Capital Territory of Delhi (GNCTD) formed a joint venture known as Delhi Metro Rail
Corporation Ltd. (DMRC) in 1995 under the Companies Act 1956 with equal equity to provide
a passenger-friendly, eco-friendly, and world-class mass rapid transport system.
The first challenge of the DMRC is to raise funds and appoint the managing director. The
project's funding was provided by the Indian government and the Japanese International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), and Mr. Elattuvalapil Sreedharan was appointed as the first CEO
of the DMRC. The construction of the Delhi metro started in 1998 and was divided into four
phases (1995-2006; 2006-2011; 2011-2016; 2016-2021). The Delhi Metro has several
advantages, including reduced air pollution, passenger travel time savings, reduction in number
of accidents, road traffic reduction, and fuel savings. DMRC became the first-ever railway
project certified by the United Nations (UN) to get carbon credits for reducing greenhouse gasses
by 6.3 lack tons annually in the world.
The metro construction in old cities like Delhi raises issues about whether it should be elevated
or underground. The government of India and DMRC both opposed metro underground
construction except for technical issues and near the historical monuments. They also highlighted
various safety and financial matters. According to the DMRC's experience, underground
construction cost is more than two times the elevated construction cost. Although building an
underground metro is expensive, the Delhi metro structure is both elevated and underground.
Due to the aesthetic view of the historic buildings, one cannot provide the elevated metro line
near the historical monuments. The tunneling is most challenging in old Delhi areas as the
foundation of old buildings is weak, so most tunnels are 20 m below the ground label. DMRC
used a Tunnel boring Machine (TBM), an alternative to the drilling and blasting (D&B) method
for urban areas, as it limits the disturbance in surrounding areas and reduces the cost of lining
the tunnel (Figure 5). The initial two phases of the Delhi metro were constructed in a broad-
gauge system; after that, it was changed to a standard gauge because over the world, metro lines
have a standard gauge that can help in the technology transfer. Delhi metro used basalt-less-
tracks for elevated and underground tracks, which required less maintenance than tracks with
basalt, making it economical.
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Figure 5: TERRATEC EPB TBM used for tunneling in the Delhi Metro (Source: https://tunnelingonline.com/)
Ridership in the Delhi metro is continuously increasing. According to the CAG's report, since
operating in 2002, average ridership was eight lakh passengers per day, which increased to 27.76
lakh passengers per day in the financial year 2019-2020. Moreover, it reduced the congestion in
road transport. It was found that between 2004 and 2006, the Delhi metro reduced CO pollution
by 34% and NO2 by 31% at the ITO metro station, along with significant reduction in the PM2.5
particles.
Currently, the Delhi metro has a 391 km long rail network with 286 stations and 12 lines, which
is India's largest metro rail network. The metro project reduces travel time and provides safe and
economical transportation. This project is one of its kind as it was built in one of the most
crowded cities in the world with significant engineering challenges. Now DMRC is working as
a project consultant in many metro projects in India as well as foreign projects such as Jakarta
mass rapid transit project, Kuwait City.
1.4.3. Atal Tunnel
The Atal Tunnel is a highway tunnel in Himachal Pradesh that connects the Kullu valley with
the Lahaul and Spiti valleys. It is located beneath the Rohtang Pass. The tunnel is 9.02 kilometers
long and is the longest above 10,000 feet. The tunnel was developed by the Border Roads
Organization (BRO). Rohtang in Ladakhi means the ‘Pile of corpses’ due to the thousands of
people who had died over the centuries when they crossed the pass in winter. The Rohtang pass
receives heavy snowfall during winters and remains closed for 6 months thereby cutting all road
connectivity to Lahaul valley. Due to sudden snowfall every year vehicular traffic gets stuck in
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Rohtang pass which then takes days to clear up. Atal tunnel also provides a very important
alternative to Srinagar-Kargil route for Leh Ladakh.
The Atal tunnel has provided the following major benefits:
(a) Year around connectivity to Lahaul Spiti, Pangi, and Ladakh region
(b) Increased amount of tourism leading to overall development of the area
(c) Reduced the recurring expense of maintaining of Rohtang pass
(d) Reduced the cost of airlifting supplies
The earliest preliminary survey, pre-feasibility study, and geological investigations were done
by Geological Survey of India (GSI) in 1984. This study formed the basis for investigation of
further studies. The preliminary report covered the tunnel alignment, geological aspects, and
tunnel alignment. A detailed preliminary report was prepared by BRO highlighting the
geological conditions, tunnel alignment, construction, ventilation, lighting, safety, and cost.
The Detailed Project Report (DPR) included surface studies, tunnel alignment and laboratory
tests, techno-economic studies, designs, construction planning and equipment, leakage studies,
dewatering, grouting, blasting and cost studies. The studies were carried out using Remote
Sensing, Geological photos, Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) etc.
The Atal tunnel has two ends. The North end is located across Rohtang pass on the Southwest
bank of Chandra River. The excavation of tunnels was done from both the ends. Since the North
end is covered in snow during winters, three-fourth of excavation was done from the South end.
The tunnel is a two-lane bidirectional tunnel with horseshoe shape and was excavated using New
Austrian Tunneling Methodology (NATM).
Based on the cost of construction and the stress on the tunnel, the tunnel features a single tube
with two lanes and a horseshoe-shaped cross section. On both sides of the main tunnel, there are
4 m wide roads and 1 m wide footpaths, with a 0.5 m median separator in the center, and the
overhead clearance is 5.525m. The final concrete lining is 50 cm thick. The emergency egress
tunnel which is used in case of an emergency is not in parallel to the tunnel but is located under
the main tunnel.
The support system was designed based on the characteristics of the rock and the depth of the
overburden. Numerical modeling was used to develop the detailed design of the support system
based on data obtained from drilled cores. The support consists of shotcrete, steel fiber reinforced
shotcrete or wire meshes. The rock bolting was done using self-drilling rock bolts. The final
lining was cast-in-situ plain concrete, with the exception of the Seri Nala portion, which had
reinforced concrete.
16
The capacity of fresh air required in the tunnel is decided based on vehicular traffic, vehicular
emissions, and turbidity limit inside the tunnel. Therefore, a semi transverse ventilation system
was used and ventilation fans which insert fresh air were installed in the ceiling of the tunnel.
On 15th October 2017, the tunnel's final breakthrough was made thereby connecting both sides
of the tunnel. With the breakthrough the North portal became accessible for the year around since
then supply can be provided from the south portal during winters. Also, due to natural ventilation,
the temperature and natural airflow were established.
Problems faced while construction:
1. The biggest problem was the Seri nala fault zone which took 4 years to overcome. Due
to weathering caused by the Seri nala only muck and water started flowing. The water was
flowing at a rate of 8000 liters per minute. This was not anticipated in any of the surveys as well
as DPRs. Finally, the DRESS (Drainage Reinforced Excavation and Support Solutions)
tunneling method was employed, the muck was stopped with sandbags, and a thick layer of
shotcreting was applied. Drainage holes were also installed every 3-4 meters to channel water.
2. The tunnel's North side was composed of hard, brittle rocks like gneisses, which were
prone to bursting. The rock load increased as a result of the delayed stress release, causing cracks
in the installed lining. Even the rock bolt plates were bent due to the high stress. The installation
of lining stress controllers solved the problem. This problem was remedied by installing lining
stress controllers.
3. The South end of the tunnel, where the majority of the work was supposed to be done,
was in a landslide zone. This posed a significant challenge because the ventilation building, and
control room are all located on the southern end of the tunnel. To remedy the impact all the
important structures were relocated.
4. The Atal tunnel is located at a height of 3100m in the Himalayas where the temperature
gets very low. The workers were susceptible to hypothermia, frost bites etc. Therefore, the
workers were provided with special clothing and kits. Not only limited to high altitude sickness,
but the Atal tunnel was also being built when Covid-19 happened which caused temporary
cessation of work.
5. The tunnel was constructed through a crystalline thrust located in the young Himalayas
which added to the complexity of construction.
6. When compared to other tunnels around the world, the Atal tunnel has a very high
overburden. The highest overburden is almost 2kms.
Salient features of the tunnel:
1. In case of a mishap the tunnel has a one-of-a-kind escape configuration in which the
escape tunnel is inside the main tube itself. There are multiple escape cuddies located at every
500m.
17
2. The tunnel has generator backup at each portal. The tunnel gets a supply of 11 KVA
from the south end and a supply of 33 KVA is scheduled from the north.
3. The tunnel has semi-transverse ventilation, which is powered by three axial fans with a
combined capacity of 630 kW, it is the most powerful tunnel ventilation in the country.
4. The electrical and mechanical systems are well suited to operate under extreme
conditions(-40oC).
5. Heat tracing units are installed in fire hydrant pipes to prevent water from freezing,
which is necessary in the event of a fire.
1.4.4. Namami Gange
The Ganga River, originating in the Himalayas and flowing to the Bay of Bengal covers more
than 2,500 km in northern and eastern India (Figure 6). The Namami Gange project was initiated
with the intention of conserving, reducing pollution, and revitalizing the Ganga River. The
project was approved with a budget estimate of Rs. 20000 crores by the government in June
2014.
Figure 6: Namami Gange Project Details
Need of the Project
● The Ganga basin covers approximately 26% landmass of India which further extends to the
neighboring countries including Nepal, China, and Bangladesh.
● The river Ganga contributes to economic development, impacts the environment, and holds
significant cultural importance in India.
18
Objectives of the Project:
●To establish systems in place such that individuals, institutions, and corporate organizations
can effectively contribute to the rejuvenation of the river Ganga.
●To promote technological innovation and facilitation of such interventions into the ground
reality.
●To encourage local community participation by bringing mass awareness regarding the
connection of the rivers to the lives of the common public.
Key Plan: The Ganga River gets polluted by the extracts of industry wastage, municipal
wastewater, solid waste, and other diverse sources such as partially cremated bodies. The focus
of this project was to ensure the continuous flow of the unpolluted water in the river Ganga. The
plan of the project was prepared using the following eight key pillars into consideration.
(a) Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure
(b) River-Surface Cleaning
(c) Afforestation
(d) Industrial Effluent Monitoring
(e) River-Front Development
(f) Biodiversity
(g) Public Awareness
(h) Ganga Gram
The project was implemented by establishing multilevel monitoring systems at the national,
state, and district levels.
1.4.5. Mumbai-Delhi Expressway
This is an 8-lane (expandable to 12-lane) expressway with a length of approximately 1,350 km,
connecting Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, and Maharashtra (Figure 7). This
expressway is economically important as it connects the national capital Delhi to the financial
capital of the country. This is an access-controlled expressway having roadside amenities at an
interval of approximately 50 km.
19
Figure 7: India’s longest expressway on track to bring two metropolises closer (Source: Hindustan Times)
Objectives of the Project
The primary objective of the transport facility is to ease the commute between origin and
destination. This objective can be achieved by reducing travel cost, and travel time, and
increasing the comfort and safety of the passenger and goods. Mumbai and Delhi are two very
important strategic locations for India and the alignment of this expressway is such that the
distance between Mumbai and Delhi reduces by about 150 km and travel time to 13 hours from
24 hours. The expressway is designed to provide better ride quality, safety, and convenience due
to roadside amenities.
Special Features:
(a) Wayside amenities: The expressway is designed considering the comfort of the
commuters. The wayside amenities include ATM, retail shops, food shops, and hotels. It also
has charging stations for the electric vehicle along with several fuel stations. The roadside
amenities also accommodate the trauma centers for addressing the road crash victims
immediately.
(b) Environment friendly: The expressway is surrounded by over 20 lakh trees. The
facilities of drip irrigation along with a rainwater harvesting system have been designed at every
500 meters.
20
(c) Wildlife crossings: To consider the safety of both the high-speed drivers and wildlife
animals, five natural-looking wildlife crossings are provided between tiger reserves. The
crossing corridor has 8 meters tall side barrier walls on both sides.
1.4.6. Sardar-Sarovar Project
The Sardar Sarovar project serves water and electricity to four states of India including
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra (Figure 8). This is the nation’s largest
water resource project with discharge capacity of 30.7 cubic meters per second. The Sardar-
Sarovar dam is 1210 meters long and 163 meters in height. This is the third-highest dam in India
after the Bhakra (226 meters) in Himachal Pradesh and Lakhwar (192 meters) in Uttarakhand.
This is a gravity dam involving 6.82 million cubic meters of concrete.
Figure 8: Sardar Sarovar Project: the largest water resources projects in India
Objectives of the Project
(a) Irrigation: The construction of this dam facilitates the irrigation of approximately
18,450 million m2 of land which includes 3112 villages of Gujarat, 2,460 million m2 of land
covering deserted districts of Rajasthan, and 375 million m2 area of Maharashtra. The major
areas covered through this dam are the drought-prone areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
(b) Drinking water supply: The dam provides drinking water to 9490 villages serving
approximately 28 million population of Gujarat. The demand of several industries for water is
also fulfilled by the dam, increasing the income opportunity and economic growth of the country.
(c) Power: The dam also facilitates power generation through two powerhouses with the
capacity of 1200 Megawatt (MW), and 250 MW. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat
share the generated power.
(d) Flood Protection: This dam also acts as protection from floods covering a region of 300
million m2 protecting about four lakh people in Gujarat.
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1.5. Professional ethics
How relevant is ethics for a civil engineering student? To highlight its importance, we are first
going to understand what ethics are and what is the relevance of ethics in the civil engineering
profession. The fundamental responsibility of an engineer is to secure the health, safety, and
well-being of the general public. The ultimate recipients of engineering services are the general
public and hence the ethical concerns that arise during the decision-making problem are of
utmost importance. At every step of engineering, from acquiring the materials to the actual
completion and even after sales, ethics becomes really important. However, establishing a
professional career as an ethical person does not guarantee that you will be able to solve
complex problems. Individuals who are aware of professional ethics will better be able to
determine what actions are appropriate for a given problem. The purpose of this section is to
give an overview of ethics in engineering and to describe how to resolve ethical dilemmas using
standard ethical codes.
In the book Ethics in Engineering by Martin and Schinzinger, they explain ethics as "synonymous
with morality, it refers to moral ideals that are allowed (all right), regulations and laws that are
desirable.” In a perfect society, there would be no need for ethical compliance because everyone
would strive to be the best possible version of themselves. However, we do not live in an ideal
world.
Professional ethics is a set of rules that regulates the behavior of a person or group in the
workplace. It is difficult to distinguish between professional and personal ethics because in both
cases, people make decisions. When it is on an organizational, stakeholder, or public level, it is
in the first group. When it is about how one person interacts with others in everyday life, it is in
the second group. Ethics is not a law in the legal sense, but they govern what is morally proper
and acceptable in the engineering profession. Individual integrity and honesty, which civil
engineering students should learn and execute as early as possible in their education, are
intricately linked. Because of its importance in society, ethics is admired and held in high regard
by others.
Most of the civil engineering curriculum is spent on technical subjects, and their professional
expertise is focused to implementing these technical skills to solve society's problems. Rather
than an accumulation of information and power, professionalism is a technique of thinking and
living. In resolving new challenges, the professionals must be able to incorporate previously
encountered experiences and ideas. Such problem solving necessitates independent thinking and
non-self-serving motivation. An engineering professional's improper behavior or remark is
equally damaging whether it is made at work or on vacation when one acquires the commitment
associated with specific engineering training and a professional job, one also acquires the
authority to behave within a set of norms and actions that will not impair the trust that society
thrusts upon the engineering profession. Hence, professionals are expected to perform their
duties in accordance with high ethical standards and with constant regard for the public good.
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A professional's ethical maturity is significant since it indicates how the individual tackles a
value conflict. Professionals have responsibilities to their organization, client, profession,
society, and themselves. Professionals also have environmental and sustainability obligations.
When making a decision that contains conflicting values, an ethically mature person realizes the
relevance of all these value commitments and properly weighs each of them.
A code of ethics is a set of rules which helps to determine what is right and wrong. When you
are faced with a dilemma and must decide without knowing how to continue, a code of ethics
gives a foundation or guideline for your ethical decision-making. Each professional organization
in engineering has a code of ethics that specifies their obligations. Engineers are accountable for
the environment as well as public health, safety, and welfare. In addition, they are expected to
avoid conflicts of interest, be honest, maintain professional competence, not engage in unfair
competition, and make only unbiased decisions and true remarks. A code of ethics is a key set
of principles and behaviors designed to be followed by users so that they behave responsibly, in
an unimpeachable manner, with honor and integrity.
Code of ethics by American Society of Civil Engineer's (ASCE) is one of the most widely known
codes for civil engineers. It is targeted at three groups: the public, employers and clients, and
licensed civil engineers. Figure 9 explains the fundamental principle of code of ethics by ASCE.
Engineers retain and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of their profession by keeping the
4 principles explained in the figure.
Figure 9: ASCE’s Fundamental Principles
The Engineering Council of India's code of ethics is one of the most well-known codes of ethics
in India. According to them, engineers apply scientific knowledge to solve the problem. The
quality of life and all parts of the economy are affected by professional engineers and consulting
engineering firms. Hence ethics are crucial to the profession's values. Engineers should follow
this code of ethics when working with the public, clients, employers, workers, and other
engineers. A total of three main points is presented, each with numerous sub points (Figure 10).
23
Figure 10: The three articles provided by the Engineering Council of India in their code of ethics
It is essential to discuss the rights and responsibilities of engineers in relation to their professional
responsibilities. Responsibility is a duty or obligation to properly accomplish or complete a task
imposed by someone or generated by one's own promise or circumstances, which bears a
consequence for failing. The rights and responsibilities of an engineer includes maintaining
workplace quality, ensure employees and public safety, guarantee of legal compliance, avoid
conflicts of interest, monitor outside employment/Activities that won’t conflict the particular
organization, preserve confidential or proprietary information, maintaining accurate and
complete records, use and protection of employers assets, gifts, meals, services and
entertainment, Relationship with competitors, avoid Bribes and kickbacks, follow guidelines in
purchases of goods and services, environmental protection, whistle blowing if needed,
relationships with clients, outside contractors, and Consultants.
An ethical climate is a mix of an organization's formal procedures, informal traditions, and

practices, and the personal attitudes and commitments of engineers and other stakeholders. For
a better society it is essential to promote an ethical climate both organizationally and
individually. Leadership on value, professional, and ethical issues will always be required,
regardless of the size or type of the organization. Management and professional requirements
may fluctuate depending on the size and work environment, yet leadership on value, professional
and ethical concerns will always be important.
In the next few chapters, details of various subfields of civil engineering such as structural
engineering, water resources engineering, transportation engineering, etc. are discussed.
24
2
d
2. Structural Engineering
Unit specifics
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
●Introduction to mechanics of structures
●Brief introduction to types of structures
●Fundamentals of Building Materials
●A brief discussion on sustainability on construction
●Introduction to construction and contracts management
●A brief discussion on repairs and rehabilitation of structures
The practical applications of the topics are discussed for generating further curiosity and
creativity as well as improving problem-solving capacity.
Besides giving a large number of multiple-choice questions as well as questions of short and
long answer types marked in two categories following lower and higher order of Bloom’s
taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems, a list of references, and
suggested readings are given in the unit so that one can go through them for practice. It is
important to note that for getting more information on various topics of interest some QR codes
have been provided in different sections which can be scanned for relevant supportive
knowledge.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This
section has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this part
becomes beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial activity,
examples of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the subject focusing
the salient observations and finding, timelines starting from the development of the concerned
topics up to the recent time, applications of the subject matter for our day-to-day real life or/and
industrial applications on variety of aspects, case study related to environmental, sustainability,
social and ethical issues whichever applicable, and finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics
of the unit.
25
Rationale
This fundamental unit on structural engineering will help students to get a basic idea about
primary elements and concepts of structural engineering. The chapter starts with an introduction
to the fundamentals of structural mechanics explaining the basics of fundamental concepts and
elements that are relevant to structural mechanics. A brief discussion on the types of civil
engineering structures is put forward in the next section. This chapter then explains the various
types of building materials and their properties. This chapter also discusses the need for
sustainability in construction practices. The basics of contract and construction management
are also discussed in this chapter. This chapter lastly gives a brief discussion on the repair and
rehabilitation of civil engineering structures. The topics covered in this chapter aim to develop
the basic idea of structural engineering. Various examples are mentioned in the chapter to
impart a basic and fundamental understanding of the subject in the field of civil engineering.
Structural engineering is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the design and
construction of civil engineering structures. A large part of the spectrum of civil engineering is
covered by structural engineering.
Pre-requisites
Mathematics: Coordinate Systems (Class XII)
Physics: Mechanics (Class XII)
Unit outcomes
List of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: Understand the basics of mechanics of structures.
U1-O2: Get an idea about the different types of structures.
U1-O3: Get an idea about the various building materials used in civil engineering.
U1-O4: Understand the importance of sustainability in construction.
U1-O5: Understand the basic idea of construction and contract management.
U1-06: Get an idea about the repair and rehabilitation of structures.
Unit-1 EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Outco (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong
mes Correlation)
26
CO CO CO CO CO CO
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
U1-O1 3 3 3 - 3 1
U1-O2 1 1 2 2 1 -
U1-O3 2 1 3 1 2 1
U1-O4 - - 3 1 2 2
U1-O5 3 3 3 - 3 1
Structural engineering is the discipline of civil engineering concerned with the design and
construction of civil engineering structures such as buildings, water-retaining structures, bridges,
frames, trusses, and retaining walls. A structural engineer considers stability, strength, and
stiffness of a structure while designing so that it can withstand the forces in an economical and
safe manner. Structural engineering applies the concepts of mechanics in designing various
engineering structures. It deals with the design, building, and maintenance of the infrastructure
using mathematical equations.
2.1. Introduction to Mechanics of Structure

Mechanics is the study of the state of a body under the application of external forces and energy.
The body can be rigid or deformable. If a body does not bend, twist, or change its shape on the
application of force, then the body is called a rigid body. It is an ideal condition as no material
is rigid. Even diamonds, the hardest material on earth, change their shape when exposed to
extreme force. Whereas if the body bends, twists, or changes its shape by applying any type of
force, then the body is called a non-rigid or deformable body.
A structure is defined as a system of interconnected members assembled in such a way that it

can withstand load under stable conditions. Mechanics of structure studies the effect of the
application of external force on a non-rigid structure and helps us to understand the behavior of
the structure because of the application of the force. It studies how the external forces acting on
the structure would result in translational, twisting, or rotational effects on the body or a
combination of two or more effects. In practice, a structure is subjected to various artificial loads
like loads coming from machinery, vehicles, household objects, etc., and natural loads like
earthquakes, wind, etc. Hence, understanding the behavior of the structure subjected to various
external loads is necessary for the stable and safe design of a structure.
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2.1.1. Basic concepts in structural mechanics
1. Space
Space is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by linear and
angular measurements relative to a coordinate system. For example, for 3-dimensional problems,
three independent coordinates are required.
2. Time
Time is the measure of the succession of events and is a basic quantity in dynamics. Time is not
directly involved in the analysis of a statics problem.
3. Mass
Mass is the measure of the inertia of a body, which is its resistance to a change of state of velocity.
Mass can also be thought of as the quantity of matter in the body. The mass of a body affects its
gravitational attraction force with other bodies. This force appears in many applications in
statics.
4. Force
Force is the action of one body on another and tends to move a body in the direction of its action.
The action of a force is characterized by its magnitude, the direction of its action, and its point
of application. Thus, force is a vector quantity, and it is described in detail in the next chapter.
5. Particle
A particle is a body of negligible dimensions. In the mathematical sense, a particle is a body

whose dimensions are near zero so that it can be analyzed as a mass-concentrated point.
6. Rigid body
A body is considered rigid when the change in distance between any two points is negligible for
the purpose at hand. For instance, the calculation of the tension in the cable which supports the
boom of a mobile crane under load is unaffected by the small internal deformations in the
structural members of the boom. For the purpose, then, of determining the external forces which
act on the boom we may treat it as a rigid body in equilibrium. Determination of internal
deformations belongs to the study of the mechanics of deformable bodies, which normally
follows statics in curriculum
7. Scalars and vectors
Scalars are quantities with magnitudes and no direction and vectors are quantities that have both
magnitude and direction. For example, pressure is scalar because it does not take into
consideration any direction associated with it whereas force is a vector because direction along
28
with its magnitude is relevant while considering a force. A force acting on an object of the same
magnitude and different direction will have a different impact on the object.
8. Equilibrium
When all the forces and moments acting on a body are zero, then the body is said to be in
equilibrium. In plane equilibrium (2-dimensional) conditions (for bodies like trusses, beams,
etc.) a body is in equilibrium if,
𝛴𝐹𝑥 0, 𝛴𝐹𝑦 0, 𝛴𝑀𝑧 0.
where F is force, M is the moment and x, y, z are the 3 dimensions
9. Center of Gravity
The center of gravity (CG) of a body is the hypothetical point through which the force of gravity
acts on an object. Any external force acting through the center of gravity cannot produce any
rotational effect on the body. Hence, the center of gravity is of concern in structural engineering
for the design of a stable structure. It is attempted to keep the center of gravity as close to the
ground surface as possible in the design of structures to get better structural stability.
10. Stress
Stress is a physical quantity that expresses the internal force exerted by the neighboring particles
of the continuous material. Stress is defined as the force applied per unit area and is the reaction
of the structural members to its self-weight and the external loads applied to it. For example,
when a solid vertical bar is supporting an overhead weight, each particle in the bar pushes on the
particles immediately below it. Stress is frequently represented by the Greek Letter Sigma (𝜎).
Depending upon the nature of force applied, stress can be classified into five types as tensile
stress, compressive stress, shear stress, torsion, and combined stress.
● Tensile stress: Tensile stress is a physical parameter that is associated with stretching and
tensile force. It is equal to the tensile force per unit area of the surface of the body on which it
acts. It occurs when the material is stretched along the axis to which the load is applied (Figure
11).
Figure 11: Tensile Strength of Material.
Compressive stress: Compressive stress is a physical parameter that is associated with

compression. It is equal to the tensile force per unit area of the surface of the body on which it
29
acts. It occurs when the material is compressed along the axis to which load is applied (Figure
12).
Figure 12: Compressive Strength of Material.
● Shear stress: When a force is applied causing a sliding effect, stress is produced between two
surfaces, and this stress is known as shear stress. It is equal to the force per unit area of the sliding
surface of the body (Figure 13).
Figure 13: Shear stress between two surfaces
● Torsion: - Torsional stress can be defined as the shear stress that acts on a transverse cross-
section which is caused by the action of rotation or twist (Figure 14).
Figure 14: Torsion in a circular rod. (Source: Ceschinski, H. et al., 2000).
● Combined stresses: - When two or more stresses act simultaneously on any structure, the
combination of these stresses is called combined stresses. There are various combinations of
30
stresses such as bending and shear at the same time, twisted and stressed at the same time, or
twisted and compressed at the same time.
11. Bending moment
When an external load is applied to any object, moments are generated causing a bending effect
on the member. The net resultant moment due to external loads and moments that cause bending
at a point is called the bending moment at that point. The bending moment at any point in a
member due to a load is equal to the load multiplied by the perpendicular distance of the point
where the bending moment is to be calculated from the point of application of the load.
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑀 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿
Figure 15 shows a cantilever beam. The bending moment at point A due to load P acting at a
distance of x from A is equal to Px.
Figure 15: Load diagram leading to bending moment
2.1.2. Load
The force exerted on any surface is termed as load. A load may be applied in several directions
and based on the direction of load, can be categorized into vertical loads, horizontal loads, and
special loads, which can be further classified as well.
1. Vertical load: The vertical load consists of live load, dead load, and snow load which
acts in the direction of gravity or opposite to it.
a. Live load: The load which can move from one place to another is called live load. Live
loads are dynamic loads like furniture, water, people, and equipment whose position can be
easily changed. It changes from time to time depending on the no. of people present in the
structure.
b. Dead load: Dead load refers to permanent and stationary loads. Dead loads are static
loads such as the weight of a structure, machine, equipment, or material. Steel, brick, sand, wires,
cement, and other materials that are not frequently replaced and remain in place for an extended
period are examples of dead loads.
31
c. Snow load: When snow accumulates on the roof during the winter season, it exerts a
load on the structure, which is referred to as snow load. The amount of snow that accumulates
depends on the type of roof and the area.
2. Horizontal load: The horizontal load consists of wind load and earthquake load.
a. Wind load: The force exerted by the wind along the elevation of a building is called
wind load. It is the most powerful force operating on a tall building. It changes depending on the
size, elevation, and style of the structure. Some of the structures are taller, but the force on them
is smaller. Some structures are short, yet the wind force bearing on them is significant. It is
because of the way the building is designed. The wind load varies according to the geographical
area. Wind generates three kinds of loads on the structure: uplift, shear, and lateral.
b. Earthquake load: It is caused by a seismic action of the soil, which causes inertial forces
to impact on the structure of the building. A fast-loading motion damages the building.
Earthquake loading is proportional to building mass. The greater the mass, the greater the
possibility of the building falling.
3. Special load: The special load consists of erection load, soil load, and flood load.
a. Erection load: The load exerted on a structure because of the rigging and derigging of
any substance, structural, or other material is known as the erection load. It is a transient load
acting on the structure.
b. Soil load: Soil load acts on structures where one side of the structure is filled with soil.
Soil load is observed in soil retaining structures or underground structures.
c. Flood load: Flooding puts pressure on buildings and infrastructure. It is a natural burden
that occurs quite rarely in building life.
2.2. Types of structures

A building is a structure with walls and a roof situated in one location more or less permanently.
Buildings occur in a broad range of sizes, forms, and applications, and they have been modified
over history for a range of causes, including the availability of construction materials, weather,
land costs, ground conditions, particular uses, prestige, and aesthetic considerations. Home
construction may be clearly seen dating back to around 18,000 BC. During the Neolithic age,
buildings spread. There are various types of structures like buildings, tall structures, bridges,
water retaining structures, wind tunnels, Power plant structures, etc.
2.2.1. Buildings
Buildings may be divided into the following categories according to the nature of their usage or
occupants
32
(a) Residential building: A building in which people live and do their daily activity is called
a residential building. For example, Flats, villas, lodges, houses, apartments, hotels, hostels, etc.
(b) Educational Building: Buildings that are used for educational purposes such as colleges,
schools, libraries, etc.
(c) Assembly buildings: Buildings that are used for religious festivals and for
entertainment. For example, Temple, Church, Cinema, etc.
(d) Institutional building: Building which is used for health, mental, physical, and medical
institutions are known as Institutional Buildings. Example: Hospital, Sanatoria, etc.
(e) Business building: Buildings used for doing any type of business such as banks, shops,
etc. are called business buildings.
(f) Storage Buildings: Buildings in which materials such as vegetables, wheat, etc. are
stored is called storage building. For example, cold storage and warehouse.
(g) Hazardous Building: Hazardous and toxic substances such as uranium, acid, etc. are
stored in such types of buildings.
1. Tall structures
(a) High Rise: Buildings with a height of 15m or more (regardless of their occupancy) are
classified as high-rise buildings under the National Building Code of India (SP 7-2016)
(b) Skyscraper: A skyscraper is a multi-story building with at least 100m (330ft) in

architectural height.
(c) Supertall Skyscrapers: Buildings taller than 300m (984 ft.) are referred to as supertall
skyscrapers, whereas skyscrapers taller than 600m (1969 ft.) are referred to as mega-tall
skyscrapers.
2. Bridges: A bridge is a structure designed to cross a physical barrier (such as a

waterbody, valleys, roads, or railways). It is designed to facilitate passage over an obstacle that
would otherwise be difficult or impossible to cross. There are several bridge designs, each having
a certain purpose and being suitable under various conditions.
3. Water retaining structures: Structures that hold water either inside or outside. Water
sumps, manholes, swimming pools, dams, weirs, dikes, and water tanks are just a few types of
water retention structures.
4. Wind tunnels: Wind tunnels are large, air-filled tubes that are used to simulate the
interaction of wind with a moving or flying object on the ground. Figure 16 shows a schematic
diagram of a wind tunnel.
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Figure 16: Wind tunnel
5. Power plant structure: A power plant or station provide the electricity that we use at
home and in industries to run various machines. Nuclear power, coal combustion, water, solar,
and wind are all sources of energy.
(a) Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce energy.
Nuclear energy is generated through the processes of nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, and nuclear
decay. Today, majority of nuclear power plants produce energy by plutonium and
uranium fission.
(b) Hydroelectric power plants: In hydropower facilities, water flows through a pipe,
known as a penstock, and then pushes against and turns turbine blades, turning a generator to
generate electricity.
(c) Coal-fired power plants: Coal power plants are thermal power plants that utilize coal
combustion to create energy. These thermal power stations produce one-third of the world's
electricity.
(d) Geothermal power plants - Hydrothermal power plants make use of both water (hydro)
and heat (thermal) resources (thermal).
(e) Solar Power Plants - The main goal of a solar power plant is to turn sunlight into
electricity. This can be done directly with photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly with concentrated
solar power (CSP).
(f) Wind Power plants - This is a collection of wind turbines that generate power at the
same time and in the same location using the wind.
2.3. Fundamentals of Building Materials

The study of building materials is essential for all fields of civil engineering. It is important to
choose the correct materials for construction based on the climate of the region, economic
aspects, available resources and technology of the building industry, duration and purpose of the
34
project, and environmental impact of the material.
India is one of the most climatically diverse countries in the world with conditions varying from
dry deserts in the west, mountains, and glaciers in the north, humid tropical areas in the
southwest, and the island territories. Therefore, it is important to consider the strength of the
materials to withstand high and low temperatures, extreme rainfall, resistance to seawater, etc.,
depending on the conditions the structure is expected to endure. Availability of local materials
and technology with the existing building industries plays a vital role in completing the project
within a reasonable budget. The environmental cost is also a critical factor in deciding the
building material for sustainable construction. The environmental impact can be beyond the
production and logistics cost of the material. For example, using glass for building construction
can be helpful in trapping the heat in cold weather, whereas it can drastically increase the energy
requirement for cooling the building if used in hot weather climates. Building materials have
also evolved over time based on the demand of the industry. Building materials are classified
based on their physical and mechanical properties.
2.3.1. Physical Properties
●Density: Defined as the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material.
●Bulk Density: It is the mass of a unit volume in its natural structure.
●Porosity: It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the pores to the volume of the specimen.
●Water Absorption: This denotes the ability to absorb and retain water. This can be expressed
either by water absorption by volume (Wv) or water absorption by weight (Ww).
𝑀 𝑀
𝑊 100
𝑀
𝑀 𝑀
𝑊 100
𝑉
Where M1 = mass of saturated material
M = mass of dry material
V= volume of material including the pores
●Water Permeability: It is the property of the material that allows water to penetrate under
pressure.
●Fire Resistance: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation and loss of strength at a high
35
temperature.
2.3.2. Mechanical Properties
●Strength: Strength is the ability to resist the stress applied to the material. The strength is tested
in terms of compression, tension, bending, and impact. It is important to study the strength in
different aspects before choosing the material. The concrete and stones are very good under
compression however their strength is very low (1/5 to 1/50) under tension.
●Hardness: It is the ability of a material to resist penetration by a harder body.
●Elasticity: This defines the ability of a material to return to its original state and dimensions
after the removal of the load. In the elastic state, the deformations are proportional to the applied
stress.
●Plasticity: This is the ability of a material to transform its shape and size without cracking and
to retain the deformed shape after removal of the load. Steel and copper are examples of plastic
materials.
2.3.3. Characteristics behavior under Stress
The performance of any building material under stress can be assessed using parameters such as
ductility, brittleness, stiffness, flexibility, toughness, and malleability. The ductility indicates
that the material deforms significantly before complete failure under stress. Brittle materials
break quickly after taking the peak load such as concrete, brick, and cast iron.
2.3.4. Type of Building Material
(a) Structural Clay Product: The clay products can be in the form of bricks, tiles, and pipes.
The clay bricks can be used for structures needing aesthetics, strength, and durability. Clay tiles
are used as partition walls having high resistance to fire, and clay pipes can be used in sewers
and drains for their lower costs. Clay bricks are rectangular in shape having standard dimensions
of 19x19x9 or 19x19x4 cm. An indent called frog (1-2 cm deep) is provided for 9 cm height
brick. This frog forms a key for holding the mortar and ensuring a better connection with the
other bricks.
(b) Wood: Wood is a natural polymeric material that is hard and fibrous. It is obtained from
a major part of the trunk and the branches of the tree. Wood falls under two major categories a)
natural such as timber, lumber, etc., and b) man-made such as plywood, fiberboards, chipboards,
etc.
(c) Concrete: Concrete is made up of cement, well-graded fine and coarse aggregates, and
water. Cement acts as a binding agent for all the aggregates and fills the void of fine and coarse
aggregate. Water reacts with cement and increases the flow and workability of the concrete. An
appropriate proportion of all the materials is used to gain the required strength. If ingredients
(cement: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate) of concrete are mixed in a fixed proportion, the
36
obtained strength of the concrete is constant and is given below:
Grade of Concrete M10 M15 M20 M25
Mix 1:3:6 1:2:4 1:1.5:3 1:1:2
(Cement: Fine
aggregate:
Coarse aggregate)
Characteristic 10 15 20 25
Strength (MPa)
(d) Bitumen, Tar & Asphalt: Bitumen is a viscoelastic nanocrystalline by-product of

petroleum. It is mainly used as an adhesive in road construction, damp proofing the basements,
and painting timber and steel structural elements. Tar is obtained in the process of destructive
distillation of coal, petroleum, wood, and other organic materials at high temperatures. Asphalt
is a combination of an inorganic mineral matter, either calcareous or siliceous, and an organic
matter.
(e) Ferrous Materials: Ferrous materials include iron, cast iron, wrought iron, and steel.
Metal is extensively used in structural load-carrying members of buildings and bridges. The
metal is good in both tension and compression and therefore incorporated in the form of
deformed bars in the reinforced concrete. Steel is also used in trusses. Howrah bridge (Figure
17) in West Bengal is one of the country’s finest and oldest steel structures.
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Figure 17: Howrah Bridge Steel Structure
(f) Other building materials include ceramic material, polymeric material, paints, rubbers,
glass, adhesive, etc. Ceramic materials can be used for roofs, metallurgical furnaces, refractories,
etc.
2.4. Sustainability in Construction

Sustainability is a contemporary subject that has the potential to create an inspiring future for
engineering, particularly civil engineering. Engineers are responsible for improving the extent
to which communities can sustain soil, air, water, and energy assets, by creating a sustainable
vision of the world.
The American Society of Civil Engineers defines sustainable development as “the challenge of
meeting human needs for natural resources, industrial products, energy, food, transportation,
shelter, and effective waste management while conserving and protecting environmental quality
and the natural resource base essential for future development.”
Sustainability can be categorized into four types:
(a) Energy sustainability: Energy is an essential factor and engine for economic
development and growth. Natural resources such as natural gas, coal, and other petroleum
products are being consumed at a rapid pace and since its consumption rate is much more than
their renewal rate, it is important to attenuate the usage of these energy resources to preserve
their supplies for the coming generations.
(b) Ecological sustainability: To ensure the maintenance of services such as biological

variety, pollination, food production, and other cleansing processes, the ecosystem's overall
health must be maintained. Human activity is directly responsible for the deterioration of our
planet's health. Ecological sustainability involves balancing ecological needs that are both
38
natural and human in nature. For the foreseeable future, figuring out how ecosystems may
maintain a high level of resilience while losing some of their constituent pieces will be a key
topic in ecology.
(c) Soil sustainability: Soil is a nonrenewable resource that civil engineers use as one of
their foundation components. For the stability of civil engineering projects such as buildings,
highways, towers, tunnels, dams, etc., the foundation of soil is crucial. However, human
activities such as house construction, road erosion, etc. have resulted in degrading the fertility of
the soil. It is important to understand that this rapid development is a double-edged sword.
Landslides are a common occurrence in hilly locations, and they are the end result of
deforestation and development, in which humans invade the ecosystem and disrupt natural
phenomena. All these activities, finally, disrupt the soil ecosystem and are a threat to the multi-
functionality of species that are dependent on it. Therefore, it is the prime obligation of civil
engineers to keep this double-edged sword of development under check.
(d) Environmental sustainability: The well-being of humans is closely linked with the
health of the environment. Rapid development has led to notable changes in the environment
which has long-term implications for human health. In 2019-2020, Australia saw a disastrous
fire season because of rising surface temperatures induced by human activity. If more
development projects do not adopt sustainability, the frequency of such forest fires is expected
to increase. Another alarming environmental impact is visible frothing in the Yamuna River for
several years. The requirement for achieving long-term river water quality through prioritizing
biodiversity conservation is critical.
2.4.1. Evaluating Sustainable Development
Evaluation is crucial in the learning and mutual accountability processes. For sustainable
development, we need to deploy technology that minimizes negative environmental impact.
When it comes to addressing the issue of sustainability, the following aspects must also be
considered.
(a) Resources used in the technologies: The resources used in the production must foster a
shift from non-biodegradable to biodegradable materials in its production and replace
nonrenewable with renewable resources. Apart from this, packaging requirements must be
minimized too.
(b) Life expectancy of the project: A civil engineer must consider the project's long-term
effects, whether it will last five or twenty-five years. Early material replacement or high
maintenance increases resource demand unnecessarily, wasting resources that could be saved or
used elsewhere. Another stage is to reduce waste, which requires consideration of the
biodegradability of the materials or goods used. Furthermore, it is critical to examine the long-
term impact of any project on the area's total biodiversity, as well as any potential difficulties
that may arise in the future.
(c) Ecological consequences of the project: The primary purpose of civil engineers should
39
be to ensure societal advancement as well as ensure the sustainable use of land, air, and water
resources. This goal can be reached by means of managing these resources in such a way that
deterioration of the environment is limited.
(d) Additional Evaluation Considerations: At first glance, determining sustainability is

simple: ensuring that the natural resource in question is not exhausted. Sustainability is not
viewed as a single-criterion issue in this statement. Social, political, and economic factors should
be examined holistically. Other resource concerns may also play a role in the assessment.
Engineers should consider a project's entire life cycle and make design changes to extend it.
2.4.2. Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes
The discourse on sustainability is endless and encompasses a multitude of topics from all fields
of human knowledge. Sustainable development education is a critical component of student
education around the world because it provides the skills, information, attitudes, and values
required to ensure the long-term viability of humanity.
(a) Skills: Engineers must have holistic values in order to see links between seemingly
disparate components and integrate them in a way that their total worth exceeds the sum of the
component values. They must also have outstanding oral and written communication abilities.
The generation of fresh ideas is only the first step on the path to innovation. Engineers must
comprehend the approach for promoting their ideas, attracting venture money, and strategically
operating their projects while weighing the social and environmental consequences. It is critical
that they seek to reduce risk factors while also managing competing project demands.
(b) Knowledge: Sustainability involves all aspects of economic, environmental, and social
domains. It is imperative that engineers understand that, though their work may be regional and
immediate, its likely impact will be universal and perpetual. They must exercise professional
judgment and take initiative while looking at the big picture, ensuring that their solutions will
improve sustainability.
(c) Attitudes: Engineers play a critical role in preventing environmental damage during
construction projects. As a result, their environmental sensitivity is critical in ensuring that
construction projects are completed in a sustainable manner. They must ensure that human values
are considered in decision-making and that human needs are prioritized to arrive at an objective
agreement on what basic human requirements are and whether they will be met for future
generations while taking moral values into consideration across all subgroups.
2.4.3. Contemporary sustainable practices in civil engineering
When it comes to sustainable practices, they can be defined as those that are both
environmentally benign and resource efficient. In India and around the world, the engineering
sector has converted to a sustainable method in response to the need of the hour. Here are several
practices that have contributed to long-term sustainability.
40
(a) Use of plastic in road construction: As per a government decision published in
November 2015, all road developers in the country must employ waste plastic and bituminous
mixes for road building. Plastic disposal has always been a source of concern. Prof Rajagopalan
Vasudevan from Thiagarajar College of Engineering in Madurai is known as India's "plastic
man" for inventing the revolutionary process for reusing plastic garbage to build better and more
durable roadways. He received the Padma Shri Award for his contribution to sustainability. His
patented invention entails combining shredded plastic with hot gravel and applying it to molten
asphalt. Because plastic and bitumen are both petroleum compounds, they bond well together,
increasing the toughness and the life of the roads.
(b) Switching to green concrete: The usage of green concrete (made of industrial waste and
inorganic polymer) is relevant in sustainable engineering because of the amount of energy
consumed in production and the harm it causes to the environment. This green concrete
consumes less energy and emits less carbon dioxide than regular concrete, making it less
hazardous to the environment. It is used in dams, bridges, buildings, and columns, among other
things.
(c) Using harvested rainwater: Water is one of the most crucial components of the
construction process, and it is also a nonrenewable resource, thus it is critical to conserve it and
use it wisely. Several construction companies are already using harvested rainwater for a variety
of purposes, including concrete curing, preparation, and cleaning. This is quite beneficial in
conserving local water resources.
2.5. Construction and contract management

2.5.1. Construction Management
Development of infrastructure is analogous to the development of society. Infrastructural

development includes the development of roads, railways, buildings, etc. The construction of
these structures comes with various challenges at every phase of the construction process. The
challenges might be unique according to the local conditions. The management of the
construction process involves the management of large amounts of materials, equipment,
manpower, time, and money. Construction management is concerned with the efficient
management of the resources required in the entire construction process of a civil engineering
project.
2.5.1.1. Project management
Project management deals with the management of material and manpower to increase the
productivity of the construction process. Project management involves three phases
1. Project planning: Project planning is the first phase of a project which includes defining
the objectives, establishing the goals and strategies for the completion of work, estimating of
resources required for the project, exploring alternative strategies, and selecting the best possible
combination for the timely completion of the project. Planning is however subject to change
41
depending on the challenges that appear during the construction work which might not be
foreseeable.
2. Project scheduling: Scheduling is the process of planning the timing of the activities of
the project in which they are to be performed. It involves allocating the timings of the activities,
and allocation of resources as per the activity.
3. Project controlling: Controlling phase is undertaken after the project has started.
Controlling is the process of determining deviations from the original plan and re-plan to
compensate for the deviations.
Project management essentially requires the project manager to efficiently complete the project
with the help of proper tools like bar charts and milestone charts, network diagrams, etc.
2.5.1.2. Quality management:
Maintaining the quality of construction is the most important part of construction management
so that the structure is able to provide service during the period it is designed for. A major part
of the work in construction is done on the ground and hence maintaining the quality of the work
is dependent on the performance of individuals involved in the construction. Hence everyone
must be made aware of the quality standards expected in the construction of the project. To
maintain proper quality standards, the following steps are followed:
●Define the standards of design and construction of the structure.
●Define the procedure and standards of tests and monitoring to be followed during the
construction work.
●Define the role of administrative and management departments in ensuring the proper quality
standards.
Routine inspection and supervision of the predefined procedure and standards are required for
maintaining the quality prescribed in the design. The inspection involves making sure that the
set parameters are satisfied with regards to geometry, strength, appearance, etc.
Quality must be maintained right from the start to the end of the project. Any compromise in any
step of the process will lead to the possibility of failure of the structure.
2.5.1.3. Safety management:
Construction workers are exposed to various safety hazards, for example, a worker working on
a high-rise structure is at risk of falling or some construction equipment like nuts, bolts, wrench,
etc. might fall on a worker standing below it. While working on a structure built on water bodies,
like bridges, workers have the risk of falling into the water. There are accidents that damage the
structures like a failure due to overloading during construction, failure of scaffoldings, etc. These
accidents result in the loss of lives along with monetary losses. These accidents and occupational
hazards are taken into serious consideration in civil engineering and hence are discussed in the
42
course.
The standard practices of safety against the risk of accidents are to be employed and must be
enforced by the supervisor in charge of the construction site, much like that in the case of quality
control. The role of the supervisor is crucial for maintaining proper safety standards in the
construction site. The people must be properly trained such that they should know the use of
proper equipment and the possible hazards and risk of the work undertaken by them. There must
be the proper facility of safety equipment such as safety nets, warning boards, shielding the sharp
edges, etc., and personal safety gear for the workers like helmets, steel toe boots, etc. Routine
supervision of safety measures must be undertaken to detect unsafe conditions and correct them
for the smooth functioning of the project and the safety of the workers and the structure.
2.5.2. Contract Management
Every project requires certain quality control measures, compliance with rules and regulations
along with supervision to achieve the desired result. In this, contract management plays an
important role in managing all the stakeholders such as vendors, partners, customers, or
employees. A contract is a document explaining the agreement between the two parties regarding
resources, relationship, and risk. It is an agreement that defines the roles and responsibilities of
different stakeholders involved in the project and the burden of mitigating the risk.
2.5.2.1. Importance of Contract Management
A construction contract agreement is a document defining the terms of a construction project.

The parties involved who must agree to the terms written are the General Contractor and the
client/owner. Any contract agreement contains:
1. Duration of the project or construction schedule reviewed through progress meetings

and updated from time to time
2. A statement of work defining who agrees to do what, the technical specification for
carrying out the work, and material compositions.
3. Describes the rights and obligations of shareholders and sets forth the procedures to be
followed for settlement in the event of any disagreement.
Conception, design, pre-construction, construction procurement building, and delivery/post-

construction are the steps/phases that make up a construction project. All of them fall under the
umbrella of contracts, which can be broadly classified into pre- and post-award contract
development. As soon as the bid is accepted, construction starts. As the project advances contract
changes are likely to take place and need to be efficiently handled and incorporated into the main
contract. Ideally, the original documentation would have already described how this procedure
works.
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2.5.2.2. Important Elements of Contract Management
It is not sufficient for a company to have people in place to manage construction contracts.
Employees must be supported via means of procedures and software partners to fulfill the
expanding compliance and analytical requirements. When a contract management plan is
efficiently put into practice, organizations can anticipate seeing the following:
1. The anticipated business advantages and commercial returns are being fulfilled.
2. The supplier is helpful and receptive to the organization’s requirements.
3. The organization experiences no contract conflicts or unpleasant surprises.
4. The service delivery meets everyone's (parties involved) expectations.
2.5.2.3. Stages of Contract Management Process
To organize work and manage the typical contract process, contracts are divided into stages. The
process in the stages of contract management includes basically the creation, collaboration,
signing, tracking, and renewal. The stages are explained in the following steps:
(a) Initial requests: Finding contracts and pertinent documents that support the goals of the
contract is the preliminary advancement.
(b) Authoring contracts: Handwritten contracts take sufficient time to surface, but the
procedure may be made much more effective with the use of automated contract management
tools.
(c) Negotiating the contract: Once the contract is drafted, personnel may be able to
compare copies and highlight any differences to reduce the need for further discussion.
(d) Approving the contract: The bulk of obstacles happen on getting management’s
permission. Users can avoid this by creating unique approval workflows that involve serial and
parallel approvals to maintain speedy decision-making.
(e) Execution of the contract: Users can control and expedite the signature process when
completing the contract by using electronic signatures and emails/fax capabilities.
(f) Obligation management: To ensure that important stakeholders receive deliverables on

time and the contract's value does not decrease during its early development, extensive project
management is required.
(g) Revisions and amendments: It's a tough task to acquire all of the documentation needed
for the preparation of the first draft of the contract. When issues are uncovered that were
previously disregarded, protocols must be in place to amend the original contract.
44
(h) Auditing and Reporting: Contract management entails more than merely drafting a
contract and then filing it away without further thought. Contract audits are essential for
confirming both companies' adherence to the terms of the agreement as well as any potential
problems.
(i) Renewal: Manual contract administration practices regularly cause organizations to

miss out on renewal opportunities and lose money. By automating the procedure, a company can
locate chances for renewal and create new contracts.
2.6. Repair and rehabilitation of structures

Damage and decay of structures are unavoidable. This occurs due to the deterioration of
materials, repeated loading, and exceptional events. However, their effects can be tolerated as
long as the structure meets requirements related to structural capacity, aesthetics, comfort, and
safety of the user, and economic and market values (Lourenço et al., 2022). When such
requirements are no longer met, there arises the need to perform repair or rehabilitation of the
structure.
Such repair and rehabilitation of existing infrastructure have become increasingly important due
to 1) the construction industry having been identified as a core contributor to environmental
pollution as well as climate change, and 2) existing building stocks are becoming old and require
measures to prolong their service life or to make them more resistant to extreme hazards such as
earthquakes, fire, and blast.
Repair and rehabilitation measures are most effective when structural damage and its underlying
cause are reliably identified. Similarities between the diagnostic processes of humans and
building pathologies have led to a medical analogy for structural repair and rehabilitation. Such
similarities start from the fact that inspection and diagnosis techniques play a major role in both,
providing information and allowing the identification of adequate remedial measures. The
diagnosis process can be performed in two ways Destructive Testing and Non-Destructive
Testing (NDT). The NDT is preferred in repair and rehabilitation measures as the specimen does
not suffer any physical damage in the testing procedure. The NDT tests such as Rebound
Hammer Test, Penetration and Pull-out techniques are used to assess the strength of the concrete.
The radioactive and nuclear NDT methods use X-ray and Gamma rays to measure the density
and thickness of the concrete. The magnetic NDT tests are used to identify the position of the
reinforcement in the concrete and other electrical NDT tests such as microwave absorption
techniques are also used to measure the moisture content in the structure.
If these are performed incorrectly, the adopted retrofit measures will be ad-hoc. The probability
of failing to meet performance requirements (sickness in the case of humans) can also be reduced
by planning routine maintenance or monitoring (health checkups in the case of humans). Thus,
the recommended methodology for repairing/retrofitting structures is as highlighted in Figure
18. The sequence of activities to be carried out can be summarized as
1. The current performance requirements of the existing structure should be carefully
45
evaluated.
2. After the evaluation of the required performance requirements, a thorough inspection

of the structure should be carried out.
3. The structural performance should be then evaluated. This evaluation should

incorporate all findings of the inspection carried out in step 2. The evaluated performance should
be then compared against the requirements evaluated in step 1.
4. If the structure satisfies its performance requirements, then its use can be continued.
5. If the structure does not satisfy its performance requirements and its continued use is
desired, the engineer should proceed with designing the retrofit.
6. While designing the retrofit, an appropriate retrofitting method should be first selected.
The design and implementation should be done as per technical norms and manufacturer
specifications addressing it.
7. The performance of the retrofitted structure should be evaluated again to verify that the
retrofitted structure meets the performance requirements.
8. Only once it is confirmed that the existing structure can satisfy the performance
requirements
by adopting the selected retrofitting method, should the retrofit be implemented.
46
Figure 18: Conceptually, repair/retrofit methods can again be broadly classified as (Macchi et al., 2018)
● Adding new structural elements: New structural elements could be added to help the existing
building better sustain loading actions. For example, newly inserted elements in buildings could
be steel braced frames or new walls while for bridges, this could mean the insertion of new brick
piers.
● Strengthening existing elements: Retrofit/repair strategies could also be based on the

strengthening of the existing structural elements. For example, columns, beams, and even bridge
piers can be wrapped in external jacketing composed of carbon, glass fibers, or even steel plates.
● Locally increasing deformation capacity: Such strategies address only the most critical zones
of the structure identified when evaluating its performance. Examples of such strategies again
include fiber wrapping or steel encasement of columns.
● Reduce the action/ demand on the structure: Retrofit/repair strategies can also operate by
reducing the action/demand on the structure rather than increasing its capacity. For example, in
the case of bridges, traffic restrictions could be imposed to reduce the load the bridge has to
carry.
Practically, a plethora of local and global methods and products are currently available. As an
example, for reinforced concrete structures not meeting performance standards under
47
earthquakes, local strategies would include measures addressing column strengthening, beam
strengthening, or beam-to-column joint strengthening while global strategies would include
measures such as the addition of new walls/bracing systems, reduction of mass/ structural
irregularities or the use of energy dissipation/isolation devices (Christopoulos et al., 2006). It is
to be noted here that the choice of the most appropriate retrofit method depends entirely on the
problem at hand. This is also highlighted in the case study addressing the dome of the presidential
palace of India i.e., Rashtrapati Bhawan (Aranha et al., 2019). Such special structures rarely fall
under the direct purview of any guideline and the study highlights the importance of detailed
investigations that need to be carried out to evaluate the capacity of the structure in its existing
state. During a visual inspection of the double dome structure of Rashtrapati Bhawan, meridional
cracks were spotted in two out of the four niches in the drum of the lower dome. The complex
layout of the structure, variety of materials used, and no prior knowledge of reinforcements
prompted the use of multiple approaches for the detailed study and investigations of the structure.
These detailed investigations are then used to propose a non-invasive as well as a reversible
retrofit strategy for the dome, qualities which are both necessary considering the historical
importance of the structure.
Structural engineering is a vital part of civil engineering that deals with the design and
construction of civil engineering structures. Structural engineering employs basic concepts of
mechanics for analyzing structures. Hence a strong fundamental understanding of the mechanics
of structures is necessary for the appropriate design of structures. Infrastructural development is
directly linked with the development of a society. Structural engineering is dynamic in nature
and has pushed the limits of infrastructural development and the changing climate the current
need for infrastructure development is to be sustainable.
48
Table 1: List of the equipment used at the construction site of civil engineering.
Category/ Field Name(s) Purpose
Earth Moving Excavator The primary purpose of excavator is to excavate

however, it can be used for lifting heavy material and
demolition purposes.
Earth Moving Backhoe This is majorly used for digging holes and trenches.
This can also be used for excavation purpose up to
3-meter depth.
Earth Moving Bulldozer These have easy maneuverability in the difficult

terrain of the construction site. This is used to
remove and push the debris or soil on the site. This
can also be equipped with a ripper which can be
further used to break the hard surfaces of concrete or
asphalt.
Hoisting Tower Crane Tower cranes are used to erect the big structures and
Equipment materials such as pre-stressed concrete slab, steel
frames to the required height.
Hoisting Telehandlers They are used to lift heavy materials and provide the
Equipment platform for the workers at greater heights.
Hauling Equipment Dumper To transport the material in bulk. It has hydraulic

system which can lift and dump the material quickly.
Hauling Equipment Trailer The trailers are used to shift the materials like
reinforcement rods at construction sites.
Hauling Equipment Concrete Mixer To transport the ready-mix concrete from plant to the
Truck construction site.
Road Construction Paver This is used in asphalt pavement laying.
Road Construction Compactors Compactors are used to compact the soil and earth
materials.
Foundation Pile Boring Pile boring equipment are used to dig deeper in the
Equipment soil and place the precast piles or construct in situ
pile foundation.
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2.7. Recycling
Construction needs large number of natural resources and generates millions of tons of waste in
the form of concrete, asphalt, steel, tyres, bricks, fly ash, slag etc. Most of the generated waste
is deposited in the landfills, water or air. Reutilization of these materials is utmost important for
sustainable, environment friendly and economic development. The recent development has
focused on the usage of recycled materials and analysis of their compatibility and suitability of
their strength in building materials. The recycled aggregates can be formed from the water
quenched water furnace slag and reclaimed asphalt pavement. The pervious concrete is made
using the recycled brick aggregates. The agricultural by products and used tyre rubber can also
be used as cement mortars.
References and suggested readings

1. “Roads Made of Plastic Waste in India? Yes! Meet the Professor Who Pioneered the
Technique.” The Better India, 2 Feb. 2016, www.thebetterindia.com/43685/plastic-waste-in-
road-construction-plastic-man-india-prof-vasudevan/.
2. Aranha CA, Menon A, Sengupta AK. (2018). Determination of the causative
mechanism of structural distress in the presidential palace of India. Eng Fail Anal 2019; 95:312–
31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2018.09.023.
3. Center Of Gravity. (n.d.). https://sites.google.com/site/rpfypaerodynamics/center-of-
gravity
4. Ceschinski, H & Henkes, Hans & Weinert, H & Weber, Werner & Kühne, D &
Monstadt, Hermann. (2000). Torquability of microcather guidewires: The resulting torsional
moment. Bio-medical materials and engineering. 10. 31-42.
5. Christopoulos C, Filiatrault A, Bertero V V. (2006.). Principles of passive supplemental
damping and seismic isolation. 6th ed. Pavia, Italy: IUSS Press.
6. Danilina, Elena Ivanovna, and Vladimir Evgenevich Chebotarev. (2017).
“Comprehensive Assessment of Road and Communal Infrastructure as an Important Tool for
Sustainable Development of the Urban Economy.” JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26234013?refreqid=search-gateway.
7. Lourenço PB, Barontini A, Oliveira DV, Ortega J. (2022). Rethinking preventive
conservation: Recent examples. Geotech. Eng. Preserv. Monum. Hist. Sites III, London: CRC
Press; p. 70–86. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003308867-4.
8. Macchi G, Calvi GM, Sullivan TJ. Structural Strengthening and Retrofit; Motivations,
Concepts and Approaches. (2018). p. 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5858-5_1.
9. McCuen, R. H., Ezzell, E. Z., Wong, M. K. (2011). Fundamentals of Civil Engineering:
An Introduction to the ASCE Body of Knowledge. United States: CRC Press.
10. Seismic Assessment and Retrofit of Existing RC Buildings: Case Studies from
Degenkolb Engineers. SP-297 Seism. Assess. Exist. Reinf. Concr. Build., American Concrete
Institute; 2014. https://doi.org/10.14359/51686906.
11. Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Existing Buildings. Reston, VA: American Society
of Civil Engineers; 2014. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784412855.
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12. Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil
Engineers; 2007. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784408841.
13. The National Assembly for Wales. (n.d.). https://www.dqi.org.uk/case-
studies/heritage-culture/thenationalassemblyforwales.php
14. Thompson, P. (2010). “Teaching Sustainability in Civil Engineering Using Ceequal.”
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Engineering Sustainability, vol. 163, no. 4,
pp. 209–217., doi:10.1680/ensu.2010.163.4.209.
Dynamic QR Code for Further Reading
Understanding Shear Force and Bending Moment

Diagrams
Videos about various construction and other civil

engineering work: https://practical.engineering/
How are skyscrapers built?
51
Indian Standard (IS) codes for cement and concrete
Indian Standard (IS) codes for structural engineering and

structural section
National building code for India
52
3
d
3. Geotechnical Engineering
Unit specifics
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects
●Introduction to soil mechanics
●Basics of various index properties and engineering properties of soil
●Basics rock mechanics and engineering geology
●Introduction to foundation engineering
●Introduction to underground structures
●Brief discussion on solid waste management
creativity as well as improving problem solving capacity.
taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems, a list of references and
knowledge.
of the unit.
53
Rationale
This fundamental unit on geotechnical engineering will help students to get a primary idea about
the fundamental principles and theories of soil mechanics, rock mechanics, foundations, and
solid waste management. It explains the various properties and characteristics of soil that are
relevant in civil engineering. A discussion on rock mechanics and engineering geology is also
put forward. This chapter then explains the various types of foundations and the conditions for
selecting a suitable foundation for a structure. The basics of underground structures is also
discussed in this chapter. This chapter lastly describes the importance and various techniques
of solid waste management. The topics are discussed to a length so as to develop the basic idea
of the subject. Various practical examples are mentioned in the chapter for creating a clear
picture of the application of the subject in the field of civil engineering.
Geotechnical engineering is a branch of civil engineering which deals with the soil and rock
surface of the earth and its ability to withstand load coming from the superstructure. Before
design and construction of any civil engineering work, assessment of soil properties and its
bearing capacity must be carried out and these are covered in geotechnical engineering
Pre-requisites
Unit outcomes
U1-O1: Understand basic properties and characteristics of soil.
U1-O2: Understand the various rock structures and geological formations relevant to civil
engineering.
U1-O3: Understand the basic concepts and principles of foundations.
U1-O4: Understand the basics of different underground structures.
U1-O5: Understand the various techniques of solid waste management.
54
EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
Unit- (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U1-O1 3 3 3 - 3 1
U1-O2 1 1 2 2 1 -
U1-O3 2 1 3 1 2 1
U1-O4 - - 3 1 2 2
U1-O5 3 3 3 - 3 1
It takes thousands of years for a boulder to break down due to weathering. The boulders are
broken down into sands, silts, and clays and the composite of these particles makes up the soil.
Soil is a complex conglomeration of inorganic matter, organic matter, water, and air in varying
proportions. All civil engineering structures eventually transfer the load to soils, either directly
or through masonry. Knowing the expected response due to the imposed loadings is of primary
interest to civil engineers. Geotechnical engineering is the specialist branch that deals with the
study of the properties of soils and the impact of loading forces and soil-water interactions on
the behavior of soils.
3.1. Soil Mechanics

Soil mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to sediments and other
deposits. The broad area of “soil-structure interactions''in geotechnical engineering represents
the interactions between the three linked systems of any civil engineering structure that is built
on or inside the ground: the structure, the foundation, and the soil underlying and surrounding
the foundation. Its common applications include the design of pavements, retaining walls, dams,
embankments, foundations, and underground structures such as tunnels, water distribution pipes,
etc. Geotechnical studies are crucial for mitigating risks and the safe design of any civil
engineering structure.
3.1.1. Determination of texture of soil
Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam, or clay) is the characteristic that indicates the relative
content of particles of large (sand), medium (silt), and small (clay) sizes. Because of its smaller
size, clay clumps together easily and is cohesive in nature while sand is non-cohesive in nature.
55
Sand is visible to the naked eye and is pervious. Clay particles are micron-sized particles less
than 2 micron. Loamy soil is a mixture of clay, silt, and sand in proportions of 20%, 40%, and
40 % respectively. Various types of soils have different benefits, for example, crops require soils
with high organic matter. Figure 19 shows the types of soil particles along with the arrangement
of the particles and the particle size. By seeping downward, water breaks down rocks into the
soil and dissolves them into the ground.
Figure 19: Types of soil particles (Source: Thomas higher education)
The following field tests are used to determine the texture of the soil. These simple tests require
fine earth, which is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay. For the test to be accurate, the fine soil
particles should first be separated from larger particles such as gravel and stones.
3.1.1.1. Throw ball test
The soil can be tested by squeezing some moist soil into a ball and throwing it about 50 cm in
the air and catching it. If the ball falls apart, it indicates that the soil has more sand and if it sticks
together, the soil has more clay, as shown in Figure 20.
Figure 20: Throw ball test (Source: Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations)
56
3.1.1.2. The bottle test
In this test, 5 cm of soil is put into a bottle and filled with water. The soil and water are then
stirred together, and the bottle is left undisturbed for an hour. After an hour, the water gets clear
and larger sized particles settle. Organic matter floating on the surface of water indicates a clay
layer. After an hour, if the water has still not cleared up, it indicates the presence of fine clay. If
the water is still mixed with soil that forms a layer in the middle, it indicates silt while the
bottommost layer is sand. The proportion of each can be determined by measuring the depth of
sand, silt, and clay. This will provide an approximate idea of the proportion of sand, silt, and
clay in the soil (Figure 21).
Figure 21: Bottle test which determines proportion of sand, silt, and clay (Source: Food and Agriculture Organization,
United Nations)
3.1.2. Formation of soil
Organic and mineral matter in soils can be found in solid, gaseous, or aqueous states. Soil is
formed due to chemical weathering processes such as oxidation, reduction, carbonation etc. as
well as physical weathering of rock particles due to changes in temperature, abrasion etc. The
physical characteristics and the chemical properties of soils include cohesion, adhesion, color,
texture, specific gravity, and mineral content. Residual soil accumulates or deposits near the
parent rock. whereas transported soil is deposited away from the origin of formation. There are
five types of transported soil, according to the medium of transport:
(a) Alluvial
(b) Aeolian
(c) Glacial
(d) Lacustrine
(e) Marine.
Alluvial soils are formed by accumulated sediments transported by flowing water. Aeolian soils
are formed from sandy parent material transported by wind. Glacial soils are deposits transported
by ice and found in regions having rocky terrain with ice blocks. Lacustrine soils are depositions
in the bottom of ancient lakes, typically formed by sediment carried by river or stream channel
57
to the lakes. Finally, marine soil are sediment deposits on the sea or ocean floor whose texture
and composition depends on proximity to land and organic matter.
3.1.3. Soil deposits in India
Based on origin, color, composition, and location, the soil deposits in India can be broadly
classified into five types. Figure 22 shows the map of major soil types found in India.
(a) Alluvial soil
Predominantly found in northern and eastern India, typically in the river valleys of the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra, the distinctive feature of these soils is that they are composed of layers of
alternating sand, silt, and clay. Generally, the size of the layer depends on the floodplain
characteristics. Alluvial soils have one of the highest agricultural productivities among all soils,
requiring the least water due to its high porosity.
(b) Black cotton soil
These soils are found in the central and southern region (Deccan plateau) of India. These are
residual soils of basalt rock mostly used for cotton cultivation. These soils are highly susceptible
to swelling and shrinkage and have low bearing capacity due to montmorillonite clay mineral.
(c) Laterite soil
This is a residual soil formed from basalt that is characterized by reddish or pink colors due to
the presence of iron oxides and aluminum oxides. These soils are found throughout central,
southern, and eastern India.
(d) Desert soils
These soils are transported by wind and are highly pervious and non-cohesive. The size of these
soil particles is coarse grained and requires compaction to increase strength and bearing capacity.
(e) Marine soil
A narrow belt of marine deposits mainly lies along the coast of India, and these deposits consist
of sand deposited above deep deposits of soft marine clays. These soils are highly compressible,
soft, and plastic in nature due to the presence of organic matter and have low strength.
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Figure 22: Major soil types of India. (Source: Wikipedia)
3.1.4. Classification of soil
Soil is classified based on certain distinguishable properties. In geotechnical engineering, the

classification of soil is based on the engineering properties that are related to civil engineering
applications. There are different classification systems put forward by various organizations.
Some of the classification systems that are relevant for geotechnical engineering are discussed
below.
1. Textural classification of soil:
Textural classification system is one of the most widely used classification systems developed
by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The classification is based on the
percentage of sand, silt, and clay in the soil sample. The percentages are plotted on the three
sides of a triangle as shown in Figure 23 and the type of soil can be determined as per the
percentage of sand, silt, and clay present.
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Figure 23: A ternary diagram of the soil texture triangle (Source: United States Department of Agriculture - USDA)
2. Unified soil classification system (USCS):
USCS is a widely used and universally accepted system of classification for application in
geotechnical engineering. The classification is based on the soil particle size and the plasticity
characteristic of soil. The soil is broadly classified as coarse grained, fine grained, and organic
soil.
(a) Coarse grain soil: According to USCS, soil is classified as coarse grained if 50% or more soil
is retained on a sieve size of 0.075mm. Coarse grained soil is further subdivided into gravel (G)
or sand (S) depending on whether 50% or more coarse grained soil is retained or passed through
on a sieve of 4.75mm, respectively.
(b) Fine grained soil: If 50% or more soil passes through a sieve size of 0.075mm then it is
termed as fine-grained soil. Fine grained soil is classified as silt if the plasticity index lies below
the A-line, otherwise it is silt.
The A-line is shown in Figure 24. If the liquid limit is more than 50% then it is termed as highly
plastic, otherwise it is termed as low plastic soil.
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Figure 24: Plasticity Cart for United Soil Classification System (USCS) (Source: https://dot.ca.gov/).
(c) Organic soil: Organic soils are fine grained soils that contain substantial amounts of organic
particles and exhibit organic properties such as strong odor, dark color, etc.
3. Indian standard system of soil classification (ISSCS):
ISSCS adopts a method similar to USCS for classification of soil. The difference is in the
distinction of plasticity. Unlike USCS, soil is considered low plastic if liquid limit is below 35%,
medium plastic if liquid limit is between 35% to 50% and if the liquid limit is above 50% it is
considered as highly plastic.
3.1.5. Phase diagram
A phase diagram is a diagrammatic representation of soil which consists of solids, water, and
air. It is classified into a three-phase or two-phase system. We consider fully saturated soil as a
two-phase system where air voids are completely replaced by water, i.e. degree of saturation is
100%. While partially saturated soil is a three-phase system consisting of solid, water, and air.
Lastly dry soil is a two-phase system in which voids filled with water are completely replaced
by air or we can say that no water is present in voids.
3.1.6. Volumetric relationships
To analyze the behavior, volumetric, relation and properties of soil we study 3 phase diagrams
of soil (Figure 25). Mostly 5 volumetric relationships were used in soil mechanics for
engineering purposes such as void ratio, porosity, air content, degree of saturation, percentage
of air void.
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Figure 25: Three Phase diagram (Source: https://edtech.engineering.utoronto.ca/)
(a) Void ratio.
It is the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solid soil. Void ratio has higher value for fine
grained compared to coarse grained and its value can be greater than one.
(b) Porosity.
It is the ratio of volume of voids to total volume of soil mass. Its value can’t exceed 100%. Void
ratio and porosity measure the degree of compactness. Dense soil has less void ratio and porosity.
(c) Degree of saturation.
It is the ratio of volume of water to volume of void. A soil is considered as dry soil when degree
of saturation is zero and fully saturated when degree of saturation is 100%.
(d) Percentage air void
It is the ratio of the volume of air to total volume.
(e) Air content
It is the ratio of volume of air to volume of void. If the soil is fully saturated, air content and
percentage air void is zero.
3.1.7. Index properties of soil
The term "soil index" refers to properties of soils that facilitate identifying and classifying them
for engineering purposes. Plastic soils are cohesive in nature such as clay and silt and granular
soils such as sand and gravel are cohesionless. Plasticity of cohesive soil is given by the plasticity
index. Index properties for fine grained soils are consistency, clay mineralogy, structure, shape,
water content. Similarly, index properties for coarse grained soil are relative density and clay
minerals content.
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(a) Clay mineral and structure
Clay minerals are very small crystalline substances which are the basic components of clay
material. Clay minerals are very small in size and flaky in shape and are formed because of the
chemical weathering of rocks. They are visible only under an electron microscope. The clay
minerals can be divided into three main groups based on the arrangement of the crystalline
structure, namely, kaolin, montmorillonite, and illite. Minerals within a group exhibit similar
properties. The atomic structure of clay minerals basically consists of two types of crystal sheets
- the tetrahedral or silica sheet and octahedral or alumina sheet. The arrangement of the sheet,
the nature of bonding and the metal ions present in the crystal lattice makes the different clay
minerals.
(b) Consistency
Consistency depends upon water content and describes the degree of firmness in a soil and
indicates the soil to be soft or stiff. The water content at which soil changes from one phase to
another is termed as a consistency limit. Figure 26 shows the different consistency limits for
different water content. Soils with high water-content have zero shearing resistance. Therefore,
soil at liquid phase exhibits negligible shear strength. In the plastic phase, the soil can be easily
molded, despite some shear strength, but at the same time it is easy to fracture in the semi-solid
phase, as the moisture content is reduced. This index property holds true for cohesionless soil as
well as cohesive soil. Cohesionless soil mainly depends on grain size and shape of particles and
cohesive (plastic) soil mainly depends on water content.
Figure 26: Atterberg's limit (Source: Civil Engineering, Texas Tech University)
63
●Plastic limit (PL)
Moisture content at which soil just starts behaving as a plastic material above the plastic limit
soil is in plastic state and below plastic limit soil is in a semisolid state and as it reaches semi
solid state, the soil loses its plasticity.
●Liquid limit (PL)
Liquid limit is the point at which the behavior of soil changes from a liquid state to a plastic one
based on the amount of water it absorbs. When this happens, the soil exhibits a low shear strength
of 2.7 N/mm2. The liquid limit of soil is determined by the clay mineral. The stronger the surface
charge and the thinner the particle, the greater the amount of water it will soak up. It is
determined by using the Casagrande apparatus.
●Shrinkage limit (SL)
Shrinkage limit is the water content at which soil stops behaving like a solid material. Reduction
of water content below shrinkage limit signifies no change in volume.
Liquidity index
Liquidity index of soil is a measure of its water content in relation to its liquid limit. When soil
is at its liquid limit, its liquidity index is 100% and the soil behaves as a liquid. At the plastic
limit, the soil has a zero-liquidity index. Negative values indicate a water content less than its
liquid limit.
(c) Plasticity index
It is defined as the difference between LL and PL, the range at which soil remains in a plastic
state. Plasticity index is zero when plastic limit (PL) exceeds the liquid limit (LL)
(d) Consistency index
It indicates the amount of moisture in a soil in relation to the plastic limit. For example, zero
consistency index describes a very soft and low-shear soil. A soil with a consistency index equal
to the plastic limit indicates that the soil is reasonably firm. It is possible to obtain a negative
value for consistency index, which reflects higher water content percentage than liquid limit. As
the soil is semi-solid, this indicates that the percentage of water content is comparatively more
than liquid limit.
(e) Flow index
The slope of the flow curve obtained by Casagrande between water content and number of blows,
mostly water content corresponding to 25 number of blows, is considered for analysis. With
increase in water soil losses its shear strength, according to flow curve steeper slope indicate
lower shear strength compared to flatter slope.
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(f) Toughness index
It is the ratio of plasticity index to flow index and measures the shear strength at the plastic limit.
Its value lies between 0 to 3. If a soil has a toughness index less than 1 then soil is friable.
(g) Activity
It is the ratio of plasticity index to the percentage of clay particles finer than 2 microns. Water
holding capacity of soil increases due to clay minerals. With higher value activity, soil is expected
to show characteristics of a clayey soil like high swelling or shrinkage, high compressibility etc.
(h) Sensitivity
It is the ratio of unconfined compressive strength of undisturbed soil to unconfined compressive

strength of remolded soil with the same moisture content. It measures the loss of shear strength
due to remolding or reorientation. Its value lies between 1 to 16.
(i) Thixotropy
It is the property of soil to regain the shear strength of remolded soil with time.
3.1.8. Engineering properties
The main geotechnical properties of soil are permeability, compressibility, and shear resistance.
Settlement of buildings built on soils is calculated by considering the compression
characteristics. Soil strength determines slope stability, soil bearing capacity, and earth pressure
on retaining structures.
(a) Shear strength
Shear strength of soil is the ability to withstand tangential stress. Shear failure of soil mass occurs
when the applied compressive loads generate shear stresses that exceed shear strength. Shear
strength influences the stability of the soil mass under loads by controlling the capacity of soils,
slope stability, and the lateral earth pressure on walls and retaining walls
(b) Compressibility and compaction
Compressibility indicates the capability of soil to decrease its volume under loads. Expulsion of
water through voids due to static action is termed as consolidation while expulsion of air through
voids due to dynamic action known as compaction. Consolidation is a time dependent
phenomenon while compaction is an instantaneous process and faster than consolidation. Figure
27 shows compaction and consolidation in terms of phase diagram.
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Figure 27: Phase diagram for compaction and consolidation.
(c) Permeability.
Permeability is the measure of how easily a fluid (water) can flow through a porous medium
(soil). Permeability is maximum for coarse grained and minimum for fine grained soils.
Permeability depends upon degree of saturation, void ratio, unit weight, viscosity, entrapped
impurities, grain size etc. It is important for solving engineering problems such as seepage,
piping in dams, yield problems in wells, settlement in hydraulic structures and designing dams
structure, embankment, water retaining structure, culverts , pavement design etc.
3.1.9. Scope of soil mechanics
(a) Foundations
Any structural load must ultimately be transmitted to the soil through its foundation. Thus,
understanding of soil mechanics is required to choose the type and details of a foundation.
Foundations are essentially divided into two main types depending on the type of construction.
Shallow foundation transfers the structural load very near to the surface while deep foundation
transfers the load to subsurface layers. Generally, shallow foundations are used for structures
with small to moderate loads, while deep foundations are used for tall buildings and
megastructures.
(b) Underground structures
Underground structures (Figure 28) are built beneath the earth’s surface and various types of
forces such as earth pressure, hydrostatic force, seepage, etc. are exerted on them. They include
metro, tunnels, water distribution pipes, and sewage networks. Design of such structures require
complex geotechnical engineering knowledge.
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Figure 28: Underground structure. (Source: http://www.quantity-takeoff.com)
(c) Pavement Design
Depending on the type of pavement, pavement design may be flexible or rigid. Rigid pavements
distribute wheel loads over a wide area of the subgrade soil while flexible pavements distribute
wheel loads to the lower layers of the pavement. The resistance to traffic loads for pavements is
dependent on the subgrade soil, which is subjected to repetitive loading, swelling and shrinkage,
and frost damage caused by thawing.
(d) Excavations, embankments, and dams
In order to design and construct embankments and earth dams efficiently, it is crucial to have an
understanding of shear strength, seepage, stability of grade, compressibility, and subsequent
uplifting and compaction. For example, excavations commonly require soil stability calculations,
and deep excavations may require temporary support timbers or braces whose design requires
an understanding of soil mechanics. Likewise, a knowledge of soil behavior in the presence of
water is necessary for designing earth dams and embankments.
3.2. Rock Mechanics and Geology

Rock mechanics studies the characteristics of rocks and the unique methods used in the design
and construction of engineering works built upon, through, and beneath the rocks. Civil
engineers can benefit from an understanding of rock mechanics. Bridges, dams, and buildings
built on rock foundations are examples of common civil engineering applications, as are
numerous subterranean installations and tunnels, deep cuttings for spillways, stone quarries etc.
In general, rocks are durable materials that can withstand far greater loads than soils. However,
the strength of rock is limited. Whenever the loads are too high, rocks may fail. The mechanical
characteristics of the rock material and geological discontinuities which include faults, joints,
fissures, and so on influence the exact behavior of the rock layers when subjected to a change in
stress. Bridges, dams, high buildings, long tunnels, and deep mines cause significant changes in
67
the rock mass. A thorough understanding of the mechanical characteristics of rock masses as
well as their behavior under various loading conditions is required for accurate assessment and
correct prediction of rock behavior.
3.2.1. Rock
Rock is a substance consisting of mineral aggregates that are formed naturally. Rocks are broadly
classified into three types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (Figure 29). Earth's external
layer of solid material is composed of rock. Petrology is the study of rocks.
Figure 29: Classification of rocks
(a) Igneous rocks
These rocks occur due to the solidification of lava or magma beneath the earth. They are
crystalline in nature and are further classified as volcanic and plutonic. Examples of igneous
rocks are basalt, trap, granite, diorite, pegmatite etc. as shown in Figure 30. Volcanic rocks are
fine grained and extrusive in nature as they are formed when magma erupts and comes in contact
with external or outer surfaces. Plutonic rocks are intrusive in nature as they form when magma
cools beneath or under earth. They are coarse grained as they cool down slowly which results in
large crystal growth.
(a) (b) (c)
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(d) (e)
Figure 30: (a) Basalt (b) Trap (c) Granite (d) Diorite (e) Pegmatite (Source: Wikipedia)
(b) Sedimentary rocks
These rocks are formed due to weathering of existing rocks through physical or chemical
processes. Weathered material is transported by wind, water, gravity, etc., consolidated, and
compacted in layers. Examples of sedimentary rocks are sandstone, limestone, shale, gypsum,
laterite etc. as shown in Figure 31.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Figure 31: (a) Sandstone (b) Limestone (c) Shale (d) Gypsum (e) Laterite (Source: Wikipedia)
(c) Metamorphic rocks
When pre-existing rocks such as igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to high
temperature and pressure conditions, their composition and character changes to hard and durable
material. Examples are marble, quartz, gneiss etc., as shown in Figure 32.
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(b) (c)
Figure 32: (a) Marble (b) Quartz (c) Gneiss (Source: Wikipedia)
Features of rocks
(a) Texture: The geological term "texture" refers to the arrangement, distribution, and
shape of minerals or grains within a rock. The term texture is not synonymous with the roughness
of the rock surface.
(b) Structure: Structure refers to the broader characteristics of a rock that extend such as
bedding (in sedimentary materials) and foliation (in metamorphic materials).
(c) Grain size: Grain size refers to the average diameter of the individual particles of
sediments and rocks. It is important because it conveys important information on the historical
conditions of erosion and transportation.
(d) Mineralogy: Mineralogy discusses the type of minerals present in rock in different
proportions, for example quartz consists of feldspar, quartz, and foliate.
(e) Various other parameters such as hardness, color, strength, and specific gravity
determine rock physical properties.
Modes of failure of rocks
(a) Flexure failure: Due to bending action on rock, tensile cracks are formed which
propagate due to its own weight. As sag increases, crack propagation increases resulting in
failure of rock.
(b) Shear failure: Rupture on the surface of rock is formed as shear stress exceeds its
critical value. Due to rupture, the expulsion of shear stresses causes the displacement of rocks
along the rupture (Figure 15).
(c) Direct tension failure: This type of failure generally occurs in rock resting on a
sloped surface subject to direct tension (Figure 15). Both gravity and friction are applied on an
inclined sloped surface resulting in increase of pull and tension failure.
(d) Crushing or compression failure: This type of failure occurs when compressive
stresses exceed its critical value resulting in crushing failure (Figure 33).
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Figure 33: Rock failure types. (Source: Michael Kimberly, https://earthquake.usgs.gov/)
3.2.2. Importance of engineering geology
Sites with a large presence of faults and folds pose a significant risk to engineering structures.
The presence of faults or breaks reduces the load bearing capacity of the rocks. The knowledge
of engineering geology is required to avoid the high costs that may be borne by the concerned
authorities in the event that they set up these projects on the areas of joints and faults and folds,
as well as the lives that may be at risk.
3.2.2.1. Structural geology
Geology of structural forms studies the origins, occurrences, classifications, types, the
consequences of secondary structures, such as folds, faults, joints, and rock cleavages, which are
distinct from primary structures, such as bedding and fasciculations, which are developed in the
formation of rocks. Some of the structural elements are described below:
(a) Strike: A geological structure is referred to as striking in a particular direction as shown

in Figure 34. Spike direction is defined as the direction of the curve at the intersection of the
bedding planes.
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Figure 34: Strike & Dip. (Source: Physical Geology Book, Dr. Karla Panchuk, 2018)
(b) Unconformity: When sedimentary rocks are significantly different in age, or when
sedimentary rocks have been eroded and have been exposed to older igneous or metamorphic
rocks, an unconformity occurs. These unconformities represent periods of time without rocks to
represent them.
(c) Joint: A joint, as shown in Figure 35, is a fracture separating two unmoving sections
of a rock. There is no displacement in the joints unlike faults.
Figure 35: Joint. (Source: HylgeriaK, 2010)
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(d) Folds: Geological structures known as folds are common in rocks (Figure 36). When
the horizontal layers are compressed, they bend either upward or downwards. Folds are ductile
deformations caused by rocks bending under stress. The folded sides are called limbs, and the
hinge zone is the region of curvature where the limbs meet. Folds have an axial surface whose
main function is to divide the fold into two halves. The axial trace is the line formed between
the fold’s axial surface and another surface, such as the bed’s top.
Figure 36: Parts of folds (Source: Physical Geology Book, Dr. Karla Panchuk, 2018)
(e) Fault: The term fault describes the movement of one side of a surface or narrow zone
relative to the other side in a direction parallel to the surface or narrow zone. Most faults are
brittle shear fractures or zones of closed shear fractures, but some are narrow shear zones in
which ductile deformation occurs without loss of cohesion at the outcrop scale. Faults basically
occur due to shear fracture that propagates to certain meters and affects the block of earth, major
plate boundaries hundreds or even thousands of kilometers long. There are two types of faults -
strike-slip and dip-slip. Strike–slip faults (Figure 37) are primarily horizontal displacements of
rocks along faults and can be further classified into dextral and Sinistral depending on
orientation. A dip-slip fault (Figure 38) is an inclined rupture in which the blocks frequently shift
up and down. They can be further classified into normal or reverse faults depending on the angle
and relative movement of the hanging wall and footwall.
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Figure 37: Strike-slip fault (Source: Physical Geology Book, Dr. Karla Panchuk, 2018)
Figure 38: Dip-slip fault (Source: Physical Geology Book, Dr. Karla Panchuk, 2018)
3.3. Types of Foundations

Foundation is the part of a civil engineering structure which transfers the superstructure load to
ground and is in direct contact with the ground. It acts as the linkage between building structure
and ground. A well-designed foundation is crucial for longer serviceability of a structure.
Foundations are divided into two main types depending on the type of construction. Generally,
for structures with small to moderate loads, shallow foundations are used, and deep foundations
are adopted for tall buildings and megastructures. A foundation can also be classified according
to the type of footing. There are both on-ground and underground foundations, each with its own
construction methods and techniques. For building foundations, it is necessary to conduct a
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detailed ground and soil study, as it dictates the behavior of the structure, which materials are to
be used, and whether the soil can bear the load coming from the structure. The weight of
superstructure above the ground level is distributed over sufficiently large areas to avoid uneven
settlement. The general requirements for foundation design are:
(a) Shear failure criteria or bearing capacity: Foundation must be safe against shear
failure.
(b) Settlement criteria: Settlement must be within a safe limit, as differential settlement
may happen due to unequal load changes.
(c) Location & depth criteria: Foundation performance should not be affected by
seasonal volume changes of soil due to swelling and shrinkage and also by the presence of
adjoining structures.
3.3.1. Classification of foundation
Karl Von Terzaghi was an Austrian geotechnical engineer who provided a classification of
foundations based on the ratio of depth of footing to width.
3.3.1.1. Shallow foundation
If the ratio of depth of footing to width is less than or equal to 1 then the foundation is called
shallow foundation (Figure 39). Shallow foundation transfers the load at a small depth. Examples
of such foundations include combined footing, raft footing, isolated footing etc. The shallow
foundation is placed or located below the column to transfer and distribute wall and column load
by end bearing mechanism. As the footing load spreads, the bearing pressure decreases with
depth and the soil which is in direct contact of footing takes the maximum load. This type of
foundation is preferred for small and moderate-sized houses and are comparatively cheaper and
easy to construct for domestic houses.
Figure 39: Shallow foundation (Source: Project Lead the Way, PLTW)
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3.3.1.2. Deep foundation
When the ratio of depth of footing to width of footing is more than 1 (generally, 4-5), then the
foundation is called deep foundation. An example of this is pile foundation. Deep foundation
transfers the load of the structure vertically from the superstructure to the deeply buried rock
strata. It uses end bearing and skin friction mechanism to transfer the structure load to rock strata
at a greater depth as shown in Figure 40. Deep foundations are used when shallow foundations
are inadequate to transfer the structural load to the ground surface.
Figure 40: Deep foundation (Source: PLTW)
Piles are designed to transmit structural loads through low density soil zones to a depth at which
soils have the capacity to sustain the loads. Pile foundations are typically used when soil beneath
the foundation lacks the bearing capacity to support the structural load into subsoil up to bedrock.
Piles are columns with a small diameter that are driven or cast by creating a hole and pouring
concrete into the ground. They are made of materials such as cement, wood, steel, or composites.
Pile foundations are used when the top stratum of soil is highly compressible and weak strength.
These types of foundations are usually employed to build bridges (Figure 41).
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Figure 41: Pile foundations in bridges. (Source: Wu et al. (2002))
3.3.2. Types of shear failure
By investigating the failure patterns of foundations, Terzaghi classified the shear failure of soil
under a foundation base into general and local shear failure, and then Vesic added the third type
based on the type of soil and the location of the foundation.
(a) General shear failure
●Occurs in shallow foundations when placed on medium to dense soil.
●When a foundation fails, it becomes slanted, and heaving occurs on the sides.
●Small settlements occur before they collapse, and the stress zone continues up to the ground
level.
●Clear failure point is obtained in load v/s settlement curve.
(b) Local shear failure
●Occurs in shallow foundations, when placed on loose sand or soft clay.
●There may be little to no heaving at the sides.
●Before failure, large settlement occurs, and the stress zone doesn’t extend up to ground level.
●Progressive failure is obtained in load vs. settlement curve.
(c) Punching shear failure
●Occurs in deep footing or piles which are placed on loose or soft soils.
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●Soil below the foundation gets cut off from the adjacent soil by shearing and excessive
settlement is recorded.
●The adjacent soil remains undisturbed and there is no tilting and heaving at the sides.
3.4. Underground Structures

Underground constructions serve a variety of purposes such as railways, subways, motorways,
sewage networks, and water transport. Tunnels, caverns, shafts, and their components are
examples of underground structures that are totally enclosed and contained within the existing
host ground medium.
Considering the relationship of an underground structure with its host medium is crucial for a
safe and effective design. Once excavation is carried out for the construction of an underground
structure, there comes a period of adjustment in the particles of subterranean media. This length
of time is required for the soil to return to stability and equilibrium. The properties of subsurface
media change during the period of adjustment and must be accounted for in the design.
Moreover, while constructing any underground structure, especially tunnels, there is a lack of
space which makes it difficult to haul material from one place to another. The construction, and
instrumentation of an underground structure requires more careful planning, design, and
construction sequencing than those for surface and aerial structures.
3.4.1. Types of underground structures
(a) Tunnels
A tunnel is a completely contained underground corridor built through the surrounding dirt,
earth, or rock, with the exception of the entrance and the exit ports. It can be utilized for
pedestrian and vehicular traffic, as well as rail and canal transportation. Tunnels are frequently
used as part of a rapid transportation system. Some special purpose tunnels such as wildlife-
crossing tunnels are designed to help wildlife safely navigate human-made barriers such as
highways. An important tunnel in India is the Pir Panjal railway tunnel in Jammu and Kashmir,
the longest railway tunnel in India with a length of 11.215 km and located at an altitude of 36795
ft. Another strategically important tunnel currently being constructed is the Sela Tunnel in
Arunachal Pradesh, which is proposed to enable all-weather connectivity between Guwahati in
Assam and Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh.
(b) Shafts
The shaft is a vertical or inclined tunnel that extends from the surface of the earth to the roof of
the tunnel. A shaft provides a wide range of advantages and uses in tunnel construction. Shafts
are dug at appropriate places along the tunnel line to suitably facilitate tunneling operations when
the course and position of the tunnel is clearly outlined.
(c) Caverns
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A cavern is a subterranean opening with an axial dimension of not more than fifteen times the
lateral dimension. Caverns are used for underground pumped storage, power houses, power
plants, subway stations, and storage facilities. The ideal shape of the roof of a cavern is a circular
arch, however shapes like multi radial or elliptical can also be used depending on the suitability
with geology of the sub-strata.
3.4.2. Surrounding media
The host medium has an active and substantial influence in the structural behavior of a
subterranean construction. This necessitates considering the constitutive connection of the host
while designing the subsurface structure. However, determining ground features in a quantitative
manner is challenging. The challenge arises from the fact that the ground is often heterogeneous
or stratified, and hence its features cannot be anticipated using pointwise drill hole logging or
other subsurface approaches. Although there are various subsurface exploration techniques
available, one must be able to answer some key questions:
(a) What is the nature of media present beneath the surface of the ground (soft/rocky)?
(b) Is the host media stable enough?
(c) What is the depth of the water table at the location concerned?
(d) Is host media susceptible to squeezing and swelling?
(e) If the host media is rocky in nature, then does the location of our structure fall in the
rock burst zone?
This list of questions is certainly not exhaustive and should include other relevant queries
regarding the characteristics of subsurface media.
3.4.3. Use cases of underground structures
It is important that structures-built underground is durable enough to withstand adverse climatic

conditions such as hurricane winds, sudden drops in temperature, mudslides, long downpours,
or flooding in an area with sloping terrain. In the ore-mining business, subterranean structure
development has advanced dramatically. In addition to hydraulic engineering and transport
tunnels, underground structures can include metro stations, hydroelectric power plants, cold
storage, underpasses for pedestrians, garages and municipal supply systems, water storage
reservoirs, warehouses, oil and gas storage installations, containers for the dumping of hazardous
waste, industrial projects, military installations, and medical facilities. Below are some areas of
application of underground structures:
(a) Underground power plants: Due to advantages such as reduced length of supply
mains, requirement of lesser concrete work, and overall lesser amount of materials consumed;
underground power plants are more cost effective to operate than surface power plants.
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Approximately Several million cubic meters of rock are excavated when a huge subterranean
hydroelectric power station is constructed. For Example:
●Ichari Dam: The first subterranean power plant in Northern India was the concrete gravity dam
erected across the Tons River in Dakpathar in Uttarakhand. The concrete gravity and run-of-the-
river dam are 59 meters tall and 155 meters long. Water from the reservoir created by the dam
is diverted to the Chibro powerhouse which has a capacity of 240MW.
●The Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power Plant is the country's largest underground hydropower
plant having a production capacity of 1500 MW.
(b) Underground warehouses: In addition to their flexibility to accommodate current

mining operations beneath them, these structures provide stability, fire resistance, defy humidity,
and temperature changes. As limited entry and exit points are provided in the case of
underground warehouses, security can be tightly controlled. As space above the ground is freed
up, it can be utilized for other purposes. Underground warehouses can be used for either live or
dead storage. On a daily basis, live storage involves the movement of a high number of items
and materials. Thus, well-designed loading docks and direct rail connections between
warehouses and train terminals are required for live storage.
(c) Urban Infrastructure: In large cities, the areas underneath cities are undergoing
massive development, especially in the transportation sector. In already overcrowded cities, land
availability, even for government-funded infrastructure projects, is hard to come by and the
authorities are aggressively pushing for developing underground structures. This helps to
optimize areas above earth’s surface for maximum efficiency, administer transportation services,
decrease traffic mishaps and accidents, enhance urban aesthetics, and reduce vehicular air and
noise pollution. Several types of urban underground structures that fall under the transportation
domain include pedestrian tunnels, vehicular tunnels, parking lots, and railroad terminals. In the
service sphere, underground establishments include a variety of commercial establishments such
as cafés, stores, cinema halls, cold storage facilities, exhibition halls, and archives.
(d) Underground Storage: Petroleum products and, sometimes, potable water is stored
underground, where they can be stored in reservoirs with capacity of several million cubic
meters. Such high capacity is difficult to achieve in the case of elevated or surface storages
simply because land is at a premium. RCC, prestressed, and prefabricated panels can be used in
the construction of underground storage reservoirs. An example of underground storages is the
“Strategic Petroleum Reserve” which has become the cornerstone of the geopolitical strategy of
many countries to ensure economic stability during volatile periods. Countries like India in
recent times have expanded their “Strategic Oil Reserves,” which currently stands at 5.33 million
Tonnes. Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve (ISPRL) presently operates 3 strategic reserves at
Padur (2.5 MMT), Visakhapatnam (1.33 MMT), and Mangalore (1.5 MMT). During the initial
days of the pandemic and lockdowns when global oil prices were tumbling down to historic
lows, India purchased large quantities of oil and replenished the strategic oil reserves to
safeguard their energy security. For storing petroleum products, usually underground storage is
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preferred because evaporation losses are reduced, and it is easy to discharge oil into caverns
directly from ships.
3.4.4. Future Perspective
Over the last few years, tunneling has been utilized for a range of purposes. With ever increasing
urbanization, the cities will have no option but to explore innovative ways to accommodate the
burgeoning population. Due to limits in surface development and in addition to ecological
concerns, the future population will require considerable utilization of underground construction.
Moreover, underground construction provides natural protection to whatever is buried beneath
it. It provides the advantage of shielding the surface environment from the dangers and
disruptions that come with particular operations.
3.5. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND LANDFILL

The practice of managing and collecting solid wastes is termed as solid waste management.
Inappropriate disposal of municipal solid waste results in unhygienic conditions and has a large
impact on public health. A proper waste management system is crucial for maintaining social
hygiene.
3.5.1. Categories of Waste
●Organic waste: Kitchen waste, fruits, vegetables.
●Ashes or Dust: It is the residue left after burning fuel for cooking.
●Construction waste: Wasted concrete, roofing, etc.
●Hazardous waste: Industrial waste, medicinal wastes.
●Dead animals: Carcasses of dead animals.
●Soiled waste: Hospital waste such as cloth soiled with body fluids.
●Recyclables: Paper, glass, metals, plastics.
●Toxic waste: bulbs, spray cans, batteries, chemicals, thinner and paint, containers, fertilizer,
and pesticide.
●Bulky waste: Tires, tree branches, etc.
●Combustibles: Dried leaves, Paper, wood, packaging for relief items etc.
●Non-combustibles: Bottles, stones, metal, tins, cans etc.
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3.5.2. Various Sources of Solid Waste
(a) Residential: Human dwellings are major sources of solid waste. Most houses dispose
of their solid wastes in garbage cans, which are subsequently emptied by a rubbish collection
business or municipality for treatment.
(b) Industrial: The industrial sector is a huge solid waste contributor. They include heavy
and light manufacturing firms, construction sites, fabrication factories, canning plants, chemical
plants, power plants etc. These industries produce packaging wastes, food wastes, ashes,
materials from demolition of construction sites and other hazardous wastes.
(c) Construction & Demolition Areas: Construction and demolition sites generate a
variety of solid wastes in the form concrete, steel, rubber, dirt, glass, and plastic.
(d) Agricultural Waste: Crop farms, vineyards, dairies etc. also generate solid waste. The
waste they generate include spoiled food, agricultural debris, and toxic materials.
3.5.3. Methods for the Management of Solid Waste
There are various strategies for managing solid waste. The following are examples of
acknowledged techniques:
(a) Landfill
A municipal solid waste landfill is a designated land area or excavation that receives waste.
Essentially, garbage is thrown out in thin layers, compacted, and covered with plastic foam or
dirt. Present era landfills are constructed so that the bottom is lined with an impermeable liner,
which often consists of multiple layers of sand and thick plastic. This liner plugs the groundwater
contamination by percolation. When the landfill is filled, layers of topsoil and gravel together
with sand and clay are applied to prevent water seepage.
(b) Incineration
This practice involves the combustion of solid wastes at high temperatures until they are reduced
to ash. The design of incinerators prevents them from emitting excessive heat when burning solid
trash. Waste-to-energy plants are incinerators that recycle thermal energy through furnaces and
boilers. These waste-to-energy systems are costlier to install and maintain than conventional
incinerators because they require specialized equipment and controls, highly trained technical
employees, and auxiliary fuel supplies. The advantage of this procedure is that it reduces waste
volume by up to 20-30% of the initial volume. However, the disadvantage is that in addition to
posing a fire or smoke concern, it also produces gaseous contaminants.
(c) Recycling and Recovery
Recycling or resource recovery is the practice of reusing objects that are still useful but have
been discarded. The most industrialized nations have a strong heritage of recycling to reduce
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trash levels. It is an environmentally friendly method of waste management, though requires
extensive civic participation and investment in infrastructure.
(d) Decomposition
Due to a lack of enough room for landfills, biodegradable waste is allowed to decompose in a
specially controlled environment. In this biological process, microorganisms, mainly bacteria
and fungi, transform biodegradable organic waste into humus-like compounds. This substance,
which has the appearance of soil, is rich in carbon and nitrogen. Compost produced is rich in
minerals and perfect for plant growth. However, for large-scale operations, rigorous management
and skilled employees are required.
(e) Pyrolysis
In this practice, solid wastes are chemically destroyed by high temperature in the absence of
oxygen. The temperature goes up to 430 degrees Celsius and, under pressure, solid wastes are
converted into gases, solid carbon and ash residue, and minor amounts of liquid. However, the
systems that degrade chlorinated organic molecules with heat may produce incomplete
combustion byproducts such as furans and dioxins. These hazardous chemicals are produced at
parts per trillion concentrations which require proper treatment, storage, and disposal.
Geotechnical engineering is a dynamic sub-field of civil engineering involving thorough

investigation and understanding of the behavior of soil and rocks under various physical
conditions. Geotechnical engineering substantially influences the sustainability of any
infrastructure and hence a solid knowledge of the subject is essential for the design and
development of any civil engineering structure.

1. Das, Braja M.., Sobhan, Khaled. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. United States:
Cengage Learning, 2013.
2. Das, Braja M, Sivakugan, Nagaratnam. Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering.

United States: Cengage Learning, 2015.
3. Ranjan, Gopal. Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics. India: New Age International (P)
Limited, 2007.
4. Ghulati, Sahashi K and Datta, Manoj. Geotechnical Engineering. McGraw-Hill

Education (India) Pvt Limited, 2005.
5. Indian geotechnical society annual lectures. (http://www.igs.org.in:8080/portal/igs-

publications/igs-annual-lecture.html)
6. Indian standard codes for soil and foundation engineering.

(https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/manifest.ced.43.html)
83
7. Wu, Y., Bian, X., Cheng, C., Jiang, J., 2022. A substructure approach for analyzing
pile foundation and soil vibrations due to train running over viaduct and its validation. Rail.
Eng. Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40534-022-00276-z
Dynamic QR Codes for Further Reading

1. USDA Soil Texture Calculator.
Source: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
2. What is Geotechnical Engineering?

Source: The International Society of Soil Mechanics
and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE)
3. International Society for Soil Mechanics and

Geotechnical Engineering Virtual University
Source: http://virtualuniversity.issmge.org/
4. Why do buildings need foundations?

Source: Practical Engineering
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4
d
4. Water Resources Engineering

and Sustainability
Unit specifics
●Introduction to water cycle and fluid mechanics
●Basic concepts of wave and current system
●Basic concepts of sediment transportation
●Introduction to water resource structures such as multipurpose reservoirs
●Introduction to wastewater and effluent treatment systems
●Introduction to water supply systems
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This section
has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this part becomes
beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial activity, examples
of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the subject focusing the salient
observations and finding, timelines starting from the development of the concerned topics up to
the recent time, applications of the subject matter for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial
applications on variety of aspects, case study related to environmental, sustainability, social and
ethical issues whichever applicable, and finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
Rationale
This fundamental unit on water resource engineering and sustainability gives a basic idea about
the various processes and concepts involved in water resource engineering along with water
treatment and distribution systems. This chapter starts with a discussion and explanation of the
fundamentals of wave and current systems along with sediment transport systems. It then
discusses the various types of water resource structures such as multipurpose reservoirs, dams
etc. The last section of the chapter discusses wastewater treatment processes and water
85
distribution systems. This chapter discusses the topics to a length with practical examples such
that it can develop the preliminary ideas and concepts of the subject.
Water resource engineering deals with the qualitative and quantitative study of the various water
resources systems. This subject covers a large band of topics starting with the fundamental
process of water resources such as water cycle, study of flow of water, engineering structures of
water resources, wastewater treatment, distribution systems of water etc. Water resource
engineering is the branch of civil engineering that studies the methods to manage water with
scientific and engineering techniques.
Pre-requisites
Unit outcomes
U1-O1: Understand basic concepts of water cycle and fluid mechanics.
U1-O2: Understand the various types of structures used to manage water resources.
U1-O3: Understand the basic concepts and components of wastewater treatment systems and
water distribution systems
Water covers about 71% of the earth's surface and there is roughly 326 million cubic miles of
water on the planet. Only 0.5% of this is in the form of available freshwater. Most of this water
is in groundwater, less than 1/2 mile deep within the earth and rest is in freshwater lakes and
streams. Because of the diversity in the quality and quantity of the amounts of water involved,
and the myriad use cases, civil engineers must deal with a multitude of physical and management
problems. Water resources engineering can be broadly subdivided into hydrology and
hydraulics. Hydraulics is the study of motion of water that emphasizes the mechanics of water
flow, open channel flow, and flow-structure interactions. Hydrology is primarily associated with
watershed and river modeling and understanding interactions between atmospheric, surface, and
subsurface water.
4.1. Fluid Properties

Fluids are substances that can flow and do not conform to a fixed shape. If any shear stress is
applied, it can deform continuously. Fluids can be put into two groups: liquids and gasses. The
main difference between liquids and gasses is that liquids are virtually incompressible, while
gasses can be compressed and usually need to be. Another difference is that liquids have a set
volume and free surfaces, while gas expands until it fills up the whole container. Fluid mechanics
and hydraulics is the study of how fluids behave when they are at rest and when they are in
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motion. Kinematics is the science that studies the geometry of fluid motion without reference to
the forces causing the motion. Consequently, kinematics is concerned with describing the motion
of fluids in terms of their space-time relationship. Kinetics, on the other hand, is the science
concerned with the action of forces in generating or altering the motion of fluids. Clearly, the
study of fluid motion must take both kinematics and kinetics into account.
There are two ways to describe the motion of a fluid: the Lagrangian method and the Eulerian
method. In the Lagrangian method, a single fluid particle is chosen and followed throughout its
entire path of motion, and the behavior of this particle during its path of motion through space is
observed. In the Eulerian method, any point within the space occupied by the fluid is chosen,
and any changes in velocity, density, and pressure at that point are observed.
A fluid is made up of distinct particles that move at varying speeds and may be susceptible to
varying accelerations. In addition, the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle may vary in
both time and space. Therefore, it is essential to examine the movement of fluid particles at
numerous sites in space and at successive moments in time while studying fluid flow. In fluid
flow, there are three important ideas. The first is the principle of conservation of mass, which is
where the equation of continuity comes from. Then the principle of kinetic energy, from which
some flow equations are made, and finally, the principle of momentum, from which equations
can be made to measure the dynamic forces that fluids exert as they move.
4.1.1. Types of Fluid Flow
Fluid flows can be categorized in a number of ways based on various factors:
(a) Steady and unsteady flow
(b) Uniform and non-uniform flow
(c) Laminar flow and turbulent flow
(d) One, two, and three-dimensional flow
(e) Rotational flow and irrotational flow
Let us understand what these flows represent.
(a) Steady and unsteady flow
Fluid flow is considered to be steady if, at any point in the fluid, the parameters that describe the
behavior of the fluid in motion, such as velocity, temperature, pressure, and density, do not vary
with time. In other words, a steady flow is one in which, at any point in the moving fluid, different
characteristics that describe how the fluid is moving are the same over time.
Unsteady fluid flow occurs when, at any point in the fluid, one or more of the features that
describe the behavior of the fluid in motion vary with time. Thus, a fluid flow is unstable if, at
any point, the fluid is slowing It could mean, though, that when it comes to vector quantities like
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flow velocity, even a change in the direction of such quantities with respect to time at any point
in a flowing fluid can make the fluid unsteady.
Stable flow is easier to evaluate than unsteady flow. Moreover, most engineering problems
involve steady flow conditions. Figure 42 illustrates steady v/s unsteady flow conditions.
Figure 42: Steady vs. Non-Steady Flow (Source: MetEd UCAR)
(b) Uniform and non-uniform flow
Flow is said to be uniform when the speed and direction of the flow of a fluid doesn't change
from one point to another in the flow at any given moment. At any instant in time, there is no
change in the velocity vector in any direction throughout the whole fluid flow. Flow of liquids
under pressure via lengthy pipelines with constant diameter is an illustration of uniform flow.
On the other hand, in non-uniform flow, the velocity of the fluid varies from point to point within
the flow at any given instant. Figure 43 shows uniform flow and non-uniform flow. An example
of uniform flow is a consistent flow along a long, straight pipe with a fixed diameter. A non-
uniform flow is demonstrated by steady flow through a pipe with bends or a pipe with a varying
diameter.
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Figure 43: Uniform and non-uniform flow (Source: MetEd UCAR)
(c) Laminar flow and turbulent flow
When different fluid particles move in layers (or laminae), with one layer of fluid sliding
smoothly over an adjacent layer, the flow is said to be laminar. The viscosity of the flowing fluid
is crucial in the formation of a laminar flow. As a result, laminar flow may generally be used to
describe the flow of an extremely viscous fluid.
A turbulent flow is one in which fluid particles move in a zigzag pattern. Due to the flow of fluid
particles in a zigzag pattern, eddies arise, which result in significant energy loss.
The Reynolds number, a non-dimensional number, is used to categorize flows in pipes. The flow
is referred to as laminar if the Reynold number is less than 2000. The flow is referred to as
turbulent if the Reynold number is higher than 4000. Depending on whether the Reynolds
number is between 2000 and 4000, the flow can be turbulent or laminar. Figure 44 illustrates
laminar and turbulent flow.
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Figure 44: Laminar and Turbulent flow. (Source: Schetz and Allen E Fuhs, 1999)
(d) One, two, and three-dimensional flow
One dimensional flow: One-dimensional flow is a term used to describe a flow in which
properties of the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, density, temperature, etc., depend only on one
of the three coordinate directions and time t. Similar to this, a steady one-dimensional flow will
result if the properties of the fluid are constant across time.
Two-dimensional flow: Two-dimensional flow occurs when the various properties of a flowing
fluid are functions of just any two of the three coordinate directions, and time t.
Three-dimensional flow: The different properties of a fluid in motion are often functions of
space and time; that is, they can change depending on the coordinates of any point (x, y, and z),
as well as the passage of time (t). Three-dimensional flow is the name given to such a flow. It
will be a steady three-dimensional flow if any of these properties of a flowing fluid do not change
over time. Figure 45 illustrates the one dimensional, two dimensional and three-dimensional
flow.
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Figure 45: One dimensional flow, two dimensional and three-dimensional flow. (Source: Hydraulics & Fluid Mechanics
including Hydraulics Machines)
(e) Rotational and irrotational flow
If fluid particles rotate around their mass centers while traveling in the direction of the flow, the
flow is said to be rotational. The flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particles don't spin
around their mass centers while moving in the direction of flow. However, it may be claimed
that a real irrotational flow exists only for flows of perfect fluids in which there are no tangential
or shear stresses. Nevertheless, the flow of practical fluids may be assumed to be irrotational if
the viscosity of the fluid is insignificant. Figure 46 illustrates rotational and irrotational flow.
Figure 46: Rotational flow and irrotational flow (Source: Eeltink et al. 2020)
4.2. Water cycle and fluid mechanics

Water cycle is the vertical and horizontal movement of water through earth and atmosphere
through various mechanisms such as evaporation from land and ocean, rainfall and snowfall,
groundwater movement, and streamflow. Water evaporates from the sea and land due to the
energy received from the sun. The evaporated water rises upwards, condenses in the atmosphere,
and forms clouds. The clouds precipitate on the ocean and land in the form of hail, sleet, rain,
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and snow. Precipitated water on land may go back to the atmosphere by evaporation or improve
the moisture content of the soil. A portion of soil moisture may be transferred back to the
atmosphere through transpiration, and the remaining water recharges the groundwater by
infiltration. Some quantity of water overflows over the earth's surface and reaches the stream
channel known as runoff. Snowfall accumulates in mountainous regions and melts in the spring,
contributing to streamflow. The water cycle is a complex phenomenon, occurring continuously
and simultaneously. The water cycle components can broadly be classified into transportation
and storage components which are illustrated in Figure 47. Transporting components are
evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, transpiration, and runoff. The storage components are
reservoirs, lakes, groundwater storage, soil moisture storage, and Oceans.
Figure 47: Water Cycle (Source: H2O distributors)
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4.2.1. Water cycle components
The driving force of the water cycle is primarily the energy from the sun. The major components
of the water cycle are:
(a) Evaporation
Evaporation is the process by which liquid water gets converted to water vapor due to radiation
from the Sun. Evaporation is a cooling process during which evaporated water absorbs the heat
of the surrounding water, which leads to cooling down. Though many ways exist to measure
evaporation, the evaporation pan (Figure 48) is one of the simplest ways with which the daily
drop in water level is related to free-water surface evaporation.
Figure 48: Evaporative pan for measuring evaporation (Source: Meted UCAR)
(b) Precipitation
Evaporation changes water from liquid to vapor state, while condensation is the opposite process
from vapor to liquid state. Condensation in the atmosphere releases latent energy and converts
into water droplets. When the water droplets get heavier, they precipitate on land and the ocean
in the form of precipitation. Precipitation is the single most influential factor in the water cycle
and a hydrologist must account for the type of precipitation (rain, snow, or hail) when studying
a region. Traditionally, precipitation has been measured using rain gauges, which is illustrated
in Figure 49.
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Figure 49: Rain gauge (Source: Wikipedia)
(c) Infiltration
Infiltration is the downward movement of water through the soil surface. The infiltrated water
recharges groundwater supplies and sustains vegetation. The amount of water that enters the soil
in a specified time period is the infiltration rate and is influenced by various factors such as soil
texture, soil cover, soil temperature, and rainfall intensity.
(d) Interception
Interception is precipitation that is intercepted by leaves and branches of plants and forest floor
and doesn’t reach the soil. The intercepted water evaporates or infiltrates into the groundwater.
(e) Transpiration
Stored water in the soil is utilized by the plants and vegetation in the photosynthesis process and
evaporates from the leaves into the atmosphere is known as transpiration.
(f) Runoff
Runoff is the portion of precipitation that does not infiltrate into the soil. Water that flows at the
surface is called surface runoff, and that flows in the soil above the groundwater level is called
interflow.
4.2.2. Water Budget Equation
We often need to know how much water is available at a particular location. This can be
calculated in a general sense by applying an accounting budget approach to the water cycle
components. The volume of water in a watershed can be viewed as the difference between the
inflow and outflow and the resulting changes in the storage. Hydrologists call this the continuity
equation which is based on the law of conservation of mass.
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Mass inflow – Mass outflow = Change in storage
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑜 ∆𝑆
The water budget equation is simple and universal as it relies on few assumptions of water
movement and storage and can be applied to a wide variety of problems at laboratory to
continental scales. A basic water budget of a watershed can be expressed as:
P – R – G – ET = ΔS
where,
P is Precipitation.
R is Surface runoff.
G is Net groundwater flow out of the catchment.
ET is Evapotranspiration (sum of evaporation from soil, water bodies, and plants).
ΔS is Change in storage.
4.3. Wave and Current system

4.3.1. Waves
The surface of a water body is not static, and the waves also have various origins such as wind,
tsunami, and tides. These surface waves together are also known as “gravity waves” as gravity
attempts to restore them to equilibrium. Surface waves can be found on the free surfaces of the
oceans, rivers, lakes, and ponds. Waves are oscillations generated due to the wind blowing over
a water surface, a ship moving on the water, or seismic disturbance at the bottom. Ocean waves
are most commonly generated due to wind energy transferring from the air to the water surface.
Based on their driving forces, ocean waves can be classified into the following:
(a) Wind waves
Wind is critical for the marine environment and the response of water to wind (waves) has the
greatest impact on ships and coastal structures. Wind waves are created when wind pressure and
stress are applied to the water surface. Wind transfers the energy of air molecules to the surface
of the water through friction and pressure, which causes the disturbance in the water known as
wind waves. The initial stage of wave generation is represented by capillary waves which are
waves of small height controlled by the surface tension of water.
(b) Tidal waves
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Tide is a generic term for the rise and fall of sea level with respect to the land. Tidal waves are
large waves that move over the ocean due to the gravitational influence of the Sun, Moon, and
Earth. Tidal waves have a large wavelength. The tidal effect of the Moon is about twice that of
the Sun and causes the oceans to swell on either side of the earth, the side nearest to the Moon
or the furthest. The tide goes up and down as the earth rotates on its axis.
(c) Tsunamis waves
Tsunamis are long-period waves that are generated due to massive displacement of water due to
geological events such as earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic eruptions. The resultant waves
travel in all directions from the area of the disturbance. Tsunami waves have extremely long
wavelengths, often exceeding 100 kms in the deep ocean. They travel at very high speeds,
sometimes exceeding 700 kmph. Tsunamis can have devastating effects on coastal regions due
to the amount of water and energy that they carry.
4.3.2. Currents
The oceans of the planet are in constant motion, driven by the force of wind, tides, earth rotation,
and changes in the density of water. This vast movement of water is known as currents and they
directly impact many human activities on a daily basis such as shipping, fishing, oil and gas
activities, etc. The speed of these currents is higher at the top of the surface and decreases with
an increase in the ocean's depth. The topography of the bottom of the sea and the shoreline
modifies the movement of water, causing currents to change their speed. There are two main
types of ocean currents that define the character and flow of ocean waters across the planet:
surface and deep-water currents. Although both of them occur by different phenomena, they
influence each other.
(a) Surface currents
Surface currents make up only 8% of all ocean water and are generally prevalent in the upper
(400 m) of ocean water. The wind and tide drive surface currents in coastal areas, where water
rises and falls forcing the water to move. Surface currents in the open ocean are driven mainly
due to the wind force. The surface currents move in the same direction as the wind when it blows
on the ocean's surface. Because of Earth’s rotation, the circulating wind is deflected towards the
right in the Northern hemisphere and towards the left in the Southern hemisphere, and this
reflection is known as the Coriolis effect. This effect creates circular motion of the surface
current that rotates clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern
hemisphere, known as gyres (Figure 50). If the Earth does not rotate, the water will move from
equator to pole and pole to equator without forming the gyres. As water is good at holding the
heat compared to the air, these gyres help in the distribution of warmth. Indian, South Atlantic,
North Atlantic, South Pacific, and North Pacific are the five measured gyres worldwide.
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Figure 50: Gyres are circular ocean currents formed by the Earth's wind patterns and the forces created by the
rotation of the planet. (Source: Sciencelearn.org.nz)
(b) Deep water currents
Unlike surface currents, deep water currents are driven by the density and temperature gradients.
Water becomes colder as it approaches the North pole, forming pure water ice crystals while
leaving the salt behind. The water gets heavier due to salt and starts moving downward as the
gravitational effect. This water moves along the sea bottom until it rises to the surface. When the
deep water moves upward and replaces the surface water, it is known as upwelling, and the
reverse is called downwelling. Warm and less dense water comes to the surface, and heavier
water goes into the ocean in a process known as thermohaline circulation. Thermohaline
circulation and wind-driven surface currents combine and form a loop known as a conveyor belt
(Figure 51). Conveyor belt plays a critical role in the Earth's environment. Conveyor belts
transfer the oxygen to the deep-water habitats and simultaneously accumulate the nutrients as
organic matter and decompose. Climate change can significantly affect the conveyor belt by
disturbing the thermohaline circulation. Due to warming climate conditions, polar ice caps are
melting, forming a fresh and less saline water surface that will no longer sink.
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Figure 51: Conveyor belt (Source: exploratorium.edu)
4.4. Sediment transport system

Transportation of solid matters eroded, transported, and deposited by the combined effect of
fluid transport and gravitational force is known as sediment transport. Sediment transport is
responsible for the transportation of nutrients and contaminants. It contains the eroded minerals
from weathered bedrock and organic soil generated from soil formation (Figure 52). Sediment
transport occurs naturally in which fluids are water, air, and ice, and transported materials are
clay, silt, sand, and grabbles. Sediment transport occurs due to water in the rivers, lakes, and
oceans. Erosion, transportation, and deposition are the main three components of sediment
transport. Erosion occurs on the Earth's surface and is transported through air, water, ice, and
deposited. Based on the transportation mechanism, sediment transport can be classified into four
types: aeolian, fluvial, coastal, and glacier.
Figure 52: Sediment transport in water (Source: Los Huertos, M. (Ed.), 2020.)
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Solid particles transported due to wind forces are called Aeolian sediment transport. Smoller
solid particles are transported in aeolian transportation as air density is very low, and transported
solid particles form bedforms, ripples, and dunes. Aeolian sediment transport most occurs in the
arid regions.
4.5. Water Resources Structures

Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle. Its applications
include the design of hydraulic structures such as dams, spillways, sewage conduits, waterways,
erosion protection structures. In general, a water resource structure is a building that is
completely or partly submerged in water and changes the way water flows naturally. The flow
is diverted, slowed down, controlled, or stopped completely by these structures. A hydraulic
structure can be built in a river or any other body of water where the natural flow of water needs
to be changed. Below are a few examples of water resources structures and the functions they
serve.
4.5.1. Dams and Reservoirs
Reservoirs are used for storing water and they can serve various purposes such as conservation,
flood mitigation, maintaining year-round water supply, hydropower generation, etc. If the
reservoir was built for one purpose only, it is called a single-purpose reservoir, and if it is built
for multiple purposes, it is called a multi-purpose reservoir.
A multi-purpose reservoir could be built to protect communities downstream from flooding and
also save water for agriculture, water supply, hydroelectricity, and other uses. For example, the
Bhakra Nangal dam in Punjab, one of the highest concrete gravity dams in the world, forms the
Gobind Sagar reservoir and is intended for irrigation and hydroelectric purposes. It was famously
described by India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as “New Temple of Resurgent India”
highlighting the importance of large hydraulic structures in the economy.
Most dams in India are funded and maintained by the government along with a few other
organizations such as National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC), Damodar Valley Corporation
(DVC), etc. Following are the most common benefits of a multi-purpose reservoir depending on
the nature of the project.
(a) Hydropower generation: Energy is important for the social and economic success of
a country and hydropower is a cost-effective renewable energy source. Hydropower is electricity
made from water stored in reservoirs using turbines. Depending on how much electricity can be
generated, it can be used to meet regional or national needs.
(b) Flood control: River floods cause immense damage to life and property every year.
Projects with explicit mandate for flood control can impound floodwaters and release them under
control to the river downstream of the dam or store or divert the floodwater for other uses.
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(c) Irrigation: Reservoirs store extra water during the rainy season which can be used
to irrigate dry agriculture areas. Using canals, the flow of water can be regulated to meet the
farming needs of different areas at different times of the year. Irrigation is one of the primary
benefits of multi-purpose projects.
(d) Drinking and Industrial Use: Reservoirs can play a crucial role in ensuring stable
water supplies, especially in areas that experience droughts in certain parts of the year.
Essentially, reservoirs are intended to store water during the high flow season and use it during
the low flow season based on demand. The stored water can also be used to meet various
industrial demands.
(e) Water inland navigation: Such projects can also enhance inland navigation. Transport
of heavy goods via main rivers or canals is a cheaper mode of transport than roads.
Comprehensive planning and development of such projects can yield major economic benefits.
(f) Recreation and Fishery: Reservoirs also have many benefits such as promoting
fishing and tourism. During the design process, the leisure benefits of reservoirs such as boating,
swimming, fishing, etc. should be taken into account so that the project accrues economic
benefits to the local community and businesses.
Along with its benefits, multi-purpose reservoir projects also come with significant social and
economic costs related to human resettlement and damage to the environment and forests.
Reservoirs often drain or submerge large swathes of cultivable or forest land. If land is flooded,
the communities settled there would have to be compensated or resettled elsewhere which would
adversely affect the local economy and culture. For the overall success of such projects, proper
studies should be conducted on post-construction socioeconomic and environmental impact
assessment before embarking on any construction and adequate measures implemented to
minimize the damage.
4.5.2. Marine Structures
The utilization of the oceans as a means of transportation is crucial to international trade. There
are huge reserves of raw materials such as hydrocarbons in the waters and on the ocean floor.
The seas hold a lot of promise for exploration as well as for fish and plankton. Seventy percent
of the sun's radiation reaching earth is absorbed by the seas. Thermal gradients, wind, current or
wave energy, salt gradients, and other forms of this energy can all be captured. However, it takes
marine structures to take advantage of these opportunities. Marine structures are large,
expensive, and complex structures located in a hostile environment, necessitating study and
qualified engineers for their design and construction. Research and engineering are thus crucial
for any nation desiring to take part in industrial progress in this field. Often termed as maritime
structures, marine structures encompass various infrastructure that is built in the ocean so that
marine resources can be utilized.
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Based on how they work and what they look like, marine structures can broadly be classified as
coastal, offshore, and deep-sea exploration structures. Maritime structures differ from normal
structures because:
(a) Testing of prototypes is not usually possible and therefore first principle-based analysis
and designing needs to be done.
(b) Only probabilistic expressions of load and the response is possible.
(c) Very high cost.
(d) Considered as global activities and thus international laws and regulations are
applicable.
(e) The ocean or the sea has some serious challenges in terms of construction material.
Coastal structures are often built to stop the deterioration of landscapes and infrastructural
facilities along the coastline and to minimize the risk to people and businesses that depend on
the coastal area. They are generally made of materials such as concrete, large armor stones, steel,
or wood. However, use of high strength concrete, pre-stressed concrete, concrete that does not
freeze, and concrete that is light in weight is also increasing.
Oil and gas will continue to be a major source of energy for the foreseeable future. To exploit
such sources located much below the sea level, marine offshore structures are required. The
design and planning of such structures is usually done for a specific location due to very high
cost and detailed designing. Due to the high risk of fires and explosions seen historically, design
of offshore structures should consider additional factors of safety. Levees, seawalls, etc. are the
most common examples of coastal structures. Offshore structures are highly susceptible to
corrosion and thus the construction of such structures requires significant technical expertise.
The Mumbai High Field is an example of such a structure (Figure 53). It is an offshore oilfield
176 kms off the west coast of Mumbai and its operations are run by the Oil and Natural Gas
Corporation (ONGC).
Figure 53: Bombay High oil field
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4.6. Water Treatment and Supply
People impact the environment in myriad ways. One of the most common ways human activities
impact the environment is by polluting water. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), between 50 to 100 liters of water is required per person per day. Thus, water resources
engineers have a major role to play in designing and operating treatment and supply systems in
order to meet the demands of the population.
4.6.1. Water Treatment Systems
The main goal of water treatment and purification is to access natural water from the best
possible sources and put it through a physio-chemical process that ensures good physical quality,
no bad taste or smell, and causes no harm to public health. Water can be obtained by drawing
directly from rivers, lakes, or springs. Depending on the source, they vary greatly in purity and
suitability. Underground water may contain a significant amount of matter dissolved from the
state through which it passes. Shallow wells are much more susceptible to bacterial
contamination than deep wells. Streams and rivers carry impurities from the earth and from the
discharge of sewage and industrial effluents to ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. There have been
numerous cases of recurring epidemics traceable to drinking water supplies in the past.
A good water treatment system deals with the physical and chemical characteristics of water.
The following are the Physical and Chemical characteristic of water.
Physical characteristics Chemical characteristics
● Turbidity ●Total solids
● Color and Temperature ●Alkalinity
● Taste and Odor ●PH Value
●Hardness of Water
●Chloride content
●fluoride content
●Metal and other chemical substances
●Nitrogen and its compounds
●Dissolved gasses
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Each of these undesirable physical and chemical characteristics can be treated up to different
limits. A few basic processes that are often followed by water treatment systems are as follows
(Figure 54):
(a) Screening: Generally screening is done in order to eliminate particles such as debris,
trees, animals, etc. Coarse and Fine screens are used based on the size of particles.
(b) Plain Sedimentation: If the water contains large-sized suspended impurities,

preliminary sedimentation is a very cost-effective way to remove them. Because suspended
impurities cause turbidity in the water, removing them results in more uniform water that can be
used in subsequent treatment processes. Plain Sedimentation is the process of getting particles
that are floating in water to settle to the bottom by keeping the water still in tanks.
(c) Sedimentation with coagulation: By adding coagulants to the water flow, very fine
colloidal particles will be produced. The very fine colloidal particles in water are attracted and
absorbed by these flocs, resulting in larger flocculated particles. Coagulants such as alum,
copperas, chlorinated copperas, and sodium aluminates can be added to sedimentation tanks in
water treatment.
(d) Filtration: The water that is filtered through sediment may contain bacteria and very
small particles. The water is filtered through beds of granular material, like sand, to get rid of or
reduce any remaining impurities. The process of filtering is to let water flow through beds of
such granular materials.
(e) Disinfection: In order to disinfect water of bacteria, the most commonly used method
is boiling and chlorination. There are many more ways to accomplish this by treatment with lime,
UV rays, potassium permanganate, iodine and bromine, the choice of which is decided based on
cost effectiveness and operational requirements.
(f) Aeration: Aeration treatment is when a lot of air is pumped through water and then let
out of the water. The air makes the gasses or compounds that are dissolved in the water rise to
the surface which are then let out. For example, high concentrations of iron and manganese can
be treated with an aeration and filtration system. After the air is mixed with the passing stream
of water, water enters an aerator vessel where air is separated from the water. This water then
flows through a filter where various filter media screen out oxidized particles of iron and
manganese.
(g) Softening: Softening is the process of removing hardness from water. Hardness is a
water property that prevents soap from lathering. There are two kinds of hardness. Temporary
hardness is because of the presence of sulfates and carbonates of calcium and magnesium which
can be removed by boiling. Permanent hardness is caused by nitrates, calcium chlorides, and
magnesium chlorides in the water and may be removed using the zeolite method.
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Figure 54: Water treatment plant for domestic supply (Source: cdc.gov/drinkingwater)
4.6.2. Effluent treatment systems
Effluent, also known as trade effluent or wastewater, is treated sewage from a septic tank or a
sewage treatment plant. It is any kind of waste that does not come from kitchens, surface water,
or homes. Industrial and commercial buildings are major producers. Most wastewater flows
directly from a building into the main sewer system and cannot be allowed to enter a river,
reservoir, stream, or lake until it has been cleaned and treated. An effluent treatment plant is
where industrial wastewater is treated based on prevalent environmental standards. And effluent
treatment is crucial to ensure sustainable economic development of industrial areas. The various
stages of an industrial effluent treatment plant are shown in the Figure 55.
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Figure 55: Stages of Industrial Effluent Treatment Plant (Source: Netsolwater)
There are four levels of treatment in any effluent treatment system.
(a) Preliminary Treatment: Large impurities such as cloth, plastic, wood logs, paper, etc.
are physically separated. The common unit operations at the preliminary level are screening,
sedimentation, and clarification. In order to get rid of large solids such as plastic and clothes, we
utilize a screen of maximum 10 mm size. Further, sedimentation involves using gravity to
remove the solids that are suspended in the water. To make the water clearer, clarification is
performed that separates solids from fluids.
(b) Primary Treatment: Materials that float and sink, like solids that are suspended and
organic matter, need to be taken out. At the primary level both physical and chemical treatments
are done. Chemical coagulation and flocculation, pH treatment is some of the most common
treatments in this segment. Chemical processes are aided always by physical operations and
sometimes biological treatment can also be performed. Addition of chemicals to bring out
changes in the quality of wastewater is the basic idea behind the primary treatment. Coagulants
such as alum, iron sulfates are used along with some flocculants to ensure the primary treatment.
(c) Secondary Treatment: In this part of treatment, biological processes around

microorganisms, specifically bacteria, are involved. This is generally done in order to reduce and
remove mainly organic and some inorganic compounds that might be present. There are two
types of treatment processes in secondary treatment namely:
●Aerobic: Treatment process taking place in abundance of oxygen i.e., presence of air. Such
processes involve microorganisms that use free air (oxygen) to break down organic impurities
into carbon dioxide, biomass, and water.
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●Anaerobic: Such treatment processes take place in the absence of air. They employ
microorganisms that do not require free air (oxygen) to break down organic impurities.
(d) Tertiary Treatment: The purpose of advanced or tertiary treatment is to improve the
waste-water quality before it is finally reused by removing any remaining substances or
inorganic compounds like phosphorus, nitrogen etc. At this step, microbes, pathogens, and
parasites that are bad for population health are also removed.
4.6.3. Water Supply Systems
A functioning water supply treats and removes impurities to make it safe for public consumption.
The goals of a community water supply system goals are as follows:
●To provide consumers with a sufficient amount of water for drinking.
●To ensure people have enough to meet their basic needs along with contingencies such as
firefighting, festivals, meetings, etc.
●To plan for future demands due to population growth, rising living standards, storage, and
transportation.
●Preventing water pollution at the source, making the storage clean and hygienic, and ensuring
a safe and clean transport system for water.
●Ensure the treatment units and distribution network are efficient, cost-effective, and
dependable.
A water supply system includes all facilities for water transport from the source, treatment, and
then to the distribution. A domestic water-supply system is a way for public utilities to get water
of the right quality, quantity, and pressure from a source to a home. This is usually done with a
system of pumps and pipes. The four major types of water distribution systems are as follows:
(a) Tree or dead-end distribution system:
In this type of water distribution system, a main central line runs through the buildings. From
this main line, various sub-mains branch off on either side. Further, these sub-main lines get
divided into various branch lines from which service connections are provided for the households
(Figure 56).
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Figure 56: Dead end water distribution system (Source: SWMM)
(b) Grid Iron Distribution System:
Main supply lines in this type of distribution system run along the centerline of the structure.
The sub mains branch off in perpendicular directions. The main branch acts as a link between all
the sub-mains. The unique characteristic of such a system is that all the pipes are interconnected
(Figure 57). Dead ends do not exist in such a system. Water can come in from different directions
at the point of pullout, which makes it easier to work, especially when repairs are needed.
Figure 57: Grid iron water distribution system (Source: SSWM)
(c) Circular Distribution System
The main pipeline is set up around the city or area in a ring system, which can also be called a
circular system. The branch lines go in the opposite direction from this main line, and they also
connect to each other. So, every street in the area will get just the right quantity of water. Circular
system is better for a town with roads and streets that are well laid out. The circular water
distribution system is illustrated in Figure 58.
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Figure 58: Circular water distribution system (Source: SWMM)
(d) Radial Distribution System
The entire building is divided into several distribution areas in this type of water distribution
system. There is an elevated reservoir that is centrally located. From this reservoir, distribution
pipes run radially towards the areas in the distribution periphery. Such a system provides prompt
service with minimal disruption (Figure 59). The system of laying pipes is very simple in the
radial design distribution system.
Figure 59: Radial water distribution system (Source: SWMM)
Water resources engineering is a vast and dynamic field where our rapid and significant advances
in our understanding of physical processes leads to improvements in design and implementation
of various engineering structures.
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1. Eeltink, D., Armaroli, A., Brunetti, M., Kasparian, J., 2020. Reconciling different
formulations of viscous water waves and their mass conservation. Wave Motion 97, 102610.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wavemoti.2020.102610
2. Bansal, D. R. (2010). A Textbook of fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines. New
Delhi: Laxmi Publication (P) Ltd.
3. Los Huertos, M. (Ed.), 2020. Ecology and Management of Inland Waters. Elsevier, pp.
i–iii. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814266-0.00002-7
4. Dr. P N Modi, D. S. (2017). Hydraulics & Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulics
Machines. New Delhi: Standard Book House.
5. Ranald V Giles, J. B. (1994). Theory and problems of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics.
Schaum's Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
6. Joseph A Schetz and Allen E Fuhs. Fundamentals of fluid mechanics. John Wiley &
Sons, 1999
1. Simulations of fluid flow:

https://physics.weber.edu/schroeder/fluids
2. Water cycle and other precipitation related

materials by NASA: https://gpm.nasa.gov/education/water-
cycle
109
3. Dam construction video.
https://youtu.be/OUpZHFx-GxM
4. Wastewater treatment video:

https://youtu.be/bDW6XbQhTKI
5. Water distribution video:

https://youtu.be/yZwfcMSDBHs
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5
d
5. Traffic and Transportation

Engineering
Unit specifics
●Introduction to transportation: Different modes and integration
●Major transport infrastructure developments in India
●Introduction to geometric design
●Public transport systems
●Transportation logistics
●Road safety
●Advanced technologies and ITS/IT/IoT
●Public-Private Partnership in transportation.
After the related practical, based on the content, there is a “Know More” section. This section
has been carefully designed so that the supplementary information provided in this part becomes
beneficial for the users of the book. This section mainly highlights the initial activity, examples
of some interesting facts, analogy, history of the development of the subject focusing the salient
observations and finding, timelines starting from the development of the concerned topics up to
the recent time, applications of the subject matter for our day-to-day real life or/and industrial
applications on variety of aspects, case study related to environmental, sustainability, social and
ethical issues whichever applicable, and finally inquisitiveness and curiosity topics of the unit.
Rationale
This fundamental unit on transportation engineering introduces basic concepts related to
various aspects of transportation engineering. This chapter begins by explaining different modes
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of transportation and their role in India’s development. It then provides an introductory guide
to various components of transportation engineering like geometric design, pavement materials
and construction, public transport systems, transportation logistics, and road safety. The last
section of this chapter discusses different types of Public-Private Partnership adopted in the
transportation sector for developing the road infrastructure. This chapter introduces different
concepts of transportation engineering to give a basic idea of the subject and to explain the role
of advanced technologies in the development of the transportation sector.
Transportation engineering deals with the road design, construction, operations, and
maintenance. It also deals with the management of traffic, planning and operation aspects of
public and private transport systems. Transportation engineering is the branch of civil
engineering that studies the different methods of road design and construction, traffic
management, public transport systems, and road safety using scientific and engineering
techniques.
Pre-requisites
Basic elements of civil engineering
Mathematics (Class X)
Unit outcomes
U1-O1: Understand basic concepts of different modes of transportation.
U1-O2: Understand the major development in the transportation sector in India.
U1-O3: Understand the basic concepts and components of geometric design of roadways.
U1-O4: Understand the basic elements of pavement design and construction.
U1-O5: Understand the basic concepts of public transport systems.
U1-O6: Understand the basic ideas of transportation logistics.
U1-O7: Introductory guide to road safety aspects.
U1-O8: Understand the ideas and components of intelligent transportation systems.
U1-O9: Understand the role of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in transportation and its role
in the development of transportation infrastructure.
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5.1. Introduction to transportation: Different modes and
integration
Transportation is the movement of people and commodities from one location to another.
Transportation can be done through (a) land, (b) air, and (c) waterways. Ancient transportation
was mainly through land using human-powered (walking, palanquin, and pulled rickshaws) and
animal powered (e.g., bullock carts and tangas) transports. Land transport was developed to
accommodate vehicles on road and locomotives on rail. Humans explored water as the possible
mode of transport to mainly transfer commodities from one place to another place. Humans also
developed airways for quick transport of people and commodities. At present, roadways,
railways, waterways, and airways are the major modes of transportation.
Pipelines, aerial ropeways, elevators, cable cars, belt conveyors, and hyperloops are the other
possible modes of transportation. Pipelines are extensively used for transporting liquids (water,
crude oil, etc.), gas (natural gas, steam, etc.), and in rare cases solid (solids converted into slurry)
particles as well. Belt conveyors, cable cars, and aerial ropeways are used for transportation at
some altitude for a short distance. Hyperloop is the latest and one of the quickest modes of
transport for humans. The following sub-sections briefly explain the four major modes of
transportation.
5.1.1. Road transportation
Land transportation is the most common mode of transportation. Road system is systematically
used by pedestrians and various classes of vehicles like motorized two-wheelers, cars, trucks,
buses, etc. Road transportation provides maximum flexibility to the traveler in terms of route
choice, time, and speed of travel. Over the years, road infrastructure has been substantially
developed for providing end-to-end connectivity. Thus, road transportation is the most
convenient way for door-to-door delivery. The remaining modes of transportation have to
depend on road transportation at some point in order to complete the delivery service or to reach
the desired destination. Therefore, road network must be systematically planned and developed
throughout the country so that it can operate independently as well as act as a feeder system for
the remaining transportation modes.
The main downside of road transport is the weather, traffic, and rising cost of petroleum energy.
The rate of road transport of goods gets adversely affected during the rainy season as compared
to the summer season. Further, increase in traffic on roads significantly raises the rate of emission
pollutants than other transportation modes. Additionally, the rising cost of petroleum energy is
rapidly increasing the cost of road transportation. Therefore, it is important to adopt green energy
for reducing air pollution as well as for reducing the dependency on petroleum energy.
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5.1.2. Rail transportation
Rail transportation was first invented in the early 19th century and since then has played a crucial
role in transporting passengers and bulk commodities over long distances for the past two
centuries. Rail transport consists of a locomotive (engine) with a series of passenger bogies
and/or wagons moving on a fixed path defined using two parallel steel rails of the railway track.
In early days, rail transport used to work on steam locomotives where water was converted to
steam by burning combustible materials like wood and coal. Later on, steam locomotives were
replaced by internal combustion engines which were powered by diesel (a petroleum energy
product). In recent years, most of the locomotives are powered using electricity by providing an
overhead line or by providing on-board energy storage using batteries. Locomotives using steam
or diesel as a power source generate tremendous air pollution. This was one of the main reasons
behind India adopting electric locomotives for rail transportation.
Rail transportation is a comfortable and economical mode of choice for transporting passengers
as well as commodities over a long distance. Railways serve as a mass transit system for the
commuters traveling inter-city as well as intra-city. However, rail transport gets confined to a
limited path providing minimal chance of divergence. The passengers and transfer of
commodities to the end point have to rely on road transport. Rail transport is relatively faster
than road transport because railways are not influenced by traffic, point of diversion, and switch
off between the nodes. These attributes make rail transport more reliable than road transport for
making long hauls with nominal damage.
Indian railways are considered as a lifeline of the nation providing comfortable and cheap
transport across the country. Indian railways have one of the largest rail networks in the world
with 67,956 kms of route length. 94.10% of the total route kms consists of broad gauge, 3.54%
and 2.36% of the total route kms consists of meter gauge and narrow gauge, respectively (Indian
Railways Civil Engineering Portal, 2022). Indian railways carried 8086 million passengers and
1208.41 million tonnes of freight in 2019-20 year. Indian railways provide inter-city and inter-
state travel (Figure 60) whereas various government and semi-government agencies operate
metro (Figure 61) and monorail (Figure 62) services for intra-city travel for the passengers.
Interested readers are requested to refer Indian Railways Civil Engineering Portal (2022) for
exploring the major rail infrastructure projects currently undergoing or recently completed
projects.
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Figure 60: Indian railways (Indian Railways Civil Engineering Portal, 2014)
Figure 61: Delhi metro (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation, 2022)
Figure 62: Mumbai monorail (MMRDA, 2013)
5.1.3. Water transportation
Water transportation is the main transport mode for global trading. Almost 90% of the global
trade is conducted through waterways. This is mainly because water transport offers minimum
resistance to traction which results in less energy consumption to haul unit load through unit
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distance. Therefore, water transport serves as the cheapest mode of transport for trading the
highest volume of freight. However, water transport is the slowest among the major four modes
of transport. Because of this reason, waterways are mainly used for freight transportation. Water
transport is mainly used for transporting chemical, hazardous and toxic products, machinery and
factory parts, vehicles and their accessories, petroleum products, livestock and animals, and
food.
Harbors and ports are constructed to operate container ships for parking, loading-unloading, and
storage of cargo. Harbor is a section along the coastline where ships and containers or other
water vessels are parked and stored. Port is a commercial water facility built around the harbor
for loading and unloading cargo or other water vessels. Transport planning is important while
developing harbor and port. All the freight to be transported through waterways will be initially
transported using road or rail transport. Thus, road and rail transport serve as a feeder system for
transferring passengers and commodities back and forth the harbor and port.
Water transport can also be operated within a country by developing inland water transport. The
Government of India established Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) on 27 October
1986 for developing inland waterways for shipping and navigation. India has developed 20,275
kms of national waterways across 24 states in the country comprising rivers, canals, creeks,
backwaters, etc. India efficiently transfers around 55 million tonnes of cargo every year through
inland waterways (Ministry of Ports Shipping and Waterways Government of India, 2018).
Figure 63 shows the water transport operated at the coastal regions of India.
Figure 63: Indian Waterways (Ministry of Ports Shipping and Waterways Government of India, 2018)
5.1.4. Air transportation
Air transportation is an integral part of the services sector for achieving economic growth of the
country. Air transport plays a pivotal role in the integration of local economies with the global
economy by providing critical connectivity on a regional, national, and international level. Air
transport is the quickest among the four major transportation modes. Air transport provides
uninterrupted passage over land and water which has reduced distances by decreasing travel
time. Air transport is the most convenient and comfortable mode of transport for passengers
aiming to reach their destination as quickly as possible and save substantial time which might be
lost while traveling through other modes. Air transport also plays a key role in commodities
transfer. High-value shipment on long hauls in less time is possible through air transport. The
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major limitation of air transport is high fuel cost and high overall operating costs making it the
most expensive mode of transport among the four major modes. Another limitation is that air
transport cannot be operated during extreme weather conditions like rainstorms and thick fog.
Airports facilitate the use of airplanes for transporting passengers and commodities. Airport
consists of a runway, taxiway, terminal facilities, air traffic control centers, hangers, visual aid,
and safety systems. Road and rail transport can serve as a feeder system for transferring
passengers and commodities back and forth the airport.
5.1.5. Intermodal transportation
Intermodal transport is an integral part of freight transportation. Land (road and rail) transport
serves as a feeder system for water and air transport. Intermodal freight transport involves an
intermodal container or a vessel which will be transferred from one location to another using
multiple modes of transportation until it reaches the final location. For example, India exports
gems and jewelry to countries like the USA, Hong Kong, UAE, Belgium, and Israel to name a
few. The shipment of gems and jewelry in India will most likely begin on road, then to air or
water transport, which may transfer to rail in foreign countries such as the USA and then it arrives
at its destination by road. The purpose of intermodal freight transport is to optimize the cost of
transport by taking advantage of the individual strengths of the four major modes of transport.
Figure 64 shows a typical representation of intermodal transportation.
Intermodal transport also plays a key role in passenger transport over long distances. The
passenger selects the mode of transport based on comfort, cost of transport, convenience, and
travel time. A passenger having no time constraint may choose a train or a ship journey based
on his/her comfort, convenience, and cost of travel. A passenger having time constraints may
overlook the cost of travel and choose air transport to reach the desired location on time. Here,
it can be noted that road transport will most likely serve as a feeder system when the passengers
need to travel long distances.
Figure 64: Intermodal transportation (DHL Logistics of Things, 2022)
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5.2. Major transport infrastructure developments in India
India’s transportation sector is huge, catering more than 1 billion people on a daily basis.
Transportation is one of the major sectors contributing to India’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
growth. The services sector in the year of 2019-20 was expected to grow at 6.9% with a
contribution of 55.3% to India’s gross value added (Saket, 2020). Therefore, it is important to
invest and develop India’s transport infrastructure to support and manage the ever-rising demand
of passenger and freight transportation within as well as outside the country.
5.2.1. Road transport infrastructure development
The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORTH) handles development, challenges,
maintenance, and issues occurring in road transport infrastructure in India. In recent years,
MORTH has started focusing on improving the NHs (National Highways) network by
developing road connectivity in border areas, coastal roads, major and non-major ports. The
MORTH is also focused on developing proficiency of national, inter, economic, and feeder
corridors through Bharatmala Pariyojana programme (Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, 2017). The Government of India has proposed an investment of INR 5,35,000 crores
in Phase I over 5 years. Bharatmala Pariyojana programme envisions development of a 24,800
km road network of economic corridors along with GQ (Golden Quadrilateral) and NS-EW
(North-South and East-West) corridors for expediting freight transportation via roads. The Phase
I of Bharatmala Pariyojana programme will develop a length of 9,000 km for economic corridors,
6,000 km of inter-corridors, 5,000 km of national corridors, 2,000 km of border roads, 2,000 km
of coastal and port roads, and 800 km of expressways. The programme will also develop 10,000
km of remaining road works under NHDP (National Highways Development Project). The
programme will also try to counter traffic congestion problems commonly faced in urban cities
by constructing ring roads and elevated (bypass) corridors along with lane widening projects.
5.2.2. Rail transport infrastructure development
As mentioned earlier, Indian railways is considered as the lifeline of the nation. Bulk freight
transport and passengers required to travel across places prefer rail transport as a feasible option.
Indian railways had a lot of challenges like over utilization of the infrastructure (more than 60%
of the routes were utilized over the capacity), scarce freight carrying capacity, organization
stringency, and insufficient focus on customers (Indian Railways, 2017). Considering all these
issues, the Indian Government developed a five-year plan for reducing rail network congestion
and expansion of rail network, improving North-eastern and Kashmir connectivity, enhancing
safety via track renewal and construction of bridge works, introducing high-speed rail and
elevated corridors, and improving logistics parks. Indian railways increased broad gauge lines
from 1,983 km to 3,000 km in the span of two years. The Government of India invested around
INR 24,000 crores for developing dedicated freight corridors. Nearly 2,000 km of dedicated
freight rail network was completely electrified in the span of two years. The Indian Government
introduced one of the fastest trains ‘Gatiman express’ for swift transport. Talgo trains will also
be included in Indian railways which will operate on the existing infrastructure for fast
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transportation. Indian railways are electrifying the rail network at almost 2,000 kms/year for
having a pollution free, energy efficient, and environment-friendly mode of transport. Indian
railways are also focusing on operating semi-high-speed trains along GQ. Indian railways are
determined to develop infrastructure using innovative technologies and digital services for
delivering safe, efficient, and high-performance rail transport systems for the customers.
5.2.3. Water transport infrastructure development
The Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways has decided to accelerate the growth of the
maritime sector in the coming decade. A project named ‘Maritime India Vision 2030 (MIV
2030)’ is introduced to strengthen the coastline by giving top priority to port-led development
(Ministry of Ports Shipping and Waterways, 2021). India has a 7,500 km long coastline of
navigable waterways with 12 major and more than 200 non-major ports. Maritime sector handles
around 95% of the country’s trade volume and 65% of the trade value. Jawaharlal Nehru Port
Trust (JNPT) and Mundra port are the two Indian ports featured in the list of top 40 global
container ports. In the last 5 years, India increased its capacity of handling cargo by 65% across
all major ports. India started an ambitious and flagship programme named Sagarmala to
revolutionize India’s logistic sector performance by making full use of India’s coastline and
waterways. The Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways has identified more than 574
projects for port modernization and new port development, port connectivity enhancement, port-
linked industrialization, and coastal community development during 2015-2035. A total of 236
ports are selected for modernization from which 68 projects are completed and 70 are under
implementation. 235 ports’ connectivity will be developed through the Sagarmala project.
Currently, 35 projects are completed, and 94 projects’ work is under implementation.
5.2.4. Air transport infrastructure development
The Ministry of Civil Aviation, Airports Authority of India handles development, challenges,
maintenance, and issues occurring in air transport infrastructure in India. India has over 450
airports, out of which 125 airports are government-owned Airports Authority of India (AAI)
(Ministry of Civil Aviation, 2019). AAI covers around 9.6 million sq. km and is liable for
providing Air Navigation Services (ANS) in Indian airspace and in the Indian ocean region. In
total, 15 airports in India manage around 83% of the passenger throughput in the country.
Increasing airport infrastructure capacity is one of the main objectives of the country. Delhi
airport has three terminals, and the country is planning to add an additional runway in 3-4 years.
An additional airport will be developed in Mumbai, Pune, Vizag, and Goa to handle ever-rising
growth in passengers. Indian airways also made efforts to reduce dwell time for air cargo from
72 hours to 48 hours. In fact, nearly 25% of the total dwell time has been reduced at seven
airports handling import and export cargo in the last 3 years. There exists further scope to
decrease the dwell time by adopting paperless processing, infrastructure improvements at cargo
terminals, and use of off-airport cargo processing. It has been projected that nearly 821 million
domestic passengers will travel within India and around 303 million international passengers
will visit India and air cargo throughput may rise from 3.35 mmtpa (millions metric tonnes per
annum) to 17 mmpta by FY 2040. Therefore, it is important to develop the airport infrastructure
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of the country. Considering this aspect, the Government of India has launched UDAN Yojana to
ensure appropriate infrastructure development, affordable air travel, and implement regional
connectivity for ensuring economic growth of the country.
5.3. Introduction to geometric design

Geometric design is one of the important topics in Transportation engineering, dealing with
dimensions and layout of the roadway. The prominence of geometric design is to provide
maximum safety and cost- efficiency in traffic operations (Kadiyali, 2013). The key features of
geometric design are cross-sectional elements, provision of sight distance, horizontal and vertical
alignments. The geometric design is mainly influenced by various factors such as design speed,
topography, vehicle characteristics, traffic flow, environmental factors, and economy. The
crucial factors are discussed in the following subsections.
Design speed
The most crucial component affecting geometric design is design speed. Design speed directly
influences sight distance, horizontal and vertical curve designs. India has more than 20 vehicle
categories which can be driven at different speeds as per the driver’s perception and comfort.
Therefore, it is very difficult to select a particular speed value for designing geometric features
as per type of vehicle or driving behavior. Therefore, an 85th percentile speed is normally
considered for designing road geometric features. However, in some countries, 98th or 95th
percentile design speed is also considered.
Other factors
●Topography: Topography of the terrain can be categorized into four parts: plain (0-10% cross-
slope), rolling (10-25% cross-slope), mountainous (25-60% cross-slope), and steep (60-100%
cross-slope). The design standards are different as per the type of terrain. For a given design
speed, the cost of construction will vary as per the percent cross-slope of the terrain and steepness
of the gradient.
●Vehicle characteristics: Vehicular characteristics can significantly affect geometric design of

the road. Different vehicular dimensions, type and weight of axle, and vehicle dynamics (speed,
acceleration, etc.) increase difficulty for choosing design vehicle which significantly influences
design aspects of pavement, radius of the curve, clearance width, etc.
●Traffic flow: Traffic flow changes with time throughout the 24 hours. Traffic flow is low during
early morning (6-9 a.m.), afternoon (12-6 p.m.), and late night (12-6 a.m.) hours whereas traffic
flow is high during late morning (9 a.m. to 12 p.m.) and evening (6-9 p.m.) hours. Traffic flow
is medium to high during late evening (9-12 p.m.) hours mainly due to operation of trucks. It
becomes difficult to design a road facility considering the fluctuation in traffic flow. The
roadway cannot be designed for a very low traffic flow or a high traffic flow (by considering
peak hour traffic). A roadway designed for low traffic flow will face traffic jam for most of the
time whereas a roadway designed for high traffic flow will be uneconomical to design.
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Therefore, an optimal traffic flow value will be selected as a design hourly volume by
considering an appropriate trade-off between facility and cost of construction.
5.3.1. Road alignment
Alignment refers to the position of the central line of the roadway. Horizontal alignment consists
of straight and curved paths and vertical alignment consists of level and gradients. Finalizing an
alignment is crucial since it is highly challenging to change it once the road has been built
because doing so would increase the cost of construction and affect nearby road infrastructure.
Transportation engineers should pay attention while fixing an alignment for a roadway. The fixed
alignment is easy to construct and maintain. The alignment should be short and straight as
possible amid two terminal stations, however few deviations are considered based on practicality
of the site. The construction cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost of an alignment should
be economical. From a construction and operation standpoint, the alignment should be safe,
especially near embankments, cuttings, and slopes.
5.3.2. Cross-sectional elements
It is important to study cross-sectional elements of the road and their importance before moving
to geometric design. Pavement surface characteristics, camber, width of carriageway, and kerbs
are a few major aspects to be considered in this regard. The following subsections focus on
explaining these aspects.
5.3.2.1. Pavement surface characteristics
Pavement surface characteristics govern the life of a vehicle, comfort, and safety of the driver.
Road friction, pavement unevenness, light reflection, and drainage are the four important aspects
of pavement surface characteristics.
Road friction is a critical factor while designing horizontal curves. Friction between vehicle tyres
and pavement surface is one of the factors governing operating speed and stopping distance.
Longitudinal friction influences skidding or slipping of the vehicle and lateral friction influences
countering centrifugal force (along with superelevation) while driving through a horizontal
curve. The load acting multiplied by a factor known as the coefficient of friction, abbreviated as
f, produces the frictional force that develops between the tyres and the pavement surface. IRC
(Indian Roads Congress) suggests coefficient of longitudinal friction in between 0.35-0.4 and
coefficient of lateral friction as 0.15.
Pavement unevenness is the undulations on a pavement surface. An even longitudinal profile is

always desirable for designing high speed corridors, good driving comfort, less fuel
consumption, safety, and for reducing vehicle operating costs. Bump Integrator is used to
determine the undulations on a pavement surface in terms of unevenness index. A cumulative
measure of vertical undulations of the pavement surface per unit length of the road is unevenness
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index (Mathew, 2019). The serviceability of the road as per unevenness index is shown in Table
1 below.
Table 1. Type of road as per the unevenness index
Type of road Unevenness index (mm/km)
Good < 1500
Satisfactory 1500-2500
Bad 2500-3500
Uncomfortable > 3500
Color and light reflecting characteristics of the road surface impact visibility of the drivers. The
road surface should be visible at night and should cause less glare issues during summer, rainy,
and winter seasons. Further, impermeable pavement surface is required to avert water seepage
into the pavement layers and should be provided with minimum cross-slope for draining
rainwater from the surface.
5.3.2.2. Camber
Camber is a cross-slope provided to a road surface in the transverse direction to drain off the
rainwater from the road surface. The camber is provided by raising the middle portion of the
straight road surface to drain off rainwater in either direction. There exist different types of
camber such as parabolic camber, straight line camber, and combination of parabolic and
straight-line camber as shown in Figure 65. The rate of camber is represented by 1 in n. This
ratio indicates one unit of vertical change per n units of horizontal distance. Camber is also
expressed in percentage as x% (x in 100).
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Figure 65: Different types of camber (Mathew, 2019)
5.3.2.3. Width of carriageway
Width of the carriageway varies according to the width of the traffic lane and total number of
lanes in the carriageway. The width of the traffic lane is decided based on vehicle width and
lateral clearance. The maximum allowable width of a vehicle is 2.44 m and desirable side
clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m. IRC suggests a minimum lane width of 3.75 m for a
single lane road. The minimum lateral clearance required is around 0.53 m on either side and
1.06 m in the center. Therefore, 3.5 m lane width is provided for a two-lane road (Mathew, 2019).
5.3.2.4. Kerbs
Kerbs specifies the margin between the road surface and the median or footpath or island or
shoulder. Three different types of kerbs are low or mountable kerbs, semi-barrier type kerbs, and
barrier type kerbs as shown in Figure 66. Low kerbs are provided to restrict traffic encroachment
in other lanes by encouraging drivers to drive in the through lanes. The height of a kerb is about
10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope to enable vehicles to pass through the kerb and
enter shoulder area at slow speed. Semi-barrier type kerbs and barrier type kerbs are provided
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when the pedestrian traffic is high. Vehicles can enter semi-barrier type kerbs with some
difficulty whereas barrier type kerbs totally restrict the entry of vehicles.
Figure 66: Different types of kerbs (Mathew, 2019)
5.3.3. Sight distance
The drivers require adequate sight distance to maneuver straight and curved roads as well as
intersections. Sight distance mainly depends on reaction time, driving speed, brake efficiency,
friction, and gradient of the road (Kadiyali, 2013). The reaction time is the time taken by the
driver to detect the object to the instant when the brakes are applied (Pawar and Velaga, 2020).
IRC recommends 2.5 seconds of reaction time for design purposes. Driving speed significantly
affects sight distance. The drivers require more time to stop the vehicle while driving at high
speed as compared to the drivers driving at low speed. Therefore, it is important to provide more
sight distance at high-speed corridors. Brake efficiency of a vehicle is the braking force produced
as a percentage of the total weight of the vehicle. Realistically, 100% brake efficiency cannot be
achieved while braking. Thus, 50% brake efficiency is assumed for safe geometric design
(Kadiyali, 2013). Road friction plays a prominent role in stopping the vehicle. High longitudinal
friction will offer more resistance in between tyres and road surface leading to early stoppage of
the vehicle. In this case, sight distance required to be provided will be less. Gradient is the rate
of rise or fall along the length of the road. The drivers can easily stop their vehicle while driving
up a gradient and thus the sight distance required is less. The drivers require more time to stop a
vehicle while driving down a gradient. Because of this reason, the drivers need more sight
distance to stop a vehicle.
The basic sight distances are:
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●Stopping sight distance or the absolute minimum sight distance
●Overtaking sight distance
●Intermediate sight distance
5.3.3.1. Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is the minimum distance available to the driver on a roadway at
any point of time to safely stop a vehicle. It is important to provide minimum sight distance equal
to SSD to facilitate safe stoppage of a vehicle without any collision. The SSD is calculated by
taking the sum of lag distance and braking distance. Lag distance is the length of road covered
by a driver during reaction time t and braking distance is the length of road covered by a driver
while braking to stop the vehicle.
Lag distance = v * t (1)
Braking distance = (2)
SSD = lag distance + braking distance (3)
Where, v is the velocity in m/s, t is reaction time in seconds, g is gravity (9.81 m/s2), and f is the
coefficient of longitudinal friction (0.35-0.4).
5.3.3.2. Overtaking sight distance
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) is the minimum distance visible to the driver intending to
overtake a slow-moving lead vehicle against the traffic in the opposite lane. OSD is measured
along the center line of the road where the driver with his/her eye level of 1.2 m above the road
surface is expected to detect an object which is 1.2 m above the road surface. OSD will be
influenced by the speed of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle, and the vehicle traveling
in the opposite direction. Further, spacing between the successive vehicles (vehicle attempting
to overtake and the lead vehicle), reaction time, rate of acceleration of the driver intending to
overtake, and gradient of the road will also influence OSD. The minimum OSD required on a
two-lane two-way roadway can be estimated by using the equation below:
𝑂𝑆𝐷 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 (4)
𝑑 𝑣 ∗𝑡 (5)
𝑑 2𝑠 𝑣 ∗ 𝑇 (6)
4𝑠
𝑇
𝑎
𝑠 0.7𝑣 6 (7)
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𝑑 𝑣∗𝑇 (8)
Figure 67: Overtaking sight distance (Chhabra, 2017)
Where, d1 is the distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle A during reaction time t at speed vb
(m/s). d2 is the distance travelled by the vehicle A while overtaking vehicle B in time T. d3 is the
distance travelled by the oncoming vehicle C at speed v (m/s) during time T as shown in Figure
67.
It can be noted that d3 is only considered during undivided roads. d3 will not be considered during
divided roads.
Overtaking zones
Overtaking zones are provided when it is not possible to provide OSD for the entire roadway.
Overtaking zones are the road sections dedicated for overtaking operations which will be
indicated with road markings. Overtaking zones will be provided in the range of 3 times OSD
(minimum requirement) to 5 times OSD (desirable length).
Intermediate Sight Distance
Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD) is provided when it is not possible to provide OSD. ISD is
provided on horizontal curves or in restricted areas. ISD is twice the SSD.
5.3.4. Horizontal curve
A vehicle experiences outward force acting on it while negotiating a horizontal curve. This
outward force is the centrifugal force which depends on speed of the vehicle and radius of the
horizontal curve. The centrifugal force is countered up to some extent by the lateral friction
between tyre and road surface. The centrifugal force tends to overturn the vehicle or slide
outward from the center of the road curvature. The centrifugal force P (kg/m2) acting on the
vehicle is represented as:
𝑃 (9)
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Where, W is the total weight of the vehicle in kg, v is the vehicle speed in m/s, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and R is the radius of curve in m.
As mentioned above, centrifugal force may either overturn the vehicle about outer wheels or lead
to transverse skidding.
At equilibrium, overturning is possible if,
(10)
The vehicle will be safe from overturning if,
(11)
Where b is the breadth of the vehicle and h is the height of center of gravity.
At equilibrium, skidding occurs when,
𝑓 (12)
The vehicle will be safe from skidding if,
𝑓 (13)
Where f is the lateral friction.
5.3.4.1. Superelevation
Superelevation is the transverse slope provided at the horizontal curve to counter the centrifugal
force by raising the outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge throughout the
horizontal curve (Kadiyali, 2013). It is important to determine the required raise in the outer edge
to have safe maneuver without toppling of the vehicle. The forces acting on the vehicle while
maneuvering through the horizontal curve are shown in the Figure 68.
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Figure 68: Forces acting on the vehicle while maneuvering through the horizontal curve (APSEd, 2022)
P is the centrifugal force, W is the weight of the vehicle, F is the lateral friction between tyre and
road surface, and e is the rate of superelevation.
After equating all the forces, the expression for superelevation is as presented below:
𝑒 𝑓 (14)
5.3.4.2. Design of other factors
Radius of horizontal curve and extra widening are two important components which are required
to be designed other than superelevation for horizontal curves. The maximum comfortable speed
depends on the radius of the curve. A ruling minimum radius Rruling can be provided by assuming
maximum rate of superelevation and coefficient of friction f as shown below:
𝑅 (15)
Preferably, the radius of the curve should be higher than Rruling.
Extra widening is provided because a vehicle requires additional width while driving through a
horizontal curve since rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than front wheels as shown in
Figure 69. Further, the drivers tend to drive away from the edge of the carriageway on a
horizontal curve. Thus, extra widening required due to off-tracking (case 1) is called mechanical
widening and extra widening required due to psychological constraints is called psychological
widening.
Extra widening = mechanical widening + psychological widening (16)

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𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊 (17)
𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊 (18)

. ∗√
Where, n is the total number of lanes, l is the length of the wheelbase, R is the radius of curve,
V is the speed of the vehicle.
Figure 69: Extra widening (Mathew, 2006)
5.3.5. Transition curve
Transition curve is provided for gradually introducing vehicles to a circular curve directly from
the straight road (Kadiyali, 2013). This is done to avoid sudden introduction of vehicles to
centrifugal force which will cause shock and sway. A transition curve is provided before the
circular curve having radius starting from infinity at the end of the straight road to gradually
reducing to radius equal to circular curve. The objectives behind providing transition curve
before circular curve are:
●gradual introduction of centrifugal force,
●gradual introduction of superelevation and extra widening,
●enable drivers to steer gradually through the curvature according to his/her own comfort and
safety, and
●enhance the aesthetics of the road.
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5.3.5.1. Types of transition curve
The different types of transition curve which can be provided are spiral (or clothoid), cubic
parabola, and Lemniscate as shown in Figure 70. IRC recommends a spiral transition curve
because the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is consistent, and the radius of the transition
curve is infinity at the end of the straight road and gradually changes to radius R at the start of
the circular curve. Further, the calculation and field implementation of the transition curve is
also very easy.
Figure 70: Types of transition curves (ESE notes, 2022)
5.3.6. Vertical curve
The vertical alignment of the road consists of gradients and vertical curves. Gradient is the rate
of rise or fall along the road with respect to horizontal surface. The gradient is represented as 1
vertical to N horizontal. The gradient can be categorized as ruling gradient, limiting gradient,
exceptional gradient, and minimum gradient. Ruling gradient (or design gradient) is the
maximum gradient with which the vertical profile of the road is designed. India has different
categories of roads because of which IRC has recommended certain values for ruling gradients
according to types of terrain. Limiting gradient is considered when ruling gradient is not
financially possible to construct. Exceptional gradient is a very steep gradient which is not
usually considered except for some unavoidable situations. Exceptional gradient is limited for
very short stretches. Minimum gradient is provided for drainage purposes. Camber is provided
for lateral drainage and minimum gradient is provided for longitudinal drainage (Kadiyali, 2013;
Mathew, 2006).
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5.3.6.1. Grade compensation
An increased resistance to friction due to both gradient and curve will be experienced by the
vehicle when a horizontal curve is in combination with a gradient. During such an instance, the
gradient, if required, is reduced for the loss of tractive effort due to curve resistance. This
reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called grade compensation.
IRC specifies criteria for the grade compensation.
I. Grade compensation is not necessary for the gradient within 4%.
II. Grade compensation is determined by estimating ((30+R)/R) %, where R is the radius

of the horizontal curve in meters.
III. The maximum grade compensation is limited to (75/R) %
5.3.6.2. Summit curve
Summit curve is a vertical curve having convexity upwards. There is no requirement for a
transition curve for introducing a summit curve because centrifugal acceleration is acting upward
and not acting laterally outward or inward. A summit curve is formed when two gradients meet
as shown in Figure 71.
●Positive gradient connects with another positive gradient (Figure 71 a)
●Positive gradient connects with a flat gradient (Figure 71b)
●Ascending gradient connects with a descending gradient (Figure 71c)
●Descending gradient connects with another descending gradient (Figure 71d)
Figure 71: Types of Summit curves (Mathew, 2006)
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5.3.6.3. Valley curve
Valley curve is a vertical curve having convexity downwards. They are formed when two
gradients meet as shown in Figure 72.
●Descending gradient connects with another descending gradient (Figure 72a)
●Descending gradient connects with a flat gradient (Figure 72b)
●Ascending gradient connects with an ascending gradient (Figure 72c)
●Ascending gradient connects with another ascending gradient (Figure 72d)
Figure 72: Type of valley curves (Mathew, 2006)
5.4. Pavement materials, design, construction, and management

5.4.1. Pavement materials
Pavement is a composite of different materials. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the

behavior of the materials on an individual basis as well as in combination with other materials.
Soil, aggregate, and bitumen are the three basic materials used to construct a pavement. A
thorough understanding of these material properties is required since they affect stability,
durability, and binding of the pavement structure.
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5.4.1.1. Soil
Soil is the main material for the construction of embankments and subgrade of highways. Soil is
also used in other pavement layers such as base and sub-base courses (Mathew, 2006). The
pavement is constructed over a subgrade which supports the pavement layers. The performance
of the pavement, especially flexible pavement majorly depends on the subgrade soil and its
properties. Various laboratory tests are developed to explore physical properties and soil
strength. A wide diversity of soil can be observed throughout and thus, it is desirable to classify
the subgrade soil according to the similar physical properties. Grain size analysis and consistency
tests are performed to classify subgrade soil according to similar physical properties (Khanna et
al., 2013).
Soil compaction is an important phenomenon where the soil particles are constrained to be
packed together by decreasing air voids which reduces chances of future settlement of earth
embankment. Soil compaction is conducted to reduce the air voids and increase dry density to
increase shearing strength. A compacted soil fill and subgrade improve load bearing ability of
the pavement which results in reduction of pavement thickness. (Khanna et al., 2013).
Different tests are developed for determining soil strength. Tests conducted on soil to evaluate
strength properties can be divided into three groups: (a) shear tests, (b) bearing tests, and (c)
penetration tests. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a well-known test conducted for
evaluating the strength of subgrade soil for the design of flexible pavements. CBR test denotes
the resistance offered by the soil to penetration using a standard plunger under controlled
conditions (Khanna et al., 2013).
Soil sometimes is not directly suitable for use in subgrade as a pavement layer. However, it is
possible to improve the strength and durability of the soil by adopting appropriate soil
stabilization techniques. Soil is mostly stabilized using mixed Portland cement in appropriate
proportion since it is fairly suitable for various soil types. Cement stabilized soils are commonly
used in subgrade, subbase, and in base course layers of some pavements (Khanna et al., 2013).
5.4.1.2. Aggregate
Stone aggregates are widely used in the construction of different pavement layers forming one
of the prime materials of the pavement structure. Aggregate accounts for 92% – 96% of
bituminous concrete and around 70% – 80% of Portland cement concrete (Mathew, 2006).
Aggregates used in the surface course have to mainly bear load stresses occurring on the road,
withstand the impact due to heavy wheel loads, and have to resist abrasive action of traffic
movement under all weather conditions. Thus, the aggregates should be hard, possess resistance
to crushing, and need to have adequate resistance to abrasion offered by the traffic movements.
The aggregates should offer resistance to getting smooth or from getting polished due to fast and
rapid movement of vehicles to prevent the pavement surface becoming slippery which can result
in skidding related accidents, particularly during monsoon season. The aggregates should not
easily disintegrate under adverse weather conditions and offer resistance to weathering action.
Determination of specific gravity of the aggregates is important to assess strength and suitability
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of the aggregates. The aggregates should not have high air voids or pores which will result in
low specific gravity indicating low strength and durability of the aggregates. The aggregates
which will be used for construction should not be too flaky or elongated because they get easily
crushed during compaction and get break down under heavy traffic loads. Angular aggregates
provide better stability due to interlocking which is desirable for flexible pavements. Finally,
affinity of the aggregates to bituminous binders is an important property signifying good
adhesion to bituminous materials in water. The pavement layer will be in contact with water for
prolonged periods during monsoon season. The bituminous binder must not get stripped from
the coated aggregates if they have affinity to the bituminous binder (Khanna et al., 2013;
Mathew, 2006). The desirable properties of the aggregates are:
●Resistance to crushing (aggregate crushing test)
●Resistance to impact or toughness (aggregate impact test)
●Resistance to abrasion or hardness (Los Angeles abrasion test)
●Resistance from getting smooth or polished (polished stone value test)
●Resistance to soundness or weathering (soundness test)
●Good adhesion with bitumen materials in presence of water (stripping value test)
●Good shape factor to avoid too flaky and elongated particles of coarse aggregates (shape test)
5.4.1.3. Bitumen
Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude used in pavement
construction works (Khanna et al., 2014, 2013; Mathew, 2006). The bitumen is brought to an
adequate fluidity or viscosity before use in pavement construction by either heating in the form
of hot bitumen binder or by dissolving in light oils in the form of cutback bitumen or by
dispersing bitumen in water in the form of bitumen emulsion. Bitumen binders are commonly
used in surface courses of the pavement. They are used in a base course of flexible pavement to
withstand adverse traffic and climate conditions. Bitumen is also used to stabilize the soil and to
prepare sealer materials for filling joints in cement concrete pavements. Viscosity test,
penetration test, ductility test, and softening test are the common tests used to evaluate properties
of the bitumen (Khanna et al., 2014, 2013; Mathew, 2006).
5.4.1.4. Bituminous mixture
Surface course of the flexible pavement needs to withstand high stress conditions, wear, and tear
due to traffic loads, and adverse climatic conditions. Therefore, a high quality hot bituminous
mix is required to be designed and laid on the surface course of the flexible pavement to sustain
heavy traffic loads, wear, and tear due to high-speed traffic movement and provide adequate skid
resistance in wet conditions. Bituminous mix consists of well graded hard aggregates and
suitable bituminous binder at correct proportion. High-quality bituminous mixtures must be able
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to withstand repeated stresses and deformation, and resultant fatigue. Additionally, it must be
sufficiently resistant to moisture-induced damage, low-temperature cracking, and resistance to
permanent deformation during hot weather conditions. The workability of the mix should be
adequate at the mixing, laying, and compacting temperatures. A variety of laboratory
experiments are developed for examining bituminous mixtures. Marshall Stability test is most
commonly used for evaluating the adequacy of a bituminous mix (Khanna et al., 2014, 2013;
Mathew, 2006).
5.4.2. Pavement design and construction
Pavement consists of overlaid layers above the subgrade soil designed to distribute the traffic
load to the subgrade. The pavement surface must offer appropriate driving quality, adequate skid
resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution (Mathew, 2006).
The main purpose of the pavement design is to ensure that the transferred stress due to the traffic
load should be within the bearing capacity of the subgrade. Flexible and rigid pavements are the
two different pavement structures mainly designed according to the requirement. The following
subsections provide an overview of the same.
5.4.2.1. Flexible pavement
Flexible pavement is a road structure consisting of different layers designed to transmit load to
the subgrade soil. Wheel load stresses in flexible pavement are transferred by grain-to-grain
contact of the aggregate through the granular structure as shown in Figure 73. The wheel load
acting on the pavement gets distributed over a wider area because of which stress reduces with
the depth. For this reason, flexible pavements consist of various layers for transmitting wheel
load stresses. Flexible pavements have low flexural strength and are rather flexible in their
structural action under the loads (Khanna et al., 2014). The deformation in the layers of flexible
pavement may be recoverable or non-recoverable (Mathew, 2006). Thus, if a lower layer or
subgrade gets deformed due to permanent deformation then the upper layers will also reflect
similar deformation.
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Figure 73: Load transfer in granular structure (Mathew, 2006)
A typical flexible pavement consists of a subgrade, sub-base, base, and surface course as shown
in Figure 74. The top 500 mm of embankment consists of subgrade, which is prepared to bear
the stresses transmitted from the above layers. The subgrade soil should be adequately
compacted to the optimum moisture content for achieving the desired dry density for limiting
the scope of rutting during the service life of the pavement. The sub-base course is the layer
above the subgrade whose primary function is to provide structural support, improve drainage
conditions, and decrease incursion of fine particles from the subgrade in the pavement structure.
The base course is the layer above the sub-base course provided for sustaining wheel load
stresses and for sub-surface drainage. The pavement surface has to bear maximum vertical
compressive stress equal to contact pressure under the wheel load. Therefore, the top layer (i.e.,
surface course) has to be of the best quality which can sustain the vertical compressive stresses
and wear and tear due to continuous movement of traffic and weather conditions (Khanna et al.,
2014, 2013; Mathew, 2006).
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(500
Figure 74: Typical cross-section of flexible pavement (Mathew, 2006)
5.4.2.2. Rigid pavement
Rigid pavements are made of Portland Cement Concrete (CC). Figure 75 shows the cross-section
of rigid pavement. Plain cement concrete slabs designed for particular strength characteristics
are laid on the subgrade with or without steel reinforcements at the joints. The rigid pavement
slabs constructed using high quality plain cement concrete are expected to sustain 45 kg/cm2 of
flexural stresses. A subgrade or a single layer of stabilized or granular material is generally
prepared on which pavement slabs are placed for constructing a rigid pavement structure. The
rigid pavement transfers the wheel load stresses through ‘slab action’ to the much wider area
beneath the pavement slab. The pavement behaves like an elastic plate over a viscous foundation
as shown in Figure 76. The CC slab is subjected to tensile stresses based on the bending location
of the slab under wheel load and temperature differences.
Figure 75: Typical cross-section of rigid pavement (Mathew, 2006)
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Figure 76: Concept of elastic plate on viscous foundation (Mathew, 2006)
The pavement slab made of high-quality cement concrete serves as a wearing surface as well as
base course. The base or sub-base course is laid under the CC pavement slab by providing a good
drainage facility (as a layer) which will increase the life of the pavement (Khanna et al., 2014).
Therefore, a typical rigid pavement consists of (bottom layer to top layer) subgrade soil, drainage
layer, lean cement concrete or dry lean concrete as a base course or a good granular sub-base
course, and CC pavement slab (Khanna et al., 2014).
5.4.3. Pavement management
Road construction is an important component in infrastructure development and road, or

pavement maintenance is important for development of the country without any hindrance.
Pavement maintenance is a vital element of the pavement system. It is important to assess the
functional and structural condition of the pavement for diagnosing the problem in order to either
preserve or replace the existing surface to maintain the strength of the pavement. Pavement starts
deteriorating from the day they are opened for traffic due to the collective effect of environment
and traffic conditions. It is very important that each layer of the pavement has sufficient stability
for withstanding the traffic under varying environmental conditions. The pavement is
constructed for particular design traffic. However, it is likely that the actual traffic volume
increases beyond the original design capacity which leads to pavement deterioration and distress
and decreasing the design life of the pavement. Therefore, it is very important to conduct regular
pavement evaluation at certain time intervals to determine the extent of pavement degradation
so that appropriate maintenance measures can be adopted to improve strength and stability of
the pavement with suitable overlays at the right time. Implementing pavement maintenance and
adopting appropriate pavement treatment at the right time is the important component of the
pavement management system which results in overall savings by minimizing life-cycle cost of
the pavement.
Functional assessment of the pavement surface is important to decide the appropriate

maintenance measure including the type of resurfacing required on the identified sub-stretches.
Structural evaluation helps in assessment of structural adequacy of the pavement in sustaining
prevailing traffic, weather, and environmental conditions. Based on functional and structural
evaluation, overlay thickness is designed to strengthen the pavement structure and prolong the
life up to the desired period. Delay or failure in carrying out the pavement maintenance to
strengthen the pavement structure will result in loss in structural capacity, rapid rate of
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deterioration and failure of the pavement structure during the prevailing period. Further, delay
in pavement maintenance results in increased maintenance cost and leads to expensive
rehabilitation treatment of more than one pavement layer for restoring the strength of the
pavement structure or may require re-construction of the identified road stretches.
A wide range of methods and techniques are available for structural and functional evaluation of
flexible pavements. Benkelman beam rebound deflection and falling weight deflectometer are
most commonly used for structural evaluation of the flexible pavement. IRC has provided
guidelines for conducting Benkelman beam rebound deflection study to design the overlay
thickness required to strengthen flexible pavement. Benkelman beam rebound deflection is easy
to conduct and is therefore generally conducted for structural evaluation of the flexible
pavement.
5.5. Public transport systems

In general, public transport is commonly referred to as land-based passenger transport via bus or
train. In the current scenario, most of the population adopts a private mode of transport (personal
two-wheeler or car) instead of public transport. Private transport is mainly chosen due to comfort,
convenience, quick travel, no constraint of bus or train schedule, and privacy. In today’s world
owning a two-wheeler or a car is comparatively easier than a few years ago. Because of this
reason, vehicle ownership is increasing day by day and the roads are getting crowded. It is
difficult to widen a particular road because of many constraints. Therefore, it is necessary to
develop and promote the use of public transport among the daily commuters for reducing traffic
congestion and air as well as noise pollution.
5.5.1. Development of public transport system
An efficient public transport system can be developed only by means of careful planning. Public
transport within urban areas is dominated by bus service. It is very important to conduct travel
surveys for selecting bus routes which will cover major locations along the route in one trip.
Passengers will not be willing to frequently transfer from the start of their travel to reach their
desired destination. Therefore, the route and the bus-stops must be properly planned so that the
walking distance should not be too high which will not involve more than 10 minutes of walking
(Kadiyali, 2013). Further, the bus service frequency should be managed in accordance with the
passenger demand. This means that high frequency of buses can be provided during peak
working hours whereas less buses can be operated during non-peak hours. The comfort and
safety of the passengers (seating as well as standing) in a bus must be given special attention. It
is very important to plan roads in urban areas for bus traffic. A provision of bus-bay is very
important for separating bus stoppage from the carriageway. A bus stopping in a carriageway
will create a temporary bottleneck which will significantly reduce the capacity of the road
thereby deteriorating the overall traffic operation. Moreover, a minimum of 75 m of distance is
required to be maintained between a bus stop and intersection for the safety of the passengers
(CRRI, 2017). Exclusive bus lanes can also be dedicated for operating buses to reduce journey
time by exempting them to travel from the regular traffic. Finally, parking spaces can also be
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provided at major bus stations so that passengers can travel to the bus station with their private
vehicle, can park their vehicle, and use bus service for reaching his/her desired destination.
5.5.2. Promotion of public transport
The government agencies should promote public transport so that people start prioritizing the
public transportation system over private vehicles. This can be done by integrating different
modes of public transportation, usage of modern technology, smart fare management, and
improving user experience. Intermodal public transportation can revolutionize the public
transport system by providing easy, hassle-free, and convenient modes of transport as per the
requirement and type of journey. Different modes of transport can be appropriately combined
which can offer door-to-door connectivity options. For example, metro as well as bus service
can directly provide access to the railway station or an airport where the passengers will not have
to struggle to reach the final destination using a private vehicle or through intermediate public
transport (like auto rickshaws). Public transport systems can adopt modern technologies like
electronic-ticketing, fleet management, real-time monitoring and tracking of buses, dynamic
passenger information system, etc. for improving passenger safety and fleet efficiency which
will enhance the overall user experience.
5.5.3. Indian public transportation
India has observed rapid growth in the number of motor vehicles in the last two-to-three decades.
This rapid growth of private vehicles has escalated the congestion problems leading to higher
travel times in most parts of the cities. Therefore, there is an urgent requirement to plan the
transportation systems and facilitate dedicated space for public modes for promoting public
transportation. This can be achieved by developing a mobility plan for each city by giving
importance to various public transportation services like BRTS (Bus Rapid Transit Service),
metro, monorail, etc. Various cities in India are productively operating rapid public
transportation services. Cities like Mumbai and Delhi have multiple public transport services
like rapid bus transit and rail transport services for the commuters. Ahmedabad BRTS service as
shown in Figure 77 is considered as one of the best bus public transport services of India
(interested readers are directed to Smart Cities Council (2016) for detailed information). Mysore
city has significantly improved the efficiency of bus services by incorporating ITS for operating
and managing the fleet of about 400 buses from 3 depots within the city (interested readers are
directed to The World Bank (2011) for detailed information).Figure 78 shows the online bus
tracking platform available on the Mysore ITS.
Figure 77: Ahmedabad BRTS
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Figure 78: Mysore Intelligent Transport System (Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation, 2016)
5.6. Transportation logistics

5.6.1. What is logistics?
Planning and carrying out the efficient movement and storage of commodities from their point
of origin to their site of consumption is the process of logistics (Essex, 2022). Logistics involves
management of resources from acquisition, storage, to transportation. Logistics was initially
used to explain the procurement and movement of military equipment and supplies. Currently,
logistics is closely associated with the global supply chain. The manufacturers or producers rely
on logistics for maintaining efficiency at reduced costs to ensure to fulfil consumers’ needs.
Logistics is one of the fastest growing industries and is expected to witness a boom considering
the increasing prominence of e-commerce in daily life. The main activities included in logistics
are:
(i) Processing of the order
(ii) Inventory management
(iii) Warehouse management for commodities storage and packing
(iv) Efficient, cost-effective, and safe transportation
(v) Timely delivery of the commodities
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5.6.2. Effect of transportation on logistics
Transportation is a key element which plays a connective role in management of logistics from
production of a product to delivering it to the customer. Different modes of transportation are
effectively used by properly planning the transfer of commodities from one place to another.
Containerization is a major component in logistics and supply chain management where
standardized containers are used for shipping the commodities as a single unit. Standardization
of containers has facilitated intermodal transportation from the production unit to warehouse to
customer delivery. The logistics service provider decides the exact combination of transportation
modes based on the product to be shipped considering a cost-effective approach. Further, the use
of information technology and ITS has changed the entire dynamics of the logistics industry.
Up-to-date information to the customers starting from packing, shipping, to the delivery of the
product has increased the reliability of the customers in the logistics industry. Further, ITS plays
a prominent role in managing different modes of transportation, handling bulk cargo, and the
continuous tracking of shipments using GPS or any other tracking device which helps in
mitigating the problems associated with delivery services like dispatching of the product to the
accurate destination.
5.7. Road safety

Road traffic safety is a growing concern playing a prominent role in a country's development by
impacting the economy and public wellbeing. Road traffic accidents are the eighth most common
cause of fatality globally (World Health Organization, 2018). More than 1.35 million fatalities
are caused by road traffic accidents each year (World Health Organization, 2018). According to
the report published by World Road Statistics (2018), India ranks first in road traffic fatalities
across 199 countries followed by China. The road accident statistics of India showed that around
51 accidents and 17 fatalities occur every hour (Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, 2020).
The vehicular population in India is increasing at a 10.11% compound annual growth rate
(Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, 2020). The current road infrastructure is not able to
adequately withstand the swift vehicular growth resulting in high vehicular interactions thereby
elevating traffic safety concerns.
Road traffic accidents are complex and multifaceted events resulting due to interaction between
numerous factors. These factors can be broadly classified as (a) human factors, (b) vehicle
factors, and (c) road and environment factors. Human factors are responsible for more than 90%
of road traffic accidents, with the remaining 10% being caused due to vehicles, road, and
environment related factors (Soehodho, 2009). Human factors in transport safety can be
attributed to all those factors that impact driver behavior during safety-critical situations. The
road traffic accidents associated with vehicle characteristics can be accredited to the vehicle
factors. The road traffic accidents caused due to the influence of geographical area, improper
design of road infrastructure, and bad weather conditions can be related to road and
environmental factors.
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Road traffic safety is mainly evaluated using a reactive approach and a proactive approach
(Pawar et al., 2022a). Road traffic safety is evaluated using a reactive approach by developing
statistical models by obtaining historical accident data. Proactive approach analyses road traffic
safety using different surrogate safety measures by evaluating near-accident events as
alternatives to real accidents. Road traffic safety is also evaluated by conducting a road safety
audit of a particular road section before, during, and after the road construction. The following
subsections provide a brief overview of different aspects of road traffic safety.
5.7.1. Causes of road traffic accidents
5.7.1.1. Human factors
Driver, vehicle, road, and environment are the four main and basic factors governing road
accidents. The majority of the road accidents are caused by variability in driving behavior and
human errors. Human performance is very difficult to predict because it varies from individual
to individual. The variability in performance and decision making of humans make the system
very complex to deal with. The humans’ ability to perceive, react, vision, hearing, and other
physical, psychological, and physiological characteristics vary based on age, gender, driving
experience, driving profession, marital status, influence of external and internal factors. Further,
road accidents because of human errors are the product of traffic rules violations, driving without
a valid driving license, and driving without safety precautions.
In recent years, traffic safety researchers observed that driving performance of the drivers was
significantly influenced by numerous external factors like sleep deprivation, mobile phone
distraction, time pressure, alcohol impaired driving, etc. (Choudhary and Velaga, 2018; Mahajan
and Velaga, 2021; Pawar and Velaga, 2021; Yadav and Velaga, 2021). Mobile phone distraction
resulted in drivers reacting 40% to 204% late as compared to normal driving (Choudhary and
Velaga, 2017). Alcohol consumption while driving negatively affected brake transition time
where drivers were observed to take more time to achieve maximum deceleration by 16% to
53% than normal driving (Yadav and Velaga, 2021). Speed variability of sleep deprived drivers
was observed to increase by 1.28 to 1.34 times as compared to normal driving (Mahajan and
Velaga, 2021). The drivers under time pressure were observed to drive quickly, accept short gaps
at unsignalized intersections, and were more likely to cross a signalized intersection when the
signal turned from green to yellow than normal driving (Pawar et al., 2022b; Pawar and Velaga,
2022). Through all these results, it is clear that driving performance of the drivers significantly
deteriorated which apparently increased the likelihood of accidents.
Traffic rules violation is a serious road safety issue in India. Over-speeding is the most common
problem followed by lane indiscipline leading to nearly 72% and 6% of the total road accidents,
respectively caused due to traffic rules violations (Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
2020). Drunken driving, use of mobile phones, and red-light jumping is also one of the major
traffic rules violations observed in India leading to 2.7%, 2.3%, and 1% of the total road
accidents caused due to traffic rules violations, respectively (Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways, 2020).
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Drivers without a valid driving license are a serious threat to the overall road users because they
are not trained or skilled to drive through traffic and different hazardous events. Drivers without
a valid driving license have low hazard perception skills as well as they are not trained to control
the vehicle during difficult traffic events. The inability of the drivers without a valid driving
license to control the vehicle jeopardizes safety of the other road users. Further, the drivers using
two-wheelers and four-wheelers in daily life do not usually take safety precautions like using
helmets and seatbelts. Usage of helmets and seatbelts does not prevent the occurrence of an
accident but will play a crucial role in preventing fatal or grievous injury during road accidents.
Therefore, drivers must practice using helmets and seatbelts while driving two-wheelers and
four-wheelers for their own safety. These issues are very common in India which are required to
be addressed quickly with strict enforcement from the local traffic authorities.
5.7.1.2. Vehicle factors
Age and overloading of vehicles are the two major vehicle factors associated with road accidents.
MORTH report on road accidents in India also advocates the above mentioned two reasons as
the major issues associated with road accidents. According to the MORTH report on road
accidents, vehicles of age between 10-15 years, more than 15 years, and age not known
accounted for 12.5%, 11%, and 14.6% of the total road accidents (Ministry of Road Transport
& Highways, 2020). Road accidents increased for categories: vehicles with age above 15 years
from 9.6% to 11% and vehicles age not known from 13.9% to 14.6% in 2019 over 2018 (Ministry
of Road Transport & Highways, 2020).
Truck drivers in India generally overload containers for delivering more goods in order to earn
more incentives. However, overloaded trucks are more prone to accidents because (i) of the
wearing down of braking system, (ii) road collapses, (iii) bursting of tyres, (iv) roll-over caused
by shift in the center of gravity, and (v) excess weight degrading working of trucks during uphill
and downhill (Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, 2020). In 2019, India recorded 7.9% of
the total accidents due to overloading of trucks from which 9.5% of accidents resulted in fatality
and 8.2% of the drivers were injured (Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, 2020).
Considering this, MORTH is taking strict actions against overloading of trucks which resulted
in a decline in road accidents in 2019 as compared to 2018.
5.7.1.3. Road and environmental factors
Road characteristics and weather conditions have a significant influence on road accidents. Road
alignment, sight distance, superelevation, roadway width, shoulders, road signs and markings,
intersection design, road surface characteristics, and median width are the major road factors
influencing safety of the drivers. Stopping sight distance is required for the safety of the drivers
to detect the vehicles along horizontal and vertical curves. Superelevation is required to be
provided for safely negotiating the horizontal curves. Deficiency of superelevation may
compromise the safety of the drivers. A minimum carriageway of 7 m must be provided for a
two-lane undivided road with bidirectional traffic and 5.5 m width of intermediate lane where
two-lane road cannot be provided, and traffic cannot be negotiated through a single lane. Further,
overtaking of vehicles should be strictly restricted on two-lane and intermediate lane roads.
144
Paved shoulders can be provided instead of earthen shoulders wherever possible with adequate
widths because Indian drivers often use shoulders as an extra lane during traffic congestion. Road
signs and markings play an important advisory role to the drivers at every step of driving. It is
very important to provide clear information without creating any confusion through road signs
and markings for safe maneuver of the drivers. Road or pavement surfaces constructed must be
anti-skid even when the road surface is wet. This will facilitate emergency application of brakes
during hazardous traffic events. Median width is of great importance since width of the median
will determine the detrimental effects of glare on the opposite stream drivers by compromising
their visibility.
Weather has a significant effect on road surface condition and visibility which substantially
governs the driving behavior of the drivers. Road surface becomes wet during the rainy season,
leading to slippery driving conditions which degrades skid resistance of the roads. During the
winter season, snow or ice also makes the road surface slippery leading to less skid resistance
from the roads. During winter as well as during early morning hours, fog can reduce visibility of
the drivers. Thus, bad weather conditions significantly reduce visibility and skid resistance of
the roads during which drivers need to slowly and carefully negotiate the road.
5.8. Advanced technologies and ITS/IT/IoT

5.8.1. What is ITS and why is it necessary?
ITS stands for Intelligent Transportation Systems which uses communication technology by
deploying and integrating the information networks (road sensors) to improve traffic mobility,
efficiency, and safety. The basic idea behind the development of ITS is to use modern technology
by developing the digital road infrastructure along with physical road infrastructure to resolve a
variety of road traffic problems like road congestion, re-routing of vehicles, toll collection,
management of public transport systems, road pricing, etc. ITS links drivers, vehicles, and road
infrastructure with each other for improving safety and capacity of road systems and reducing
air and noise pollution.
5.8.2. Components of ITS
Location, mapping, and communication are the three most important components required for
establishing ITS as shown in Figure 79. Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based
navigation system which is the most commonly used technology for identifying locations.
Mapping is a technology used to plot the location information on a digital map. Communication
is a vital component of ITS which can be established via a variety of broadcasting and
telecommunication technologies such as Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC),
mobile phones, etc. Further, an onboard unit is also required for establishing a common platform
that is compatible with the developed digital infrastructure for utilizing ITS.
145
Loca
Communic
Figure 79: Components of ITS
5.8.2.1. ITS configuration
ITS can be configured as a (i) two-way communication system, (ii) one-way communication
system, and (c) telematics system, among other things (Maniko et al., 2016). A two-way
communication system is also known as an active system that can be readily deployed for a
variety of applications through interactive communication. The one-way communication system
is a passive system which requires an onboard unit for establishing communication with the
digital road infrastructure. Telematics is a wireless network system used for gathering and
exchanging data such as vehicle location, driving behavior, vehicle characteristics, etc. with the
digital road infrastructure which is continuously evaluated along with the changing traffic
conditions based on which decisions are taken for the effective use of the road network
considering the safety of the transport systems.
Integration of the current road infrastructure with ITS is a challenging work which highly
depends on the financial condition of the road users. Incorporation of ITS in the road system
must be planned properly by focusing on the current financial condition and by taking into
account the future scalability. A high technologically advanced system will not be beneficial if
the road users are not willing to adopt the system whereas a low ITS system will get outdated in
a short span which might put additional financial burden on the country in order to cope up with
the ever-growing technology.
5.8.2.2. Communication
Development of ITS majorly depends on setting up different communication devices along the
roadway. Different communication devices such as DSRC, GSM/GPRS, etc. are placed along
the roadway which connect with the vehicles through an onboard unit. An onboard unit is a
communication device mounted on a vehicle which acts like a bridge to establish communication
146
with digital road infrastructure, transfer vehicle information, and perform various tasks such as
payment of tolls, monitoring freight transport, providing information regarding efficient driving
routes, etc. (Maniko et al., 2016). The onboard unit acquires information from multiple sensors
and manages large data at high computation speed because of which it has become one of the
important components for in-vehicle communication. The onboard unit is connected with GPS
which monitors the movement of the vehicle. The onboard unit also gets connected with multiple
road sensors like DSRC and GSM (Global System for Mobile)/GPRS (General Packet Radio
Service) where the data is exchanged between the two systems (Maniko et al., 2016; Vaculík et
al., 2008). The GSM/GPRS collects driving data through an onboard unit which is connected
with the monitoring center through the internet. The data is analyzed and the necessary
information is conveyed to the driver through the onboard unit. Figure 80 illustrates a typical
example of communication between an onboard unit and the roadside sensors. The researchers
working on the development of ITS are making efforts to integrate onboard units with V2V
(Vehicle-to-Vehicle), V2P (Vehicle-to-Pedestrian), and V2I (Vehicle-to-Infrastructure) for
enhancing safety of the overall road users.
Figure 80: Communication setup (Vaculík et al., 2008)
5.8.2.3. Location information and mapping
ITS requires location information for detecting the position of a moving vehicle. Vehicles
operate in a very limited or confined space (i.e., road). GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite
System) is extensively used in ITS for locating position of the vehicle. However, GNSS does not
provide accurate location data when the vehicle passes through obstructions like tunnels or while
traveling through areas surrounded by high-rise buildings or mountains. Gyroscope and
accelerometer are commonly installed for obtaining positions of the vehicles when it passes
through the obstructions. In this manner, the location of the vehicle is detected. It is important to
associate location data with map data as shown in Figure 81 to develop a dynamic map for
indicating drivers with the ongoing driving route, best driving route, traffic congestion, etc. A
map data is developed by integrating base map data with road network (link and node), road and
traffic characteristics (signalized or un-signalized intersection, interchange, sidewalk, traffic
constraint, etc.), static and dynamic information (landmark, traffic signs, time of day, weather
147
forecast, road surface, traffic congestion, etc.). The development of map data will facilitate
drivers to identify the best route for travel according to traffic congestion and time of day. It is
very important to update map data after certain intervals in order to incorporate or identify road
construction or road restriction or newly opened roads for providing the most appropriate
information to the drivers.
Figure 81: Concept of dynamic map (Maniko et al., 2016)
5.8.3. ITS applications
Road traffic accidents, traffic congestion, weather conditions, and other factors such as road
blockage, visibility, and lighting issues, etc. can create problems in smooth traffic flow which
may compromise safety of the road users. ITS can be effectively used to avoid these problems
or minimize the impact of these problems on traffic flow and safety. The major ITS applications
for improving traffic efficiency and road safety are:
●Advanced traveler information system is used for monitoring traffic flow for providing regular
updates to the drivers regarding traffic congestion, road accidents, road blockage, road closures,
different routes, and weather conditions.
●Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) can be deployed at tolls for automatic payment of toll amount
for using toll roads.
●Emergency response management and emergency vehicle management provide facility of

emergency notification and personal security to the road users. Road users can immediately
notify the emergency service providers for assisting travelers encountering dangerous traffic
situations like road traffic accidents either manually or automatically from the vehicle.
●Traffic operations at signalized intersections can be efficiently managed by automatically

evaluating the traffic flow based on which signal timings can be appropriately controlled to
reduce delay and increase the capacity of the intersection.
148
●The fleet size of public transportation can be optimized by analyzing data related to passenger
demand, schedule, and vehicle location. This information can be integrated with GIS for
maximum utilization of the public transport system.
●Intelligent vehicle highway system aims to improve safety by augmenting the ability of the
drivers to control the vehicle while driving. This service assists drivers in avoiding collisions by
providing advanced driver assistance and collision warning systems, adaptive cruise control,
steering evasive systems, etc.
●The efficacy and safety of freight transport can be significantly improved by providing an
electronic freight management system. The logistic operations can be improved through
standardizing information exchange between warehouse operators, supply chain partners, and
customer service. Further, ITS can play a major role in integration of different modes of
transportation for efficient management of freight transport.
5.9. Public-Private Partnership in transportation

Road infrastructure is the backbone of the country’s economic growth and development. A road
network developed considering the aspects of mobility and accessibility highly facilitates
transport of passengers and commodities which has a positive direct impact on a country's
economic growth and overall development. India’s economy, which is among the fastest
expanding in the world, is predominantly dependent on the transportation industry. The demand
for fast and efficient transport service is constantly growing every year. An underdeveloped road
infrastructure cannot handle the ever-rising demand for fast and efficient transport service which
negatively affects quality of life and slows down the economic progress. The government alone
cannot improve and support the transport infrastructure. Thus, there is a need to form a Public-
Private-Partnership (PPP) for collectively developing and expediting the process of
improvement of road infrastructure.
5.9.1. Role of private sectors in transport development
Infrastructure development demands heavy investment with long remuneration periods. Initially,
government used to develop the entire infrastructure of the country which included public
utilities (telecommunication, water supply, electricity supply, sewage and solid waste
management, gas supply, etc.) and public works (development of roads, railways, airports, and
waterways) (Kadiyali, 2013). The government alone cannot handle the constant demand of
improvement of the infrastructure for better services. Therefore, the government decided to
privatize the development of infrastructure through PPP. PPP is a collaboration between public
(government agencies at local, state, and central level) and private sectors formed for financing,
constructing, operating, and maintaining the physical infrastructure of the country (International
Civil Aviation Organization, 2022). There are multiple benefits that can be procured from
privatization of the transportation infrastructure development. Inclusion of private sectors in
infrastructure development will bring innovative ideas, additional resources, and cost-effective
designs with better management skills which might expedite the project work. Thus, PPP can
improve the quality, efficiency, and competitiveness of public services.
149
5.9.2. Different forms of public-private partnership
Public private partnership can be formed in different types as per the requirements and demands
of public and private sectors as explained below:
 BOT: Build, Operate, and Transfer (BOT) is one of the most used forms of PPP which was
successfully adopted for National Highway Projects in India. The public sector owns the
project and the private sector builds, operates, and maintains the developed facility for a
specified duration known as concession period. National Highway Projects in India were on
a concession period of 20 years. The operator (private sector) transfers the facility in working
condition to the public sector when the concession period ends. The operator recovers their
investment by collecting user fees in the form of tolls (Kadiyali, 2013).
 BOOT: Build, Own, Operate, and Transfer (BOOT) is a type of PPP in which the facility is
owned and developed by the private sector for the duration of the contract during which they
recover the investment cost. The private sector handovers the developed facility to the
government when the contract ends. BOOT structure is suitable when the government has a
huge infrastructure financing gap and the private sector is prepared to take commercial risk
and equity of the project for the term of the contract (Felsinger et al., 2008; Kadiyali, 2013).
 BOO: Build, Own, and Operate (BOO) is similar to BOOT. In BOO, there is no handover of
the created facility to the public sector. This structure is suitable for projects with heavy
investments and operating costs (Felsinger et al., 2008; Kadiyali, 2013).
 DBFOT: In Design, Build, Finance, Operate, and Transfer (DBFOT), the private sector
designs, builds, finances, and operates the facility on a concession period. The private sector
transfers the developed facility to the public sector when the concession period ends. It is
similar to BOOT (Felsinger et al., 2008; Kadiyali, 2013).
 Special Purpose Vehicles: In this structure, the public and private sectors and other financial
parties form a separate company and manage the entire project. The user fees collected are
distributed among the stakeholders as per the agreement (Kadiyali, 2013).
 Annuity Project: In this structure, the concessionaire builds and operates the project using
his/her own expenses and transfers the project to the government after the concession period.
The concessionaire is not allowed to collect any user fees. Rather, the government pays a
fixed amount at intervals to the concessionaire to cover his/her expenses (Kadiyali, 2013).
Table 2 presents recent PPP projects conducted in India.
150
Table 2. PPP projects conducted in India (Department of Economic Affairs, 2019)
S. No. Project name Cost of Type of Concession period (in
project (in PPP months)
INR Crore)
1 Bus Terminal (Vadnagar) 10.53 BOT 36
Project
2 Development of Offshore 696.27 DBFOT 360
Multipurpose Cargo Berth
at Mumbai Port in the State
of Maharashtra
3 Machilipatnam Port 1860 BOOT 360
Development

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1. Road accident statistics of India:

https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/RA_Uploadi
ng.pdf
2. Indo-HCM Manual:
https://crridom.gov.in/sites/default/files/files/Indo-
HCM%20Snippets.pdf
3. Public-Private Partnership:
https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional
-document/31484/public-private-partnership.pdf
153
4. Introduction to ITS:
https://www.jsce-
int.org/system/files/ITS_Introduction_Guide_2.pd
f
154
6
d
6. Practical Activities
Unit specifics
●Bridge model construction
●Preparing building estimations
●Structural stability
●Application of Geographic information system (GIS)
●Dam model construction
●Basics of technical writing
●Application of python for data handling
taxonomy, assignments through a number of numerical problems, a list of references and
knowledge.
of the unit.
155
Rationale
This unit on practical activities will allow students to develop basic skills about the elementary
practical applications of civil engineering. It covers various fun and practical tasks related to
computational and manual applications in civil engineering. This unit covers manual tasks like
bridge model construction with popsicles, estimation of a house plan, building frames to explore
stability under vertical loading, and simple dam construction. The materials prescribed for the
tasks are very light and easily available. It also contains computational tasks of application of
geographic information system (GIS) and programming. Computational proficiency is very
important in both academic and professional fields to handle large data and complex
computations. This chapter also discusses about technical writing which is one of the important
parts of any engineering and scientific study. The tasks in the chapter will help the students to
develop a preliminary mindset of application-based work that are relevant in the field of civil
engineering
Pre-requisites
Unit outcomes
U1-O1: Build a popsicle bridge
U1-O2: Understand basics of estimation.
U1-O3: Explore structure stability under vertical loading.
U1-O4: Preliminary idea about application Geographic Information System (GIS) application
in geology.
U1-O5: Explore ideas of dam construction.
U1-O6: Understand the basics of technical writing.
U1-O7: Preliminary introduction to programming for handling large data sets.
156
EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong
Unit-1
Correlation)
Outcomes
CO CO CO CO CO CO
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
U1-O1 3 3 3 - 3 1
U1-O2 1 1 2 2 1 -
U1-O3 2 1 3 1 2 1
U1-O4 - - 3 1 2 2
U1-O5 3 3 3 - 3 1
6.1. Bridge model construction

The objective of this activity is to design a bridge with maximum load capacity and is
aesthetically pleasing. The challenge is to optimize the material usage since the available
resources will be only 200 popsicle sticks and glue. The bridge model is expected to look like
the picture as shown in Figure 82. Teams are supposed to test the bridge load capacity in presence
of other teams and present the findings to the class.
Resources:
Each group of students will be provided with the following materials:
1. 200 popsicle sticks, a glue gun
2. 10 Kg weights or equivalent weights using a bag of sand.
Figure 82: Popsicle Bridge (Source: https://tryengineering.org/)
Time Needed: Two 45-minute sessions.
Instructions:
157
 Construct a team of 4-5 students and gather the required materials.
 Understand the constraints of materials and along with the objective of maximum load bearing
capacity.
 The students shall be encouraged to design an aesthetically pleasing structure.
 The minimum span of the bridge shall be 35 centimeters.
 After the instructions, students shall discuss among team members and design a layout on the
A4 paper.
 Students shall discuss the plan with the instructor and may need time to rethink and redesign
the layout if needed.
 After completion of layout, the students shall execute and complete the construction of the
bridge.
 After completion of the bridge, the constructed bridges shall be placed one meter above the
ground (can be placed in between two chairs).
 The bridge now shall be checked for maximum load capacity. The load shall be increased
gradually, and the structure shall bear the maximum load for at least 1 minute.
 Each bridge shall be peer evaluated for aesthetics. All the students will rate the other team
member’s bridge on a scale of 1-5. (1: not at all appealing; 2: not appealing; 3: neutral/average;
4: somewhat appealing; 5: very appealing).
 Further, the students can share their learning and the possible improvements they would make
if they could design the bridge again.
 A discussion should be initiated regarding the tradeoff between functionality, safety, and
aesthetics for any structural building.
6.2. House plan and model

To make an estimated bill of the quantities required for the above-ground construction of a 1
Bedroom-Hall-Kitchen (BHK) flat (Figure 83).
Resources: A4 Sheets, Calculator, Pencil, and Eraser.
Time Needed: 45-minutes.
Instructions:
 Divide students into teams of three.

 Students shall draw the front and top view of the bedroom, hall, and kitchen.
158
 Prepare the list of the structures in all three substructures of 1 BHK house.
 Break down the structures into the element and identify the required building materials.
 Calculate the approximate quantity of material required in the structures based on their
dimensions.
 Estimate the cost of the building materials and find out the total Bill of Quantity (BOQ).
 Compare the BOQ with the other teams and identify if any structures were missed
Learning Objectives:
 To be able to visualize a building structure and draw it on paper.

 To develop an understanding of the costs of the building construction materials.
 To familiarize with the billing process of the construction sites.
Sample BOQ:
Item Description Qty Unit Rate Total Amount
(SR) (SR)
Figure 83: Sample Sketch of a House
159
6.3. Stability of structures
Source: pbslearningmedia.org
In this activity students will learn about the stability of different shapes under vertical load. The
structure showing the minimum deflection will be the most stable.
Resources:
1. 7 drinking straws
2. 14 paper clips
Time Needed: 45-minute session.
Instructions:
 Make a group of 2-3 students and provide the material per group.
 Students shall make a prediction about the stability of the structure.
 Students shall build a triangle and a square frame from the straws and paper clips.
 The paper clips can be further used to connect the straws in the required shapes.
 Each shape shall be tested by applying the downward force on the top.
 Discussion on the stability of the shape and their reasoning shall be performed after the testing.
Further Discussion:
 Is further reinforcement of the structure possible by adding additional straws and paper clips?
If yes, discuss the possibilities with minimum additional resources.
 Can you build a structure using the most stable shapes and how much weight will that structure
be able to hold?
6.4. Geology/Soil:
In this section, students will get familiar with the geological and soil-related data using Q-GIS
(Geographic Information System) for preliminary understanding with a simple hand on practice.
It is open-source software for processing and visualizing GIS datasets.
Before going into detail about GIS processing, you should know about shapefiles, raster, and
vector files to better understand geological datasets. A shapefile is a storage of vector data in
which shape, location, and characteristics of geographic features are stored in the .shp extension
with .shx, .dbx, and .prj auxiliary files. GIS datasets are stored in vector and raster data structures.
Vector datasets generally store geographic information in lines, arcs, and polygons, while raster
datasets are in a fixed pixel or gridded format.
There are lots of software and packages to process geology or soil-related GIS datasets. In this
section, we will be using Q-GIS for mapping and visualizing the global soil map and clip it for
India. It can be downloaded and installed from the QGIS website (https://www.qgis.org/en/).
160
Soil map in the form of shapefile for the world has been downloaded from
http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-survey/soil-maps-and-databases/faounesco-soil-map-of-
the-world/en/ website.
The downloaded shapefile (.shp format) is added in Q-GIS as a vector layer. A screenshot (Figure
84) has been added here to visualize the digital soil map of the world (DSMW).
Figure 84: A screenshot of the Q-GIS showing a digital soil map of the world
DSMW is a shapefile containing soil type information for the countries of the globe. Our task is
to clip it for India and observe the spatial variation of soil type throughout the country. The
shapefile's attribute table is shown in Figure 85, which contains information such as country
names, soil type codes, polygon area, etc.
161
Figure 85: A snapshot of the attribute table of the DSMW
To subset DSMW for India, the attribute table rows reflecting country name as India are selected
and exported as a new shapefile which will contain the soil map of India (Figure 86).
Figure 86: A snapshot of exporting soil characteristics for India
The clipped soil map, i.e., DSWI (Digital Soil Map of India), is now added to Q-GIS for
visualizing the spatial variation of soil types in the country. The readme file downloaded with
the DSMW folder details the abbreviations used for soil type codes. The final soil map for India
is shown in Figure 87, with full names of the soil types.
162
Figure 87: Digital soil map of India containing soil types (Source: FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World)
Can you answer these questions on soil mapping using GIS?
 What is the highest and lowest spread area of soil types in India?
 What is the percentage spread area corresponding to each soil type in each state?
 Can you plot the percentage spread area corresponding to each soil type over India?
 Can you plot the percentage spread area corresponding to each soil type for all states?
6.5. Dam Construction

Source: https://tryengineering.org/
The objective of this study is to understand the functioning and design of dam construction by
creating a system of damming water in a trough. The system must have the capacity to hold the
water and release the water in a controlled manner.
Resources:
163
Every group must have the following materials:
1. Long plastic box (Figure 88).
2. Gravel or sand
3. Water
4. Cardboard
5. PVC pipes
6. Tape
7. Foil
Figure 88: Long plastic planter box (Source: https://tryengineering.org/)
Time Required: 90- 120 minutes.
Instructions:
 Each group shall consist of 3-4 students.

 Brief discussion on the dam construction challenges and the design criteria and process
shall be conducted.
 Plot the sketch of the design and further remodification shall be discussed with the
instructor so that each system can hold up to 5 liters of water.
 Thereafter each group shall work on building their designs and further testing of the dam
systems shall be conducted to evaluate the performance.
Evaluation Criteria:
The following evaluation criteria shall be checked to rate the performance of the system:
● Did the dam hold the water back?

164
○10 points (No water escaped)
○5 points (Some water escaped)
○0 points (All water escaped)
●Were you able to release water and then stop it again?
○10 points: yes
○0 points: no
● Involvement of individual group member and the teamwork?
○10 points: yes
○0 points: no
●Discussion and question answer session.
6.6. Technical writing

As a civil engineering student, you have been tasked to write a term paper on structural health
monitoring or the hydrologic cycle. How do you proceed to write with technical clarity? Most
of the time, you may have certain ideas based on the topic, but it takes considerable effort to
connect your ideas and express your knowledge in a well-written document. Will you start from
the individual terms such as evaporation, interception, transpiration, precipitation? Or will you
connect the points into a story from the beginning? Before you write, you should first develop a
basic structure of your document. And then decide what level of information you would need to
put in the paper. What format would you have to use? The technique of documenting information
or procedures in the fields of industry, academia, and research is known as technical writing.
Also referred to as academic writing if you are writing in an academic environment.
Avoid all plagiarism when writing a technical document. Have you ever copied your friend’s
assignment or any kind of academic documents, changed a few words, and submitted it as yours?
That is a textbook case of plagiarism. Plagiarism can be defined as “the practice of taking
someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own.” One can copy someone’s idea
in their document by acknowledging or citing their name. Not only the idea but also all other
pieces of work such as images, video, or data etc. The consequences of plagiarism can be
disastrous as universities can revoke the degree that has been granted to you or in some Countries
it is punishable by law as well.
While writing a technical report or document, one of the most important things is to identify the
target reader and identify their level of knowledge of that subject. You have to understand your
readers and present the idea based on their prior understanding. For engineers, you can write the
high-level description without much detailed introduction, whereas for school students you
165
should provide more detailed information in the introductory section. A well-written document
will explain things in a way that it anticipates and answers all the questions that a reader might
have.
Once the target reader has been identified, you have to organize the knowledge into a document
by following the correct order of presenting your ideas. If you want your writing to be clear, the
most impactful thing you can do is to master this order. In order to remember new material, the
human brain constantly organizes data into distinct categories. Therefore, it is recommended that
the document be written in a structured fashion, with related sections written separately. There
are two strategies for presenting our ideas in a well-written document - top-down approach or
bottom-up approach. The top-down approach starts with a summary word or main topic and goes
a step down by logically categorizing it into several ideas and further breaking down these
individual ideas into several subsections as shown in the Figure 89. Consider an example topic
called Engineering. One of the logical categorizations would be the different branches we could
divide Engineering into - Civil Engineering, Computer Science Engineering, Electrical
Engineering and Mechanical Engineering. Again, Civil Engineering can be categorized as Water
Resource Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Structural Engineering etc. Similarly,
Computer Science can be further categorized as Software Engineering, Network and Security,
Machine Learning etc.
Figure 89: Writing usually calls for a pyramid of ideas centered on a particular topic (Source: Minto, B., The Pyramid
Principle, 2009)
Whereas in the bottom-up approach the logically connected sentences or ideas form a paragraph,
then logically connected paragraphs form a subsection, and logically related subsections are
grouped into a section and so on. It is always better for a beginner to start with a top-down
approach since it easily gives the structure of a pyramid. The pyramid’s concepts at every level
should always be abstracts of the information grouped beneath them. There should always be the
same type of concept in each group.
166
When writing is structured in the form of the pyramid, it becomes easier for the human brain to
parse the ideas. All of these summaries or sections should be connected to one another in the
pyramid's top to bottom direction. This technique is known as vertical relationship. Similar to
this, in the horizontal relationship, every item in a pyramid level should be connected to every
other item in the same level of abstraction. The type of concepts you require in each grouping
can be determined by knowing the vertical relationship. Knowing the horizontal relationship
allows you to determine whether the thoughts you combine are of a similar kind. You can move
on to the next stage if each level of the pyramid meets these two requirements.
For each technical document, there will be a different format. The primary objective of the
technical document is to convey your technical knowledge or information to the readers. The
introduction of a technical document typically comes first. The reader is informed about what
they already know about the topic or what they should be expected to know in the introduction.
These three components of a story must always be present in the introduction: the problem, the
answer, and the circumstance. The introduction's length should reflect both the needs of the
reader and the requirements of the topic.
Pay attention to how the pyramid's tiers change from one another. After writing the opening and
body of your document, you must pause sometimes to inform the reader of your past and future
destinations. Summarizing gives an additional strength to the technical documents. Suppose each
chapter is extremely long, then summarizing the entire chapter using crisp language helps the
reader to understand the whole idea of that chapter.
Within the pyramid, each grouping must always contain logically ordered concepts. In other
words, there must be a reason why the second thought is placed second and not first or third.
There are only four reasonable ways to arrange a list of ideas:
● Deductively
● Chronologically
● Structurally
● Comparatively
In deductive grouping, the major premises are presented first, followed by the minor premises
and a conclusion. In the remaining three groups, however, ordering can be determined by
preference. Ideas collected in writing are never the result of chance. They are always selected
based on the author's logical analysis. Chronological grouping is among the simplest
classifications as it follows the time order. The steps a person must take to accomplish a specific
effect are laid down in a time-ordered grouping, together with the sequence in which he must do
them. Structural order is the arrangement that corresponds to what you perceive after seeing
something, whether through a diagram, a map, a drawing, or a photograph. You can envision a
process or an object that is actual or conceptual. In ranking a group or comparative group, the
arrangement of ideas depends entirely on how crucial each item is. This is the hierarchy you
place on a bunch of things you've grouped together because you've determined that they all share
a certain quality.
167
Some important things to keep in mind when writing technical documents are that they should
always be neutral and devoid of overtly expressive language. Avoid using redundant words and
concepts as the reader won't be interested in reading a document that uses unnecessary words.
Try to explain the solution in a technical document rather than using exclamatory phrases and
questions. Proper use of grammar and punctuation is another strength of a technical document.
It makes the document more efficient and organized. Always write the information in your own
language and cite the document properly to avoid plagiarism by using an open-source tool such
as Zotero (Source: https://www.zotero.org/)
Adopt an optimistic tone in your writing. Instead of dazzling your readers with flowery words,
utilize clear and simple words to express your idea because technical documents by nature are
tough to comprehend already. Additionally, avoid contractions and unacademic abbreviations in
the document. In essence, you must translate complex technical ideas into a language that your
readers can understand.
6.7. Computational Methods:

Civil Engineering projects produce voluminous amounts of data, and we require sophisticated
tools to analyze them. Writing computer programs using programming languages is a powerful
skill that civil engineers employ to accomplish custom tasks related to modeling, analysis,
interpretation, and visualization. Some of the most popular languages used in civil engineering
are Python, C++, FORTRAN, R, etc.
Python is a free and powerful object-oriented programming language that works on all popular
operating systems (Windows, MacOS, and Unix). Python is a popular platform for a wide
number of applications, including web development, automation, desktop GUI applications,
software and game development, data analysis and visualization, and machine learning. The
relatively simple syntax of the language allows users to read, understand, and write code
succinctly, allowing for rapid iteration and fast development cycles. For a beginner in
programming, Python is one of the best choices for handling large data, modeling, prototype
creation, and visualization. Python learning resources are widely available on the internet and
this section only provides an example of a civil engineering application.
This section provides an example from Water Resources Engineering, where we use Python to
perform a simple analysis using a long time-series of streamflow data.
6.8.1. Download hydrological data:
For this task, we require a long river streamflow dataset. Monthly mean streamflow time series
can be downloaded from the GRDC (Global Runoff Data Center) website
(https://portal.grdc.bafg.de/applications/). GRDC is a World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) accredited data center and its two-hundred-year-old archive supports global long-term
hydrological investigations.
168
First, we download the data file corresponding to the "Pandu" station (Filename:
2851300_Q_Month.txt) in the state of Assam, India, the data is available in text format and
contains basic information about the station and the data available. A snapshot of the data file is
provided in Figure 90 for quick reference to the original data downloaded.
Figure 90: A snapshot of the data file downloaded from the GRDC website.
Task: The task is to write a Python script that takes this raw text data, cleans it, processes it, and
finally visualizes it. The original data is from 1956-1979, but we will only perform the analysis
from 1971, which will allow us to learn Python operations of sub-setting data. convert the given
text format data into a data frame and plot the time-series after the year 1971. Thereafter, we
must find the number of times the monthly mean discharge crossed 10,000 cumecs and find out
the missing number of monthly mean values from 1971 to 1979.
6.8.2. Design of the Python script:
Step 1: Import libraries required for the task. Here, Pandas is used to convert the text file into a
data frame and analyze the data. While Matplotlib will be used for plotting the data.
169
Step 2: Read the raw data using pandas and assign it to the variable "data". The parameter
"comment" will instruct the program to exclude the lines that start with "#" from the analysis.
Since the values themselves are separated by “;,” the parameter "sep" allows sorting the
continuous text into different columns. At the same time, "na_values" is used to specify the
default NaN value in the dataset. The values and symbols assigned to each parameter are based
on the raw data.
The output of this command is shown in Figure 91 which now shows 287 columns and 5 rows
stored in the variable “data” for further analysis.
Figure 91: Output of step 2
Step 3: In order to make the analysis easier, we name the relevant columns.
Output: Figure 92
170
Step 4: Finding the data type of all the columns in the data frame. Figure 12 shows that Date is
an object, and Streamflow is a float64 type.
Output: Figure 93
Step 5: Convert the data type of the "Date" column to datetime format of Python. This makes
the dataset suitable for time series analysis.
Output: Figure 94
171
Step 6: Subset all data after the year 1971 and store it in a new variable (data_1971)
Step 7: Plotting the streamflow time-series
Output: Figure 95
Figure 95: Plot of the stream flow time series
Step 8: How many times has the streamflow crossed 10000 cumecs? We can answer this using
the following code.
172
Output:
Step 9: Finding the number of NaN values in the Streamflow data
Output: Figure 96
As you can see, this python code allows extreme flexibility in answering questions of our
interest. The best way to learn any programming language is by implementing real-world
projects and analyses. Can you answer the following questions using Python?
Q1. Compute the average annual flow for the years 1971 to 1979.
Answer:
1971: 18469.38 cumec
1972: 21521.17 cumec
1973: 21657.36 cumec
1974: 34648.38 cumec
1975: NaN
1976: 18207.36 cumec
1977: 20825.33 cumec
1978: 16554.58 cumec
1979: 19707.09 cumec
173
Q2. Are high and low streamflow observations confined to any specific month(s)? If so,
which months are they?
Q3. Find the maximum and minimum flow and their corresponding dates over the entire
time series.
Answer: Maximum 56500 cumecs on 01-07-1959 and minimum is 1033 cumecs on 01-11-1979.
Q4. Plot the time series of all the July months from 1971.
Q5. Find the number of times there is a dip in the streamflow magnitude compared to its
previous day flow from 1971.
6.8. Entrepreneurial opportunities in civil engineering

The process of planning, starting, and running a business is called entrepreneurship. An engineer
is expected to find innovative and scientific solutions to problems in society. These ideas and
solutions can be implemented to start and run a business. The creative mindset and problem-
solving attitude of engineers are vital for success in entrepreneurship. However, an engineer must
develop management and leadership qualities to successfully run a business.
Entrepreneurship in the field of civil engineering requires an understanding of real-world

engineering problems, in-depth knowledge of relevant subjects, and the skill with the tools
necessary to accomplish the task. Entrepreneurship in civil engineering mainly deals with the
design and construction of structures. However, there are other aspects of civil engineering
where the possibility of entrepreneurship exists. Some of the contemporary civil engineering
problems where entrepreneurial opportunities can be explored are listed as follows:
● Innovative design and construction of low-cost housing

● Innovative solutions for smart and green buildings
● New innovative construction and building materials
● Innovative waste management systems
● Smart traffic management systems
● Develop software for civil engineering applications.
● Data analytics related to the built and natural environment.
There are also popular entrepreneurial practices such as running structural design and
construction companies, hydraulic design companies, soil testing, and ground improvement
companies, survey firms, civil engineering consultancy firms, etc. Entrepreneurship directly
impacts the economic growth of a country. Though risky as an undertaking, it presents a
challenging environment to test and implement technical solutions which can bring personal and
professional satisfaction. Being an entrepreneur lets one build a career that is aligned with one's
interests and helps in continuous personal growth in the field of work. An entrepreneur has the
freedom to work with like-minded people toward a common goal.
174
6.9. Popular software packages in Civil Engineering
Programming languages and software packages are used to model, analyze, and design complex
civil engineering processes and systems. Table 1 provides a list of a few important and
commonly used software and programming languages related to different fields of civil
engineering.
Table 1: List of software and programming languages relevant to the field of civil engineering.
Field Name(s) Purpose
Engineering AutoCAD. Used for engineering drawings in 2D and 3D.

drawing
Structural STAAD Pro, SAP- Used for structural design and analysis.
Design 2000, ETABS, Revit.
Bridge design MIDAS Civil. Used in bridge analysis and design.
Hydraulic HEC-RAS, Delft3D, Used for the simulation and study of hydraulic flow
modeling MIKE 21C. parameters (like velocity, depth, etc.) in an open channel.
Hydrological HEC-HMS, Used for the simulation and analysis of hydrologic

modeling ArcSWAT. parameters (like soil moisture, infiltration, etc.)
Sewer and SWMM, Used to design and analyze sewer and drainage networks.
drainage SewerGEMS.
modeling
GIS/Geospatial QGIS, ArcGIS, Used for geospatial data visualization, interpretation, and
tool ERDAS. analysis.
Traffic PTV Vissim. Used for traffic modeling and simulation, traffic
modeling planning, designing transportation strategies, etc.
Transportation TransCAD. A GIS tool specially designed for application in the field
management of transportation engineering. It is used to visualize,
and data manage, and analyze transportation data.
analysis.
Pavement KENPAVE, IIT Pave. Used for the analysis of rigid and flexible pavements. It
analysis can calculate stress, strain, and deformation in
pavements.
Construction Microsoft Project. A powerful tool used in construction project management

Management for optimum resource allocation, scheduling, etc.
Programming Python, R, They are programming languages used in the field of

Languages FORTRAN, engineering. Python and R are used for data analytics and
MATLAB. modeling. FORTRAN is used for numerical modeling.
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MATLAB is a high-level programming language
designed for engineering and scientific applications.
References
1. Lexico. (2022, 07 08). Retrieved from https://www.lexico.com/definition/plagiarism
2. Lindsell-Roberts, S. (2001). Technical Writing for Dummies. Indiana: Wiley

Publishing, Inc.
3. Minto, B. (2009). The Pyramid Principle: Logic in Writing and Thinking. Pearson
Education Limited.
1. Python numerical Methods

https://pythonnumericalmethods.berkeley.edu/noteb
ooks/Index.html
2. Scipy Lectures https://scipy-lectures.org/
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Introduction to Civil Engineering

Prof. Manabendra Saharia, Prof. Nagendra R. Velaga,

All India Council for Technical Education

BOOK REVIEWER DETAILS

BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version

Laser Typeset by:

Prof. Manabendra Saharia, IIT Delhi

Dr Nishant M. Pawar Monik Gupta

After completion of the course, the students will be able to:

Course Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

Teacher should Students should Possible Mode of

Figure 1: Kailasa temple in ellora caves (source: wikipedia) 4

1. OVERVIEW OF CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

4. WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING AND SUSTAINABILITY 85

5. TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 111

6. PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES 155

1.1. Basic Understanding and History of Civil engineering

Indian Structural Marvels

Architectural Design Principles

Architectural Design Elements

(a) Balance: Balance provided symmetry or asymmetry to the composition. It creates a

(d) Contrast: If an architect decides to intensify the features of opposing or dissimilar

A well-designed building should be functional, spacious, and aesthetically pleasant. It should

1.2.2. Town Planning

(a) Avoid haphazard development of a town or city

(b) Equal availability of amenities to the population

(c) Healthy, pollution-free living environment

(d) Preservation of uniqueness and beauty of a town

(e) Convenient access to city infrastructure

Process and Principles of Town Planning

1. Based upon the place of the survey:

2. Based on the purpose of the survey:

3. Based on the instruments and methods used:

(a) Chain Survey

The steps involved in chain steps are:

(b) Tacheometric Surveying

(c) Theodolite Survey

(d) Traverse Surveying

1.4. Industrial Case Studies of National Infrastructure projects

The Bhupen Hazarika Setu or Dhola-Sadiya bridge is a marvel of civil engineering. It is

Impact of flash floods:

1.4.3. Atal Tunnel

The Atal tunnel has provided the following major benefits:

(b) Increased amount of tourism leading to overall development of the area

(c) Reduced the recurring expense of maintaining of Rohtang pass

(d) Reduced the cost of airlifting supplies

Problems faced while construction:

Salient features of the tunnel:

1.4.4. Namami Gange

Figure 6: Namami Gange Project Details

Need of the Project

(a) Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure

(b) River-Surface Cleaning

(d) Industrial Effluent Monitoring

(e) River-Front Development

(g) Public Awareness

(h) Ganga Gram

1.4.5. Mumbai-Delhi Expressway