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CBSE Term II
2022
Psychology
Class XII
CBSE Term II
2022
Psychology
Class XII
Complete Theory Covering NCERT
Cased Based Questions
Short/Long Answer Type Questions
3 Practice Papers with Explanations
Authors
Tushar Shukla M.A. Psychology
Dr. Abha Bedi Dhamija
B.D.S Gold Medalist , M.A. Psychology
ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (School Division Series)

ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (School Division Series)
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CBSE Term II
2022
Contents
CHAPTER
Psychological Disorders -
CHAPTER
Therapeutic Approaches -
CHAPTER
Attitude and Social Cognition -
CHAPTER
Social Influence and Group Processes -
Practice Papers - -
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Syllabus
CBSE Term II ClassXII
Unit Topic Periods Marks
. Psychological Disorders
The topics in this unit are:
. Introduction
. Concepts of Abnormality and Psychological Disorders
Ÿ Historical Background
. Classification of Psychological Disorders
. Factors Underlying Abnormal Behaviour
. Major Psychological Disorders
Ÿ Anxiety Disorders
Ÿ Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
Ÿ Trauma-and Stressor-Related Disorders
Ÿ Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
Ÿ Dissociative Disorders
Ÿ Depressive Disorder
Ÿ Bipolar and Related Disorders
Ÿ Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other
Psychotic Disorders
Ÿ Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Ÿ Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorders
Ÿ Feeding and Eating Disorders
Ÿ Substance Related and Addictive Disorders
CBSE Term II
2022
Unit Topic Periods Marks
. Therapeutic Approaches
. Nature and Process of Psychotherapy
Ÿ Therapeutic relationship
. Types of Therapies
Ÿ Behaviour Therapy
Ÿ Cognitive Therapy
Ÿ Humanistic-Existential Therapy
Ÿ Alternative Therapies
. Rehabilitation of the Mentally Ill
. Attitude and Social Cognition

. Introduction
. Explaining Social Behaviour
. Nature and Components of Attitudes
. Attitude Formation and Change
Ÿ Attitude Formation
Ÿ Attitude Change
Ÿ Attitude-Behaviour Relationship
. Prejudice and Discrimination
. Strategies for Handling Prejudice
. Social Influence and Group Processes

. Introduction
. Nature and Formation of Groups
. Type of Groups
. Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour
Ÿ Social Loafing
Ÿ Group Polarization
CBSE Term II
2022
CBSE Circular
Acad - 51/2021, 05 July 2021
Exam Scheme Term I & II
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CHAPTER 01
Psychological
Disorders
In this Chapter...
l Introduction
l Concept of Abnormality and Psychological Disorders
l Approaches of Abnormality
l Classification of Psychological Disorders
l Factors Underlying Abnormal Behaviour
l Major Psychological Disorders
Introduction (i) Deviant/deviance It means abnormality different for different

people. For example, for some people it is extreme, for some it
Psychological disorders are those mental disorders
is unusual and for some it is even bizarre.
which result in certain behavioural pattern such as
unhappiness, discomfort, anxiety, etc. They also lead (ii) Distressing/distress It means abnormality is unpleasant and
to failure in adaptation to life challenges. upsetting to the person and to others.
When the behaviour cannot be changed according (iii) Dysfunctional/dysfunction It means interfering with the
person’s ability to carry out daily activities in a constructive way.
to the needs of the situation, it becomes
maladaptive1. Abnormal psychology discusses (iv) Dangerous/danger It can be dangerous to the person or to
about maladaptive behaviour, its causes, others.
consequences and treatment. In psychology, we have no ‘ideal model’ or ‘normal model’ of
human behaviour to use as a base for comparison between
normal and abnormal behaviour.
Concept of Abnormality and
Various approaches have been used to distinguish between normal
Psychological Disorders and abnormal behaviours. From these approaches, two basic and
The word ‘abnormal’ literally means ‘away from the conflicting views emerged which are as follows
normal’. It implies deviation from some clearly (i) The first approach refers to abnormal behaviour as a deviation
defined norms or standards. from the social norms. Each society has norms, which are stated
Many definitions of abnormality have been used or unstated rules for proper conduct. Behaviours, thoughts and
over the years, but none is accepted universally. emotions that break societal norms are called abnormal.
However, these definitions have common features A society’s norms grow from its particular culture. Culture
known as the four D’s. These four Ds’ are as includes history, values, institutions, habits, skills, technology
follows and arts.
1 Maladaptive Maladaptive are those behaviours which stop a person from adopting to new or difficult circumstances.
2 CBSE Term II Psychology XII
A society’s values may change over time. It is based on behaviour as arising out of conflicts between emotion and
the assumption that socially accepted behaviour is not reason.
abnormal, and that normality is nothing more than Galen elaborated the role of the four humours (earth, air, fire
conformity to social norms.
and water) in personal character and temperament.
(ii) The second approach views abnormal behaviour as According to him, the material world was made up of earth,
maladaptive. Many psychologists think that the air, fire and water which combined to form four essential
normality of behaviour does not depend on the fact body fluids, viz blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm.
whether society accepts it or not, but it depends on the Each of these fluids was seen to be responsible for a different
well-being of the individual and group. Well-being is temperament. Imbalances among the humours were believed
not only maintenance or survival, but it includes growth
to cause various disorders.
and fulfillment.
This is similar to the Indian notion of the three doshas i.e.
Historical Background of Abnormality vata, pitta and kapha which were mentioned in the Atharva
Ancient theory about abnormality holds that abnormal Veda and Ayurvedic texts.
behaviour can be explained by the operation of supernatural Demonology and Superstition
and magical forces such as evil spirits (bhoot-pret) or the devil l
In the Middle ages, demonology was related to a belief that
(shaitan). Exorcism i.e. removing the evil that resides in the people with mental problems were evil. In this period,
individual through countermagic and prayer is still commonly demonology and superstition gained renewed importance
used. in the explanation of abnormal behaviour.
In many societies, the shaman or medicine man (ojha) is a l
During the early Middle Ages, the Christian spirit of
person who is believed to have contact with supernatural charity was appreciated. St. Augustine wrote elaborately
forces and is the medium through which spirits communicate about feelings, mental anguish and conflict. Modern
with human beings. It is believed that through shaman, an psycho-dynamic theories of abnormal behaviour has
affected person can know which spirit is responsible for developed from it.
his/her problem and what needs to be done to make the spirit l
The Renaissance Period was marked by increased
happy.
humanism and curiosity about behaviour. Johann Weyer
Approaches of Abnormality emphasised psychological conflict and disturbed
interpersonal relationships as causes of psychological
Biological or Organic Approach disorders. He believed that ‘witches’ were mentally
The history of abnormal psychology believed that individuals disturbed who required medical treatment.
behave strangely because their bodies and their brains are l
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were known as
not working properly. This is known as the biological or the Age of Reason and Enlightenment, as the scientific
organic approach. In the modern era, there is an evidence method replaced faith and dogma (belief) as ways of
that body and brain processes have been linked to many types understanding abnormal behaviour.
of maladaptive behaviour. If these defective biological l
In the eighteenth century, the growth of a scientific
processes are corrected then it will result in improved
attitude towards psychological disorders contributed to the
functioning.
Reform Movement and increased compassion for people
Psychological Approach who suffered from these disorders.
According to this point of view, psychological problems are l
Reforms of asylums were initiated in both Europe and
caused by inadequacies in the way an individual thinks, feels America. The aspect of the reform movement was the new
or perceives the world. All three of these perspectives i.e. inclination for deinstitutionalisation2. It placed emphasis
supernatural, biological or organic and psychological have on providing community care for recovered mentally ill
recurred throughout the history of Western civilisation. individuals.
Organismic Approach Bio-psycho-social Approach
In the ancient Western world, philosopher and physicians of In this approach, all three factors i.e. biological, psychological
ancient Greece such as Hippocrates, Socrates and Plato and social play important roles in influencing the expression
developed the organismic approach and viewed disturbed and outcome of psychological disorders.
2 Deinstitutionalisation It is the transfer of former mental patients from institutions into the community.
CBSE Term II Psychology XII 3
Classification of Genetic Factors

Psychological Disorders These factors have been linked to mood disorders,
schizophrenia, mental retardation and other psychological
The American Psychiatric Association (APA) published an disorders. Researchers have not been able to identify the
official manual describing and classifying various kinds of specific genes that are the culprits. In most cases, no
psychological disorders. The current version of it, the single gene is responsible for a particular behaviour or a
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th psychological disorder. Infact, many genes combine to
Edition (DSM-5), evaluates the patient on five dimensions bring about our various behaviours and emotional
rather than just one broad aspect of ‘mental disorder’. These reactions, both functional and dysfunctional.
dimensions relate to biological, psychological, social and other
aspects. Psychological Models
The classification scheme officially used in India is the tenth There are several psychological models which provide a
revision of the International Classification of Diseases, which is psychological explanation of mental disorders. The
known as the ICD-10 Classification of Behavioural and Mental psychological and interpersonal factors have a significant
Disorders. It was prepared by the World Health Organisation role to play in abnormal behaviour. These factors include
(WHO). For each disorder, a description of the main clinical l
Maternal deprivation (separation from the mother or
features or symptoms and other associated features including lack of warmth and stimulation during early years of
diagnostic guidelines is provided in this scheme. life).
Faulty parent-child relationships (rejection,
Factors Underlying
l
overpro-tection, over permissiveness, faulty discipline,

Abnormal Behaviour etc.)
Psychologists use different approaches to understand abnormal l
Maladaptive family structures (inadequate or disturbed
behaviour. These approaches also emphasise the role of different family) and severe stress.
factors which are as follows The psychological models include the psychodynamic
model, behavioural model, cognitive model,
Biological Factors
humanistic-existential model, Socio-cultural Model and
These factors influence all aspects of our behaviour. A wide Diathesis-strees Model. These are discussed as follows
range of biological factors such as faulty genes, endocrine
Psychodynamic Model
imbalances, malnutrition, injuries and other conditions may
interfere with normal development and functioning of the Psychodynamic model is the oldest and most famous of the
human body. These factors may be the potential causes of modern psychological models. Psychodynamic theorists
abnormal behaviour. believe that behaviour, whether normal or abnormal is
determined by psychological forces within the person of
According to the biological model, abnormal behaviour might be
which she/he is not consciously aware. These internal
caused by biochemical or physiological changes. Biological
forces are considered dynamic i.e. they interact with one
researchers have found that psychological disorders are related
another and their interaction gives shape to behaviour,
to problems in the transmission of messages from one neuron to
thoughts and emotions.
another.
Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the result of conflicts
When an electrical impulse reaches a neuron’s ending, the nerve
between these forces. This model was first formulated by
ending is stimulated to release a chemical, called a
Freud who believed that three central forces shape the
neuro-transmitter.
personality. These are as follows
Studies indicate that abnormal activity by certain
(i) Instinctual needs, drives and impulses (id).
neuro-transmitters can lead to specific psychological disorders.
Anxiety disorders have been linked to low activity of the (ii) Rational thinking (ego).
neuro-transmitter Gamma Amino Butyric Acid3 (GABA). (iii) Moral standards (superego).
Similarly, schizophrenia have been linked to excess activity of Freud stated that abnormal behaviour is a symbolic
dopamine and depression have been linked to low activity of expression of unconscious mental conflicts that can be
serotonin. generally traced to early childhood or infancy.
3 Gamma Amino Butyric Acid It is naturally occurring amino acid that works as a neurotransmitter in a person brain.
Behavioural Model The broader social networks in which people operate

Behavioural model states that both normal and abnormal include their social and professional relationships.
behaviours are learned and psychological disorders are the result People who are isolated and lack social support, i.e.
of learning maladaptive ways of behaving. The model concentrates strong and fulfilling interpersonal relationships in their
on behaviours that are learned through conditioning. It proposes lives are likely to become more depressed and remain
that what has been learned can be unlearned. Learning can take depressed longer than those who have good friendships.
place by the following Diathesis-Stress Model
Classical Conditioning It is a type of learning by temporary This model states that psychological disorders develop
association in which two events repeatedly occur in same time. when a diathesis (a tendency to suffer from a particular
Operant Conditioning It is a method of learning which employs medical condition) is set off by a stressful situation. This
rewards and punishment for learning. model has three components which are as follows
Social Learning Learning through the observation of other (i) The first component is the diathesis or the
people’s behaviour. presence of some biological disorder which may be
These three types of conditioning account for behaviour, whether inherited.
adaptive or maladaptive. (ii) The second component is that the diathesis may
carry a vulnerability to develop a psychological
Cognitive Model
disorder. This means that the person is ‘at risk’ or
Psychological factors are emphasised by the cognitive model. This
‘predisposed’ to develop the disorder.
model states that abnormal functioning can result from cognitive
problems. People may hold assumptions and attitudes about (iii) The third component is the presence of pathogenic
themselves that are irrational and inaccurate. They may also stressors i.e. factors/stressors that may lead to
repeatedly think in illogical ways. Sometimes they make psychopathology.
overgeneralisations and draw broad, negative conclusions on the This model has been applied to several disorders
basis of a single insignificant event. including anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia.
Humanistic-Existential Model Major Psychological
Humanistic-existential model focuses on broader aspects of human
existence. Humanists believe that human beings are born with a
Disorders
natural tendency to be friendly, cooperative and constructive. The major psychological disorders are anxiety disorders,
They are driven to self-actualise i.e. to fulfil this potential for somatoform disorders, dissociative disorders, mood
goodness and growth. Existentialists believe that from birth we disorders, schizophrenia disorders, behavioural and
have total freedom to give meaning to our existence or to avoid development disorders and substance-use disorders.
that responsibility. Those who avoid the responsibility would live These are discussed below
empty, inauthentic and dysfunctional lives. Anxiety Disorders
Socio-Cultural Model The term anxiety is usually defined as a diffuse, vague
Some important socio-cultural factors are war and violence, group (unclear), very unpleasant feeling of fear and
prejudice and discrimination, economic and employment apprehension. The anxious individual shows combinations
problems and rapid social change. All these can lead to of the following symptoms
psychological problems in some individuals. l
Rapid heart rate
According to the socio-cultural model, abnormal behaviour is best l
Shortness of breath
understood by the social and cultural forces that influence an l
Diarrhoea
individual. Factors such as family structure and communication, l
Loss of appetite
social networks, societal conditions and societal labels and roles l
Fainting
become more important as these societal forces shaped the l
Dizziness
behaviour. Some family structure can produce abnormal l
Sweating
functioning among its members. In some families, members are
over involved in each other’s activities, thoughts and feelings.
l
Sleeplessness
Children from these families may face difficulty in becoming l
Frequent urination
independent in life. l
Tremors
Anxiety disorders includes the following disorders appear withdrawn and inhibited; a school- age child may be
argumentative and combative and a teenager may express
Generalised Anxiety Disorder
feelings of guilt and hopelessness.
It consists of continued, vague (unclear), unexplained and
intense fears that are not attached to any particular object. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
The symptoms include nervousness and feeling of l
People affected by obsessive-compulsive disorder are
apprehension about the future; hypervigilance, which unable to control their preoccupation with specific ideas or
involves constantly scanning the environment for dangers. are unable to prevent themselves from repeatedly carrying
It is marked by motor tension, as a result of which the out a particular act that affect their ability to carry out
person is unable to relax, is restless and visibly shaky normal activities.
(weak) and tense. l
Obsessive behaviour is the inability to stop thinking about
Panic Disorder a particular idea or topic.
It consists of recurrent anxiety attacks in which the person
l
Compulsive behaviour is the need to perform certain
experiences intense terror. A panic attack denotes an abrupt behaviours over and over again. Many compulsions deal
with counting, ordering, checking, touching and washing.
rise of intense anxiety rising to a peak when thoughts of a
Other disorder in this category include hoarding disorder,
particular stimuli are present.
trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder), excoriation
Such thoughts occur in an unpredictable manner. The clinical (skin-picking) disorder, etc.
features include shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling,
palpitations , choking, nausea, chest pain or discomfort, fear Trauma and Stressor Related Disorders
of going crazy, losing control or dying. People who have been caught in a natural disaster (such as
Phobia tsunami) or have been victims of bomb blasts by terrorists or
Individuals who have phobias have irrational fears related to been in a serious accident or in a war-related situation,
specific objects, people or situations. Phobias can be grouped experience Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD
into three main types, i.e. specific phobias, social phobias, symptoms may include recurrent dreams, flashbacks,
impaired concentration, and emotional numbing. Adjustment
and agoraphobia which are discussed as follows
Disorders and Acute Stress Disorder are also included in this
(i) Specific Phobia It is the most commonly occurring type category.
of phobia. This group includes irrational fears such as
intense fear of a certain type of animal, or of being in an Major Anxiety Disorders and their Symptoms
enclosed space. (i) Generalised Anxiety Disorder : prolonged, vague,
(ii) Social Phobia Intense fear and embarrassment when unexplained and intense fears that have no logical reason
dealing with others characterises social phobias. accompained by hypervigilange and moter tension.
(ii) Panic Disorder : frequent anxiety attacks characterised by
(iii) Agoraphobia It is the term used when people develop a feeling of intense terror and dread; unpredictable ‘panic
fear of entering unfamiliar situations. Many attacks’ along with physiological symptoms like
agoraphobics are afraid of leaving their home. So their breathlessness, palpitations, trembling, dizziness and a
ability to carry out normal life activities is severely sense of loosing control or even dying.
limited. (iii) Specific Phobia : irrational fears related to specific objects,
interactions with others and unfamiliar situations.
Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) (iv) Separation Anxiety Disorder : extreme distress when
l
Individuals with this type of disorder are fearful and expecting or going through separation from home or other
anxious about separation from attachment figures to such significant people to whom the individual is immensely
an extent which is developmentally not appropriate. For attached to.
example, children with SAD may have difficulty being in a (v) Other Disorders : included under this category are
room by themselves or going to school alone. They are selective mutism, substance/medication induced anxiety
disorder, anxiety disorder due to another medical condition,
fearful of entering in a new situation. They even throw
etc.
severe (sudden anger by a child) and make suicidal
gestures.
l
The ways in which children express and experience Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
depression are related to their level of physical, emotional In somatoform disorders, the individual has psychological
and cognitive development. An infant may show sadness by difficulties and complains of physical symptoms for which
being passive and unresponsive; a pre- schooler may there is no biological cause.
These include somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety and previous identity. The fugue usually ends when the person
conversion disorder which are discussed as follows suddenly ‘wakes up’ with no memory of the events that
Somatic Symptom Disorder occurred during the fugue. It is associated with an
overwhelming stress.
It involves a person having body-related symptoms which
may or may not be related to any serious medical condition. Dissociative Identity Disorder
People having this disorder always worry about their health It is often referred to as multiple personality disorder and is
and make frequent visit to doctors. They experience distress the most dramatic of the dissociative disorders. It is often
and disturbances in their daily life. associated with traumatic experiences in childhood. In this
Illness Anxiety Disorder disorder, the person assumes alternate personalities that may
or may not be aware of each other.
It develops when the individual persistently is preoccupied
with developing a serious illness and worry about it. He is Depersonalisation
always anxious about his own health. It involves an imaginary state in which the person has a sense
He becomes tensed by hearing someone else’s ill health or of being separated both from self and from reality. In
some such news. He does not respond to doctor’s assurance, depersonalisation, there is a change of self-perception and the
always thinks about undiagnosed disease and negative person’s sense of reality is temporarily lost or changed.
diagnostic results.
Both somatic symptom disorder and illness anxiety disorder Depressive Disorders
are concerned with medical illness. In somatic symptom These are characterised by disturbances in mood or
disorder, there are still physical complaints but illness continued emotional state. The most common mood disorder
anxiety disorder is purely mental. is depression. Depression covers a variety of negative moods
Conversion Disorders and behavioural changes. We often use the term depression
to refer to normal feelings after a significant loss, such as the
The symptoms of conversion disorders are the reported loss
break-up of a relationship or the failure to attain a significant
of part or all of basic body functions. Paralysis, blindness,
goal.
deafness and difficulty in walking are generally among the
symptoms reported. These symptoms occur after stressful
l
Major Depressive Disorder It is defined as a period of
experience and develop suddenly. depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in most
activities, with other symptoms like change in body weight,
Dissociative Disorders constant sleep problems, tiredness, inability to think
clearly, agitation, greatly slowed behaviour and thoughts of
Dissociation involves feelings of unreality, estrangement
death and suicide. Other symptoms include excessive guilt
(detachment), depersonalisation and sometimes a loss or shift
or feelings of worthlessness.
of identity. Sudden temporary alterations of consciousness
that mark out painful experiences are a defining characteristic
l
Factors Predisposing Towards Depression Genetic
of dissociative disorders. make-up or heredity, age, gender, negative life events and
lack of social support are some important risk factors for
Four conditions which are included in this disorder are as major depression.
follows l
Mania People suffering from mania become euphoric
Dissociative Amnesia (‘high’), extremely active, excessively talkative and easily
It is characterised by extensive but selective memory loss that distractible.
has no known organic cause (e.g. head injury). Some people
Bipolar Mood Disorder
cannot remember anything about their past. Others can no
longer recall specific events, people, places or objects, while l
It is a mood disorder, in which both mania and depression
their memory for other events remains intact. This disorder is are alternatively present, sometimes interrupted by periods
often associated with an overwhelming stress. of normal mood. Bipolar mood disorders were earlier
referred to as manic-depressive disorders.
Dissociative Fugue l
Some types of bipolar and related disorders include
It is a part of dissociative amnesia. It is characterised by the ‘Bipolar I Disorder’, ‘Bipolar II Disorder’ and ‘Cyclothymic
assumption of a new identity and the inability to recall the Disorder’.
l
An attempt of suicide is high in case of bipolar mood These are discussed as follows
disorders. Several risk factors in addition to mental health 1. Positive Symptoms
status of a person predict the likelihood of suicide.
Every suicide is a misfortune.
l
These are ‘pathological excesses’ or ‘bizarre (strange)
additions’ to a person’s behaviour. Delusions, disorganised
l
To prevent suicide we need to identify vulnerability,
thinking and speech, heightened perception and
comprehend the circumstances leading to such behaviour
hallucinations and inappropriate affects are some positive
etc. Suicides are preventable. Some measures suggested by
symptoms in schizophrenia.
WHO are as follows
l
Delusions A delusion is a false belief that is firmly held on
– Limiting access to the means of suicide.
inadequate grounds. It has no basis in reality. People with
– Reporting of suicide by media in a responsible way.
delusion believe that they are being plotted against,
– Bringing in alcohol related policies. slandered, threatened, attacked or deliberately victimised.
– Early identification, treatment and care of people at
Mainly there are three types of delusions described as follows
risk.
(i) Delusion of Reference Schizophrenic people attach
– Training health workers in assessing and managing for
special and personal meaning to the actions of others or
suicide.
to objects and events.
– Care for people who attempted suicide and providing
community support. (ii) Delusion of Grandeur Schizophrenic people believe
themselves to be the specially empowered persons.
Identifying Students in Distress (iii) Delusions to Control Schizophrenic people believe
Some common factors are found in students who are in that feeling, thoughts and actions are controlled by
distress. These include, declining grades, decreasing effort, others.
misbehaviour in the classroom, lack of interest in common l
Formal Thought Disorders People with schizophrenia
activities, mysterious or repeated absence, smoking, drinking may not be able to think logically and may speak in strange
or drug misuse, etc. ways. These formal thought disorders can make
Strengthening Student’s Self-esteem communication extremely difficult.
l
These include rapidly shifting from one topic to another so
Some factors can enhance self-esteem of students. These are
that normal structure of thinking becomes illogical
as follows
(loosening of associations, derailment), inventing new words
l
Positive life experiences to develop positive identity which
or phrases (neologisms) and persistent and inappropriate
increases confidence in self.
repetition of the same thoughts (perseveration).
l
Opportunities are given to develop physical, social and l
Hallucinations Schizophrenic may have hallucinations. It
vocational skills.
is a perception that occurs in the absence of external stimuli.
l
Establish a trustful communication.
Auditory hallucinations are most common in schizophrenia.
l
Goals should be measurable, achievable which can be Patients hear sounds or voices that speak words, phrases
completed within specific time frame. and sentences directly to the patient (second-person
Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other hallucination) or talk to one another referring to the patient
as she/he (third-person hallucination).
Psychotic Disorders
Hallucinations can also involve the other senses. Some of
Schizophrenia is the descriptive term for a group of these are as follows
psychotic disorders in which personal, social and – Tactile hallucinations (i.e. forms of tingling, burning)
occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of disturbed – Somatic hallucinations (i.e. something happening inside
thought processes, strange perceptions, unusual emotional the body such as a snake crawling inside one’s stomach)
states and motor abnormalities. It is a debilitating4 – Visual hallucinations (i.e. unclear perceptions of colour
disorder. The social and psychological causes of or distinct visions of people or objects)
schizophrenia are tremendous, both to patients as well as to – Gustatory hallucinations (i.e. food or drink taste
their families and society. becomes strange)
Symptoms of Schizophrenia – Olfactory hallucinations (i.e. smell of poison or smoke)
The symptoms of schizophrenia can be grouped into three People with schizophrenia also show inappropriate affect, i.e.
categories. emotions that are unsuited to the situation.
4 Debilitating Making someone body or mind very weak.

2. Negative Symptoms act. They find it difficult to wait or take turns, have
l
These are ‘pathological deficits’ and include poverty of difficulty in resisting immediate temptations or delaying
speech, blunted affect5, flat affect, loss of volition (self them.
determination) and social withdrawal. l
Hyperactivity Children who are hyperactive are unable to
l
Patients with schizophrenia also experience avolition (lack control their motion. It is impossible for them to sit stable
of motivation or ability) and an inability to start or complete and quiet. The child may fidget, squirm (jiggle), climb and
a course of action. People with this disorder may withdraw run around the room aimlessly. Boys are four times more
socially and become totally focussed on their own ideas and likely to be given this diagnosis than girls.
fantasies.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
3. Psychomotor Symptoms It is one of the most common of these disorders. Children
l
People with schizophrenia show psychomotor with autistic disorder have marked difficulties in social
symptoms i.e. they move less spontaneously or make odd interaction and communication, a restricted range of interests
grimaces (ugly expression with face) and gestures. These and strong desire for routine. Children with autism experience
symptoms may take extreme forms known as catatonia. profound difficulties in relating to other people.
People in a catatonic stupor remain motionless and silent These difficulties are discussed as follows
for long stretches of time. l
They are unable to initiate social behaviour and seem
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Some show catatonic rigidity i.e. maintaining a rigid, unresponsive to other people’s feelings.
upright posture for hours while some others exhibit l
They are unable to share experiences or emotions with
catatonic posturing i.e. assuming awkward, strange
others.
positions for long periods of time.
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They show serious abnormalities in communication and
Neurodevelopmental Disorders language that persist over time.
Neurodevelopmental disorders manifest in the early stage of
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Many autistic children never develop speech and those
development. Often these appears very early stage of who do, have repetitive and deviant speech patterns.
childhood or during the early stage of schooling. These result Children with autism often show narrow patterns of interests
in hampering personal, social, academic and occupational and repetitive behaviours such as lining up objects or
functioning. stereotyped body movements such as rocking.
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) These motor movements may be self-stimulatory such as
hand flapping or self-injurious such as banging their head
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder is seen in children
against the wall. People with autism tend to experience
and demonstrate following features
difficulties in starting, maintaining and even understanding
Main features of ADHD are discussed below relationships.
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Inattention Children who are inattentive find it difficult to
sustain mental effort during work or play. Some common Intellectual Disability
complaints are that the child does not listen, cannot Intellectual disability refers to below average intellectual
concentrate, does not follow instructions, is disorganised, functioning (an IQ of approximately 70 or below) and deficits
easily distracted, forgetful, does not finish assignments and in adaptive behaviour (i.e. in the areas of communication,
is quick to lose interest in boring activities. self-care, home living, social/ interpersonal skills, functional
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Impulsivity Children who are impulsive seem unable to academic skills, work, etc.) which are manifested before the
control their immediate reactions or to think before they age of 18 years.
5 Blunted affect It is a decreased ability to express emotion through your facial expressions (anger, sadness, joy, etc.)
Characteristics of Individuals with Different Levels of Intellectual Disability
Mild Moderate Severe

Area of Functioning (IQ range = 55 to (IQ range = 35-40 to (IQ range = 20-25 to approximately 35-40)
approximately 70) approximately 50-55) and Profound (IQ = below 20-25)
Self-help Skills Feeds and dresses self and Has difficulties and requires No skills to partial skills, but some can
cares for own toilet needs training but can learn adequate care for personal needs on limited; basis
self-help skills
Speech and Receptive and expressive Receptive and expressive Receptive language is limited expressive
Communication language is adequate; language is adequate; has speech language is poor
understands communication problems
Academics Optimal learning environment; Very few academic skills; first or No academic skills
third to sixth grade second grade is maximal
Social Skills Has friends; can learn to adjust Capable of making friends but Not capable of having real friends; no
quickly has difficulty in many social social interactions
situations
Vocational Can hold a job; competitive to Sheltered work environment; Generally no employment; usually needs
Adjustment semi-competitive; primarily usually needs consistent constant care
unskilled work supervision
Adult Living Usually marries, has children Usually does not marry or have No marriage or children: always
needs help during stress children; dependent dependent on others
Specific Learning Disorder or property rights of others. The behaviours in conduct

In case of specific learning disorder, the individual disorder include aggressive actions that cause or threaten to
experiences difficulty in perceiving or processing harm people or animals, non-aggressive conduct that causes
information correctly. During early school years students property damage, major deceitfulness or theft and serious rule
face problems in basic skills in reading, writing and violations.
mathematics. They perform poorly but with additional Some types of aggressive behaviour are as follows
efforts can do better. l
Verbal aggression (i.e. name-calling, swearing)
Disruptive, Impulse-Control and
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Physical aggression (i.e. hitting, fighting)
Conduct Disorders l
Hostile aggression (i.e. directed at inflicting injury to others)
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Proactive aggression (i.e. dominating and bullying others
The disorders included under this category are Oppositional
without provocation).
Defiant Disorder (ODD), Conduct Disorders and Others.
These are discussed as follows Feeding and Eating Disorders
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) There are three types of eating disorders which are as follows
Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) are (i) Anorexia Nervosa In this, the individual has a
irritable, defiant, disobedient and behave in a hostile disfigured body image that leads her/him to
manner. Individuals with ODD do not see themselves as see herself/himself as overweight. By refusing to eat,
angry, oppositional and often justify their behaviour as exercising compulsively and developing unusual habits
reaction to circumstances/demands. Thus, the symptoms of such as refusing to eat in front of others, the anorexic
the disorder become entangled with the problematic may lose large amounts of weight and even starve
interactions with others. Unlike ADHD, the rates of ODD herself/himself to death.
in boys and girls are not very different. (ii) Bulimia Nervosa In this, the individual may eat
excessive amount of food, then clear her/his body of food
Conduct Disorder (CD) and by using medicines such as laxatives or diuretics or by
Anti-social Behaviour vomiting. The person often feels disgusted and ashamed
It refers to age inappropriate actions and attitudes that when she/he binges and is relieved of tension and
violate family expectations, societal norms and the personal negative emotions after purging.
(iii) Binge Eating In this, there are frequent episodes of l

It also has serious effects on the children of persons with this
out-of-control eating. In this case individual eats large disorder. These children have higher rates of psychological
amount of food, even if she/he is not feeling hungry. problems, particularly anxiety, depression, phobias and
The patient tends to eat at a higher speed than normal substance-related disorders.
and continues eating till she/he feels uncomfortably l
Excessive drinking can seriously damage physical health.
full.
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All alcohol beverages contain ethyl alcohol. This chemical is
Substance Related absorbed into the blood and carried into the central nervous
and Addictive Disorders system (brain and spinal cord) where it depresses or slows
down functioning.
It involves excessive intake of high calorie food resulting in
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Ethyl alcohol depresses those areas in the brain that control
extreme obesity and the abuse of substances such as alcohol
judgement and inhibition; people become more talkative
or cocaine. Disorders relating to maladaptive behaviours
and friendly and they feel more confident and happy.
resulting from regular and consistent use of the substance
involved are included under substance related and addictive 2. Heroin Abuse and Dependence
disorders. Heroin intake significantly interferes social and occupational
These disorders include problems associated with using and functioning. Most abusers develop a dependence on heroin and
abusing drugs such as alcohol, cocaine and heroin. There experiencing a withdrawal reaction when they stop taking it.
are two sub-groups of substance-use disorders. These are as The most direct danger of heroin abuse is an overdose, which
follows slows down the respiratory centres in the brain, almost
(i) Substance Dependence In this, there is intense need paralysing breathing and in many cases causing death.
to intake the substance to which the person is addicted
3. Cocaine Abuse and Dependence
and the person shows tolerance, withdrawal symptoms
and compulsive drug-taking. Tolerance means that the Regular use of cocaine may lead to a pattern of abuse in which
person has to use more and more of a substance to get the person may be intoxicated throughout the day and function
the same effect. Withdrawal refers to physical poorly in social relationships and at work. It may also cause
symptoms that occur when a person stops or cuts down problems of short-term memory and attention.
on the use of a psychoactive substance. It means a In case of dependency, cocaine dominates the person’s life as
substance that has the ability to change an individual’s more drug is needed to get the desired effects and stopping it
consciousness, mood and thinking processes. results in feelings of depression, fatigue, sleep problems,
(ii) Substance Abuse In this, there are recurrent and irritability and anxiety. Cocaine poses serious dangers. It has
significant adverse consequences related to the use of dangerous effects on psychological functioning and physical
substances. People who regularly ingest drugs damage well-being.
their family and social relationships, perform poorly at
work and create physical hazards. Some Commonly Abused Substances
The three most common forms of substance abuse are as • Alcohol
follows • Stimulants (Dextroamphetamines, meta-amphetamines,
cocaine)
1. Alcohol Abuse and Dependence
• Caffeine (Coffee, tea, caffeinated soda, analgesics,
People who abuse alcohol, drink large amount of alcohol chocolate, cocoa)
regularly and rely on it to help them face difficult situations. • Cannabis (marijuana or bhang, hashish, sensimilla)
The drinking interferes with social behaviour and ability to • Hallucinogens (LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide),
think and work. mescaline)
For many people the pattern of alcohol abuse extends to • Inhalants (Gasoline, glue, paint thinners, spray paints,
dependence i.e. their bodies build up a tolerance for typewriter correction fluid, sprays)
alcohol. • Tobacco (Cigarette, bidi)
Some effects of alcohol abuse are as follows • Opioid (morphine, heroin, cough syrup,
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Alcoholism destroys millions of families, social painkillers-analgesics, anaesthetics)
relationships and careers. Intoxicated drivers are • Sedatives, hypnotics or anxiolytics (Sleeping pills,
responsible for many road accidents. anti-anxiety medication)
Chapter
Practice
PART 1 5. In which mode of learning, behaviour is followed
by a reward?
Objective Questions (a) Classical conditioning
(b) Operant conditioning
(c) Social conditioning
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Multiple Choice Questions (d) All of the above
1. Which of the following is not one of the four D of Ans. (b) In operant conditioning, the learning is often followed
Psychological Disorder. by a reward to promote the positive action or the required
(a) Deviant (b) Depression response.
(c) Distress (d) Dangerous 6. Rakhi was travelling in a bus. She suddenly felt
Ans. (b) Depression is not the D of Psychological Disorder. nervous. Her heart started beating very fast. She
The 4 Ds of psychological disorders are: Deviant, was sweating. This is an example of ________ .
Distressing, Dysfunction and Danger. (a) Panic attack (b) Heart attack
2. ____ are stated or unstated rules of proper conduct. (c) Bipolar disorder (d) None of the above
(a) Principles (b) Manners Ans. (a) This is an example of panic attack. Panic Disorder
(c) Norms (d) Culture frequent anxiety attacks characterised by feeling of
Ans. (c) Norms are stated or unstated rules for proper intense terror.
conduct. 7. Raj does not go to parks because he has a fear of
3. Which of the following current scheme of dogs. This is an example of _________ .
classification is used in India for psychological (a) Social phobia (b) Specific phobia
disorders? (c) Agoraphobia (d) None of these
(a) ICD 10 classification of behavioural and mental Ans. (b) This is an example of specific phobia. It is the most
disorders common phobia. This group includes irrational fears such
(b) ICD 11 classification of behavioural and mental as intense fear of a certain type of animal, or of being in
disorders an enclosed space.
(c) ICD 10 classification of behavioural and psychological
disorders 8. What term is used when people develop a fear of
(d) ICD 11 classification of behavioural and psychological entering unfamiliar situations?
disorders (a) Specific Phobia (b) Social Phobia
Ans. (a) The current scheme of classification used in India for (c) Agoraphobia (d) Astrophobia
psychological disorders is the ICD-10 Classification of Ans. (c) Agoraphobia is the term used when people develop a
Behavioural and Mental Disorders. It was prepared by fear of entering unfamiliar situations. Many agoraphobics
the World Health Organisation (WHO). are afraid of leaving their homes.
4. As per the _____ approach, abnormal psychology 9. After several years of living and working in a small
results when a person’s brain and body do not work town in Gujarat, Harsh wakes up one morning
properly. insisting that his name is Dhruv and that he has to
(a) Psychological (b) Organismic report to his job in Mumbai. He does not recognise
(c) Demonology (d) Biological the furniture in his apartment or the clothing
Ans. (d) As per the biological approach, abnormal psychology hanging in his closet. He is completely confused
results when a person’s brain and body does not work about his current life. He may be experiencing
properly. ________. (CBSE Sample Paper 2020)
(a) Dissociative fugue 15. Neha, a 17-year old girl, has been binging on large
(b) Depersonalisation quantity of food, more than what most people of her
(c) Generalised anxiety disorder age would eat. She, then, engages in purging
(d) Post-traumatic stress disorder behaviour as often as 3 or 4 times a week. She feels,
Ans. (a) Harsh may be experiencing Dissociative fugue. as if, she has no control over it. She is most likely to
10. ________ is the inability to stop over a particular be suffering from (CBSE Sample Paper 2020)
idea. (a) Anorexia Nervosa
(a) Aggressive behaviour (b) Obsessive behaviour (b) Bulimia Nervosa
(c) Depressed behaviour (d) Introvert behaviour (c) Binge Eating
(d) Eating disorder not otherwise specified
Ans. (b) Obsessive behaviour is the inability to stop thinking
about a particular idea or topic. Ans. (b) Neha is most likely to be suffering from Bulimia Nervosa
11. Dissociative amnesia is characterised by ________ . Assertion and Reasoning

1. extensive memory loss
Directions (Q. Nos. 1-4) Each of these questions
2. non-selective memory loss
contains two statements, Assertion (A) and Reason
3. has no known organic cause
(R). Each of these question also has four alternative
4. some patients might not remember anything from choices, any one of which is the correct answer. You
their past
have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d)
Choose the correct option
given below.
(a) 1,2,3 (b) 2,3
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
(c) 1,3,4 (d) 2,4 of A
Ans. (c) Dissociative amnesia is characterised by extensive (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
but selective memory loss with no known organic explanation of A
cause. It may be caused by excessive stress. Some (c) A is true, but R is false
patients might not be able to remember anything from (d) A is false, but R is true
their past.
1. Assertion (A) Abnormal behaviour is deviation from
12. Bipolar disorder is characterised by the presence of normal social norms.
both _____ and _____ alternatively. Reasoning (R) Behaviours and ways of conduct that
(a) mania and depression break society norms are thought to be abnormal.
(b) happiness and sadness Ans. (a) Abnormality refers to deviation from some clearly
(c) crying and laughing defined social norms or standards. Behaviours, thoughts
(d) anger and empathy and emotions that break the society norms are thought to
Ans. (a) Bipolar disorder is characterised by the presence of be abnormal. Thus, both A and R are true and R is the
both mania and depression alternatively. correct explanation of A.
13. Which of the following is not a feature of 2. Assertion (A) Dissociative identity disorder is
hyperactivity? marked by a person having two or more identities.
(a) It is more common in boys Reasoning (R) This disorder often results from
(b) It is seen in children childhood trauma.
(c) The child is shy and quite Ans. (a) Dissociative identity disorders is a condition in which
(d) All of the above a person may exhibit two or more identities with no
Ans. (c) The child is shy and quite is not a feature of knowledge of the multiple identity. This disorder is often
hyperactivity. Children who are hyperactive or who have reseults from childhood trauma or who may have gone
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder often have through some stressful childhood events. The patient
problems in concentrate and paying attention. They are develops an alter ego that helps them bring out their
unable to sit quietly. The condition is four times more subconscious instincts that they might have developed
common in boys. post a childhood traumatic incidence. Thus, both A and R
are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
14. Cocaine abuse may cause problems in ___ memory.
(a) long-term (b) short-term 3. Assertion (A) Children with ADHD cannot sit still
(c) simple (d) complex and are always distracted.
Ans. (b) Cocaine abuse may cause problems in short-term Reasoning (R) They have a deficiency of a growth
memory. The long term memory remains unaffected. factor.
Ans. (c) Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Ans. (b) Gary has been diagnosed with Bipolar disorder which
Disorder or ADHD are hyper and cannot pay attention to is characterised by episodes of both mania and depression
a particular activity for a very long time. They have with phases of stability in between the episodes.
difficulty in sitting still and always distracted. The cause (ii) Another term that has been previously used for
of ADHD is unknown. These kids are unable to control bipolar disorder is __________ .
their actions. Boys are four times more likely to have
(a) Schizophrenia
ADHD compared to girls. Thus, A is true, but R is false.
(b) Paranoid schizophrenia
4. Assertion (A) Anorexia nervosa is a tendency of a (c) Manic-depressive disorder
person to refuse food. (d) Multiple personality disorder
Reasoning (R) The person has a false image of Ans. (c) Previously the term used for biopolar disorder is
his/her body shape. manic-depressive disorder.
Ans. (a) Anorexia nervosa is a psychological disorder in which a (iii) Bipolar disorder is what type of disorder?
person often refuses to take food. In this disorder, the (a) Personality (b) Mood
person develops false notions about his/ herself with (c) Identity (d) Thought
various critical thoughts about their body. Hence, they
Ans. (b) Bipolar disorder is a type of mood disorder dealing
start extensive dieting and exercising to reduce their
with mania and depression.
weight to a level that is unhealthy. Thus, both A and R are
true and R is the correct explanation of A. (iv) In case of Gary, the manic episodes were followed
by __________.
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Case Based MCQs (a) Depressive episodes (b) Crime sprees
1. Gary is a 19-year-old who withdrew from college (c) Lying (d) Sleepwalking
after experiencing a manic episode during which he Ans. (b) In case of Gary, the manic episodes soon took a form of
was brought to the attention of the Campus Police. crime sprees.
He had changed his stream from engineering to (v) Assertion (A) A high rate of suicide has been noted
philosophy. He spends his nights on phone, talking with patients of bipolar disorder.
to his friends about life and reality. He had been Reason (R) It is a result of a complex interface of
convinced about the importance of his ideas, stating biological, genetic, psychological, sociological,
frequently that he was more learned and advanced cultural and environmental factors.
than all his professors. He told others that he was
Codes
on the verge of revolutionizing his new field, and
he grew increasingly irritable and intolerant of
of A
anyone who disagreed with him. He also increased (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
a number of high-risk behaviours – drinking and explanation of A
engaging in sexual relations in a way that was (c) A is true, but R is false
unlike his previous history. At the present time, he (d) R is true, but A is false
has returned home and has been placed on a mood Ans. (a) Bipolar disorder has shown a high risk of suicide.
stabilizer (after a period of time on an Suicidal behaviour indicates difficulties in problem
antipsychotic), and his psychiatrist is requesting solving, stress management and emotional expression. It
adjunctive psychotherapy for his disorder. The is a result of a complex interface of biological, genetic,
patient’s parents are somewhat shocked by the psychological, sociological and environmental factors.
diagnosis, but they acknowledge that Gary had Thus, both A and R are true and R is the correct
early problems with anxiety during explanation of A.
pre-adolescence, followed by some periods of (vi) WHO has been working hard to bring down the
withdrawal and depression during his adolescence. rate of suicide in psychological patients. Which of
His parents are eager to be involved in treatment, if the following techniques have been used by WHO
appropriate. for this purpose?
(i) Identify the disorder with which Gary has been (a) Limiting access to the means of suicide
diagnosed? (b) Reporting of suicide by media in a responsible way
(a) Panic Disorder (c) Bringing in alcohol related policies
(b) Bipolar Disorder (d) All of the above
(c) Schizophrenia Ans. (d) All of above are the techniques used by WHO for this
(d) Social Anxiety Disorder purpose.
PART 2
Subjective Questions
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Short Answer (SA) Type Questions 3. Explain mental disorders from a cognitive
1. What are the various approaches used to perspective. (CBSE 2018)
distinguish between normal and abnormal Ans. Mental disorder is a deviation from social norm. Each
behaviour? society has norms which are stated or unstated rules for
proper conduct. Behaviour, thoughts and emotions that
Ans. Various approaches have been used to distinguish
break societal norms are called abnormal behaviour.
between normal and abnormal behaviours. From these
To explain mental disorders there are several
approaches, two basic and conflicting views emerged which
psychological models. These models maintain that
are as follows
psychological and interpersonal factors have a significant
(i) The first approach refers to abnormal behaviour as role to play in abnormal behaviour. This psychological
a deviation from the social norms. Each society has models include cognitive model. Psychological factors are
norms, which are stated or unstated rules for proper emphasised by the cognitive model.
conduct. Behaviours, thoughts and emotions that break This model states that abnormal functioning can result
societal norms are called abnormal. from cognitive problems. People may hold assumptions
A society’s norms grow from its particular culture. and attitudes about themselves that are irrational and
Culture includes history, values, institutions, habits, inaccurate. They may also repeatedly think in illogical
skills, technology and arts. ways. Sometimes, they make overgeneralisations and
A society’s values may change over time. It is based draw broad, negative conclusions on the basis of a single
on the assumption that socially accepted behaviour is insignificant event.
not abnormal, and that normality is nothing more
than conformity to social norms. 4. Describe socio-cultural model of abnormal
behaviour. (Delhi 2015, 2016)
(ii) The second approach views abnormal behaviour as
maladaptive. Many psychologists think that the Or Explain mental disorder from socio-cultural
normality of behaviour does not depend on the fact perspective.
whether society accepts it or not, but it depends on Ans. The socio-cultural model of abnormal behaviour means
the well-being of the individual and group. social and cultural forces that influence an individual. As
Well-being is not only maintenance or survival, but it behaviour is shaped by societal, factors such as family
includes growth and fulfillment. structure and communication, social networks, societal
conditions, and societal labels and roles become more
2. Describe the role of biological factors in abnormal important.
behaviour.
It has been found that certain family systems are likely to
Ans. The role of biological factors in abnormal behaviour is produce abnormal functioning in individual members.
given below Some families have a structure in which the members are
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Biological factors influence all aspects of our behaviour. overinvolved in each other’s activities, thoughts, and
A wide range of these factors such as faulty genes, feelings. Children from this kind of family may have
endocrine imbalances, malnutrition, injuries and other difficulty in becoming independent in life.
conditions may interfere with normal development and The broader social networks in which people operate
functioning of the human body. include their social and professional relationships. Studies
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Biological factors like psychological disorders are have shown that people who are isolated and lack social
related to problems in the transmission of messages support i.e. strong and fulfilling interpersonal
from one neuron to another. relationships in their lives, are likely to become more
depressed and remain depressed longer than those who
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When an electrical impulse reaches a neuron’s ending,
have good friendships.
the nerve ending is stimulated to release a chemical,
called a neurotransmitter. 5. Discuss briefly diathesis-stress model.
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Some other biological factors like Anxiety disorders Ans. This model states that psychological disorders develop when
have been linked to low activity of the neurotransmitter a diathesis (biological pre-disposition to the disorder) is set
Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA). Similarly, off by a stressful situation. This model has three components.
schizophrenia have been linked to excess activity of These are as follows
dopamine, and depression have been linked to low (i) The first component is the diathesis or the presence
activity of serotonin. of some biological disorders which may be inherited.
(ii) The second component is that the diathesis may carry (ii) Dissociative Fugue is characterised as the
a vulnerability to develop a psychological disorder. assumption of a new identity and the inability to
This means that the person is ‘at risk’ or ‘predisposed’ recall the previous identity.
to develop the disorder. (iii) Dissociative Identity Disorder is referred to as
(iii) The third component is the presence of pathogenic multiple personality disorder and is the most
stressors i.e. factors/stressors that may lead to dramatic of the dissociative disorders.
psychopathology. (iv) Depersonalisation involves an imaginary state in
This model has been applied to several disorders including which the person has a sense of being separated
anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia. both from self and from reality.
6. What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? Explain. 9. Identify the symptoms associated with depression
(Delhi 2017) and mania. (NCERT)
Ans. Obsessive behaviour is the inability to stop thinking about Ans. Depression and Mania are mood descenders.
a particular idea or topic. Compulsive behaviour is the need
Depression It covers a variety of negative moods and
to perform certain behaviours over and over again. Many
behavioural changes. People suffering from depression
compulsions deal with counting, ordering, checking, touching
associated with following symptoms
and washing. People affected by obsessive-compulsive
disorder are unable to control their preoccupation with
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change in body weight
specific ideas or are unable to prevent themselves from l
constant sleep problems
repeatedly carrying out a particular act or series of acts that l
tiredness
affect their ability to carry out normal activities. l
inability to think clearly
7. Can a distorted body image lead to eating disorders?
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agitation
Classify the various forms of it. (NCERT)
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negative sely-concept
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no interest in pleasurable activities
Ans. A distorted body image lead to eating disorders. There are
three types of eating disorders which are as follows
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greatly slowed behaviour
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thoughts of death and suicide
(i) Anorexia Nervosa In this, the individual has a
disfigured body image that leads her/ him to see Mania People suffering from mania associated with
herself/himself as overweight. By refusing to eat, following symptoms
exercising compulsively and developing unusual l
become euphoric (high)
habits such as refusing to eat in front of others, the l
extremely active
anorexic may lose large amount of weight and even l
excessively talkative
starve herself/himself to death. l
easily distractible
(ii) Bulimia Nervosa In this, the individual may eat
excessive amount of food, then clear her/his body of
10. What is bipolar mood disorder? (CBSE 2016)
food by using medicines such as laxatives or diuretics Ans. Bipolar mood disorder is a mental illness that causes
or by vomiting. The person often feels disgusted and dramatic changes in the person’s mood, energy and
ashamed when she/he binges and is relieved of tension ability to think clearly. People with bipolar mood
and negative emotions after purging. diorder experience high and low moods which are
(iii) Binge Eating In this, there are frequent episodes of known as mania and depression.
out-of-control eating. The individual eats at a high Some types of bipolar and related disorders include
speed than normal and takes a large amount of food ‘Bipolar I Disorder’, ‘Bipolar II Disorder’ and
even when he is not feeling hungry. ‘Cyclothymic Disorder’.
8. What are dissociative disorders. Explain their An attempt of suicide is high in case of Bipolar disorder.
various types. (CBSE 2019) There are several risk factors in addition to mental
Ans. Dissociation disorder involves feeling of unreality, health status of a person predict the likelihood of
estrangement, depersonalisation and sometimes a loss or suicide. These include
shift of identity. Four conditions are included in this l
Age
disorder. These are as follows l
Gender
(i) Dissociative Amnesia It is characterised by extensive l
Ethnicity
or selective memory loss that has no known organic l
Race
cause. This order is often associated with an
overwhelming stress.
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Recent occurrence of serious life events.
11. Differentiate between delusions and hallucinations. However, they do not see themselves as angry,
(Delhi 2016) oppositional or defiant. They often justify their
Ans. The difference between delusions and hallucinations are
behaviour as reaction to circumstances or demands. So,
the symptom of the disorder become entangled with the
as follows
problematic interactions with others.
Delusion Hallucination l
Conduct Disorder (CD) and Anti-social Behaviour It
Delusion is a false belief, that It is a perception that occurs refers to age inappropriate actions and attitudes that
is firmly held on inadequate in the absence of external violate family expectations, societal norms and the
grounds. stimuli. personal or property rights of others. The behaviours in
Delusions can be about Hallucinations are very real conduct disorder include aggressive actions that cause
people or things. to the person experiencing threaten and harm to people or animals, non-aggressive
them. conduct that causes property damage, major
Patients with delusion In Hallucination patients deceitfulness or theft and serious rule violations.
believe that they are being hear sounds or voices that 14. Raj would often be seen talking to himself. On
plotted against, threatened, speak words phrases,
attacked or deliberately sentences directly to the
questioning, he would state that there were people
victimized. patients. around him whom he could see and hear when
Medical conditions that can Medical condition that can there was no one else around. Identify and describe
cause delusions are obsessive cause hallucination are lack this symptom of schizophrenia.
compulsive disorder, of sleep, mental illness, social Ans. People with schizophrenia may have hallucinations, i.e.
Epilepsy. Al zheimer’s isolation, etc. perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli.
disease, etc. Auditory hallucinations are most common in
schizophrenia. Patients hear sounds or voices that speak
12. What is autistic disorder? Also explain the difficulties words, phrases and sentences directly to the patient
faced by the children suffer with autistic disorder. (second-person hallucination) or talk to one another
Ans. Autistic disorder or autism is one of the most common referring to the patient as s/he (third-person hallucination).
disorders among children. Children with autistic disorder Hallucinations can also involve the other senses. These
have marked difficulties in social interaction and include tactile hallucinations (i.e. forms of tingling,
communication, a restricted range of interests, and strong burning), somatic hallucinations (i.e. something happening
desire for routine. Children with autism experience inside the body such as a snake crawling inside one’s
profound difficulties in relating to other people. stomach), visual hallucinations (i.e. vague perceptions of
These difficulties are as follows colour or distinct visions of people or objects), gustatory
hallucinations (i.e. food or drink taste strange), and
l
They are unable to initiate social behaviour and seem
olfactory hallucinations (i.e. smell of poison or smoke).
unresponsive to other people’s feelings.
l
They are unable to share experiences or emotions with 15. Aman is an eight year old who has profound
others. difficulty in relating to other people. Often, he is
l
They show serious abnormalities in communication and found to be unresponsive to other people’s feelings
language that persist over time. and exhibits stereotypical patterns of behaviour.
l
Many autistic children never develop speech and those Identify this disorder and describe its features.
who do, have repetitive and deviant speech patterns. Ans. Children with autism spectrum disorder experience
l
Children with autism often show narrow patterns of profound difficulties in relating to other people. They are
interests and repetitive behaviours such as lining up unable to initiate social behaviour and seem unresponsive
objects or stereotyped body movements such as rocking. to other people’s feelings. They are unable to share
These motor movements may be self-stimulatory such experiences or emotions with others. They also show
as hand flapping or self-injurious such as banging their serious abnormalities in communication and language
head against the wall. that persist over time. Many of them never develop
speech and those who do, have repetitive and deviant
13. Explain disruptive, impulse-control and conduct speech patterns. Such children often show narrow
disorders. (CBSE 2019) patterns of interests and repetitive behaviours such as
Ans. Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders refer lining up objects or stereotyped body movements such as
to a group of diorders that include oppositional defiant rocking. These motor movements may be self-stimulatory
disorder, conduct disorder and anti-social behaviour such as hand flapping or self-injurious such as banging
which are discussed as follows their head against the wall. Due to the nature of these
difficulties in terms of verbal and non-verbal
l
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) Children with
communication, individuals with autism spectrum
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) are irritable,
disorder tend to experience difficulties in starting,
defiant, disobedient and behave in a hostile manner.
maintaining and even understanding relationships.
16. What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of (iii) Cognitive Model This model states that abnormal
snakes, could this simple phobia be a result of faulty functioning can result from cognitive problems.
learning? Analyse how this phobia could have People may hold assumptions and attitudes about
developed. (NCERT) themselves that are irrational and inaccurate.
Ans. Phobias It refers to irrational fears related to specific (iv) Humanistic-Existential Model It focuses on
objects, interactions with others, and unfamiliar situations. broader aspects of human existence. Humanists
If someone had an intense fear of snakes, this simple phobia believe that human beings are born with a natural
cannot be a result of faulty learning. It is a specific phobia tendency to be friendly, cooperative
which is most common. This group includes irrational fears and constructive and are driven to self-actualise
such as intense fear of a certain type of animal, or of being i.e., to fulfil this potential for goodness and
in an enclosed space. growth.
This phobia often develops gradually or begins with a (v) Socio-Cultural Model According to the
generalised anxiety disorders. The symptoms include worry socio-cultural model, abnormal behaviour is best
and apprehensive feelings about the future and understood by the social and cultural forces that
hypervigilance, which involves constantly scanning the influence an individual.
environment for dangers. (vi) Diathesis-Stress Model This model states that
It is marked by motor tension, as a result of which the psychological disorders develop when a diathesis
person is unable to relax, is restless, and visibly shaky (weak) (biological pre-disposition to the disorder) is set
and tense. off by a stressful situation.
17. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions. 2. Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour
(NCERT) be considered abnormal? Elaborate. (NCERT)
Ans. The difference between obsessions and compulsions are as Ans. Yes, a long standing pattern of deviant behaviour is
follows considered to be abnormal. The word ‘abnormal’
literally means ‘away from the normal’. It implies
Obsessions Compulsions deviation from some clearly defined norms or
They are thoughts, ideas They are actions. standards. In psychology, we have no ‘ideal model’ or
and impulses. ‘normal model’ of human behaviour to use as a base for
They cause unwanted They are performed to cope comparison. Various approaches have been used in
feelings, anxiety and with obsessions. distinguishing between normal and abnormal
distress. behaviours.
They lead to compulsions, They result due to obsessions. From these approaches, two basic and conflicting views
(cause) (Effect). emerged
They disrupt the mental They disrupt the physical (i) The first approach views abnormal behaviour as a
wellbeing. wellbeing. deviation from social norms. Abnormal behaviour,
thoughts and emotions are different from a
l
Long Answer (LA) Type Questions society’s ideas of proper functioning.
A society that values competition and
1. Describe the psychological models to explain assertiveness may accept aggressive behaviour,
abnormal behaviour/mental disorders. whereas one that emphasises cooperation and
(CBSE 2019, Delhi 2014) family values (such as in India) may consider
Ans. The psychological and interpersonal factors have a aggressive behaviour as unacceptable or even
significant role to play in abnormal behaviour. abnormal.
The psychological models include the following (ii) The second approach views abnormal behaviour
(i) Psychodynamic Model It is the oldest and most as maladaptive. The best criterion for determining
famous of the modern psychological models. the normality of behaviour is whether society
Psychodynamic theorists believe that behaviour, promotes the well-being of the individual and i.e.
whether normal or abnormal is determined by the group to which she/he belongs.
psychological forces within the person of which she/he Well-being is not simply a maintenance and
is not consciously aware. survival but also includes growth and fulfilment
(ii) Behavioural Model This model states that both i.e. the actualisation of potential. According to this
normal and abnormal behaviours are learned and criterion, conforming behaviour can be seen as
psychological disorders are the result of learning abnormal if it is maladaptive i.e., if it interferes
maladaptive ways of behaving. with optimal functioning and growth.
3. Explain abnormality. Trace a brief history of how a peak when thoughts of a particular stimuli are present.
our understanding of psychological disorders has Such thoughts occur in an unpredictable manner. The
evolved to its current status. (CBSE 2019) Clinical features include, Shortness of breath, Dizziness,
Trembling, Palpitations, Choking, Nausea, Chest pain
Ans. The word ‘abnormal’ literally means ‘away from the
or discomfort, Fear of going crazy, Losing control, dying.
normal’. It implies deviation from some clearly defined
norms or standards. Or There are three types of eating disorders. These are
In Ancient times, abnormality holds that abnormal discussed as follows
behaviour can be explained by the operation of (i) Anorexia Nervosa In this, the individual has a
supernatural and magical forces such as evil spirits disfigured body image that leads her/him to
(bhoot-pret) or the devil (shaitan). see herself/himself as overweight. By refusing to eat,
exercising compulsively and developing unusual habits
Exorcism i.e. removing the evil that resides in the
such as refusing to eat in front of others, the anorexic
individual through countermagic and prayer is still
may lose large amounts of weight and even starve
commonly used. In many societies, the shaman or
herself/himself to death.
medicine man (ojha) is a person who is believed to have
contact with supernatural forces and is the medium (ii) Bulimia Nervosa In this, the individual may eat
through which spirits communicate with human excessive amount of food, then clear her/his body of
beings. food by using medicines such as laxatives or diuretics or
It is believed that through shaman, an affected person by vomiting. The person often feels disgusted and
can know which spirit is responsible for his problem ashamed when she/he binges and is relieved of tension
and what needs to be done to appease the spirit. and negative emotions after purging.
In Renaissance period Johann Weyer emphasised (iii) Binge Eating In this, there are frequent episodes of
psychological conflict and disturbed interpersonal claborad out-of-control eating. In this case individual
relationship as causes of psychological disorder. The eats large amount of food, even he is not feeling
growth of scientific attitude toward psychological hungry. He tends to eat at a higher speed than normal
disorder developed in the 18th century as a result of and continues eating till he feels uncomfortably full.
Reform Movement. 5. What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’?
It provided community care for mentally ill person. In Explain the types of dissociative disorder.
recent years, it is believed that biological, psychological (All India 2016)
and social factors play important roles in influencing Or What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’?
the expression and outcome of psychological disorders.
Discuss its various forms. (NCERT)
4. Describe the symptoms of any two anxiety Ans. Dissociation involves feelings of unreality, estrangement,
disorders. (CBSE 2020) depersonalisation, and sometimes a loss or shift of identity.
Or Classify and explain the symptoms of eating Sudden temporary alterations of consciousness that blot out
disorders. (CBSE 2020) painful experiences are a defining characteristic of
dissociative disorders.
Ans. One of the major psychological disorders is anxiety
disorder. The term anxiety is defined as a diffuse, There are four types of dissociation. These are as follows
vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and (i) Dissociative Amnesia It is characterised by extensive
apprehension. The mental disorder which arises due to but selective memory loss that has no known organic
anxiety is known as anxiety disorder. cause (e.g., head injury) in which some people cannot
Two main types of anxiety disorders are as follows remember anything about their past. Others are no
Generalised Anxiety Disorder It consists of continued, longer recall specific events, peoples, places or objects
vague (unclear), unexplained and intense fears that are while their memory for other events remain intact.
not attached to any particular object. The symptoms This disorder is often associated with an overwhelming
include worry and apprehensive feelings about the stress.
future; hypervigilance, which involves constantly (ii) Dissociative Fugue It characterises the assumption of
scanning the environment for dangers. a new identity, and the inability to recall the previous
It is marked by motor tension, as a result of which the identity. Unexpected travel away from home or
person is unable to relax, is restless and visibly shaky workplace.
(weak) and tense. (iii) Dissociative Identity Disorder It is often referred to
Panic Disorder It consists of recurrent anxiety attacks as multiple personality disorder and is the most
in which the person experiences intense terror. A panic dramatic of the dissociative disorders. It is often
attack denotes an abrupt rise of intense anxiety rising to associated with traumatic experiences in childhood.
(iv) Depersonalisation It involves an imaginary state l

Impulsivity Children who are impulsive seem unable to
in which the person has a sense of being separated control their immediate reactions or to think before they
both from self and from reality. In act. They find it difficult to wait or take turns, have
depersonalisation, there is a change of difficulty in resisting immediate temptations or delaying
self-perception. The person’s sense of reality is gratification.
temporarily lost or changed. l
Hyperactivity Children who are hyperactive are unable
6. What is depression? Discuss the main types of to control their motion. It is impossible for them to sit
mood disorders. stable and quiet. The child may fidget, squirm (jiggle),
climb and run around the room aimlessly. Boys are four
Ans. The most common mood disorder is depression.
Depression covers a variety of negative moods and times more likely to be given this diagnosis than girls.
behavioural changes. The characteristics of hyperactive children are as follows
We often use the term depression to refer to normal
l
Children who are hyperactive seen unable to control
feelings after a significant loss, such as the break-up their motion.
of a relationship or the failure to attain a significant goal. l
It is impossible for them to sit stable and quiet.
Genetic make-up or heredity, age, gender, negative life l
The child may fidget, squirm, climb and run around the
events and lack of social support are some important risk room aimlessly.
factors for major depression. l
Boys are four times more likely to be given this diagnosis
Major Depressive Disorder It is defined as a period of than girls.
depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in 8. While speaking in public the patient changes topics
most activities, with other symptoms like change in frequently, is this a positive or a negative symptom of
body weight, constant sleep problems, tiredness, schizophrenia? Describe the other symptoms and
inability to think clearly, agitation, greatly slowed sub-types of schizophrenia. (NCERT)
behaviour and thoughts of death and suicide. Other
Ans. It is a formal thought disorder which is a positive symptom
symptoms include excessive guilt or feelings of
of schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia may not be
worthlessness.
able to think logically and may speak in peculiar ways.
Mania People suffering from mania become euphoric People rapidly shift from one topic to another so that the
(‘high’), extremely active, excessively talkative and easily normal structure of thinking is muddled and becomes
distractible. illogical.
Bipolar is a mood disorder, in which both mania and The symptoms of schizophrenia can be grouped into three
depression are alternately present, is sometimes categories
interrupted by periods of normal mood. Bipolar mood
(i) Positive symptoms These are pathological excesses or
disorders were earlier referred to as manic-depressive
bizarre (strange) additions to a person’s behaviour.
disorders.
Delusions, disorganised thinking and speech,
Some types of bipolar and related disorders include heightened perception and hallucinations and
‘Bipolar I Disorder’, ‘Bipolar II Disorder’ and inappropriate affect are some symptoms in
‘Cyclothymic Disorder’. Among the mood disorders, the schizophrenia. These are discussed as follows
lifetime risk of a suicide attempt is high in case of
(a) Delusions A delusion is a false belief that is firmly
bipolar mood disorders.
held on inadequate grounds. It is not affected by
Suicide Several risk factors in addition to mental health rational argument, and has no basis in reality.
status of a person predict the likelihood of suicide. (b) Formal Thought Disorders People with
Every suicide is a misfortune. schizophrenia may not be able to think logically
7. Explain the main featuers of ADSD. and may speak in strange ways. These formal
thought disorders can make communication
Or Describe the characteristics of hyperactive extremely difficult.
children. (NCERT) (c) Hallucinations It is a perception that occurs in
Ans. The main features of ADHD are as follows the absence of external stimuli. Auditory
l
Inattention Children who are inattentive find it hallucinations are most common in schizophrenia.
difficult to sustain mental effort during work or play. (ii) Negative Symptoms These are pathological deficits
Some common complaints are that the child does not and include poverty of speech, blunted (weakened)
listen, cannot concentrate, does not follow and flat affect, loss of volition (self determination) and
instructions, is disorganised, easily distracted, social withdrawal. People with schizophrenia show
forgetful, does not finish assignments, and is quick to alogia or poverty of speech i.e., a reduction in speech
lose interest in boring activities. and speech content.
(iii) Psychomotor Symptoms People with schizophrenia themselves from repeatedly carrying out a particular act
show psychomotor symptoms i.e. or series of acts that affect their ability to carry out normal
l
They move less spontaneously or make odd activities. Obsessive behaviour is the inability to stop
grimaces and gestures. thinking about a particular idea or topic.
l
These symptoms may take extreme forms known as Compulsive behaviour is the need to perform certain
catatonia. behaviours over and over again. Many compulsions
l
People in a catatonic stupor remain motionless and deal with counting, ordering, checking, touching and
silent for long stretches of time. washing.
l
Some show catatonic rigidity i.e., maintaining a Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) People who
rigid, upright posture for hours while some others have been caught in a natural disaster (such as tsunami) or
exhibit catatonic posturing i.e., assuming awkward, have been victims of bomb blasts by terrorists, or been in
strange positions for long periods. a serious accident or in a war-related situation,
9. Anxiety has been called the “butterflies experience Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
in the stomach feeling”. At what stage does anxiety
become a disorder? Discuss its types. (NCERT)
l
Case Based Questions
Ans. The term anxiety is usually defined as a diffuse, vague, 1. Schizophrenia is the descriptive term for a group of
very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension. Hence, psychotic disorders in which personal, social and
it is called “butterflies in the stomach feeling”. occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of
When an individual shows the symptoms the combination disturbed thought processes, strange perceptions,
with anxiety on that stage anxiety becames an disorder. unusual emotional states, and motor abnormalities.
The anxious individual shows the following symptoms It is a debilitating disorder.
l
Rapid heart rate l
Shortness of breath The social and psychological costs of schizophrenia
l
Diarrhoea l
Loss of appetite are tremendous, both to patients as well as to their
l
Fainting l
Dizziness families and society.
l
Sweating l
Sleeplessness Symptoms of schizophrenia can be classified as
l
Frequent urination l
Tremors Positive symptoms (i.e. excesses of thought,
Types of anxiety disorders are as follows emotion, and behaviour), negative symptoms (i.e.
Generalised Anxiety Disorder It consists of prolonged, deficits of thought, emotion, and behaviour), and
vague, unexplained and intense fears that are not attached psychomotor symptoms.
to any particular object. (i) What are delusions? Explain different types of
The symptoms include worry and apprehensive feelings delusions seen in schizophrenia.
about the future; hypervigilance, which involves Ans. A delusion is a false belief that is firmly held on
constantly scanning the environment for dangers. inadequate grounds. It is not affected by rational
Panic Disorder It consists of recurrent anxiety attacks in argument, and has no basis in reality.
which the person experiences intense terror. A panic There are mainly three types of delusion seen in
attack denotes an abrupt surge (rise) of intense anxiety schizophrenia. These are as follows
rising to a peak when thoughts of a particular stimuli are l
Delusions of reference In this type of delusion, people
present. attach special and personal meaning to the actions of
Phobia People who have phobias have irrational fears others or to objects and events.
related to specific objects, people, or situations. Phobias l
Delusions of grandeur In this type of delusion,
can be grouped into three main types, i.e. specific people believe themselves to be specially empowered
phobias, social phobias, and agoraphobia. persons.
(i) Specific Phobia This group includes irrational fears l
Delusions of control, Schizophrenic people believe that
such as intense fear of a certain type of animal, or of their feelings, thoughts and actions are controlled by
being in an enclosed space. others.
(ii) Social Phobia Intense and incapacitating fear and (ii) Explain different types of hallucinations.
embarrassment when dealing with others
Ans. Schizophrenics may have hallucinations, i.e. perceptions
characterises social phobias.
that occur in the absence of external stimuli.
(iii) Agoraphobia It is the term used when people Some of the different types of hallucinations that exist are
develop a fear of entering unfamiliar situations. as follows
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder People affected by Auditory hallucinations These are false perceptions of
obsessive-compulsive disorder are unable to control their sound. It is one of the most prevalent symptoms of
preoccupation with specific ideas or are unable to prevent schizophrenia.
(iii) What is catatonia? Explain its role in 3. Addictive behaviour, whether it involves excessive
schizophrenia. intake of high calorie food resulting in extreme obesity
Ans. People with schizophrenia also show psychomotor or involving the abuse of substances such as alcohol or
symptoms. They move less spontaneously or make cocaine, is one of the most severe problems being faced
odd grimaces and gestures. These symptoms may by society today. Disorders relating to maladaptive
take extreme forms known as catatonia. People in a behaviours resulting from regular and consistent use of
catatonic stupor remain motionless and silent for the substance involved are called substance abuse
long stretches of time. Some show catatonic rigidity,
disorders. These disorders include problems associated
i.e. maintaining a rigid, upright posture for hours.
Others exhibit catatonic posturing, i.e. assuming with using and abusing such as drugs, alcohol, cocaine
awkward, bizarre positions for long periods of time. and heroin, which alter the way people think, feel and
behave. There are two sub-groups of substance-use
2. Sunny is a 7 year old boy. His parents are disorders, i.e. those related to substance dependence
worried about his lack of paying attention in and those related to substance abuse. We will now focus
the class. As per his teacher, Sunny is highly on the three most common forms of substance abuse,
distracted during the lesson and keeps looking viz. alcohol abuse and dependence, heroin abuse and
here and there. He cannot sit steady and keeps dependence, and cocaine abuse and dependence.
talking to his partner.
(i) What is alcoholism? What are the signs of alcohol
When asked, Sunny’s mother said that he has abuse?
always been over active and is unable to focus
Ans. Alcoholism is a condition when a person’s drinking habit
on a particular task for a very long time. interferes with his/her work and social life. There are many
Sunny’s school performance was always below signs of alcohol abuse. Some of them are as follows
average and has only been deteriorating. l
People who abuse alcohol, drink large amount regularly.
Sunny was diagnosed with attention deficit l
They rely on alcohol to help them face stressful situations.
hyperactivity disorder ADHD and has been l
Alcohol interferes with their social behaviour.
going through therapy.
l
It also interferes with the ability to think and work.
(i) What are the symptoms of ADHD that helps to l
Dependence on alcohol develops rapidly.
identify the disorder?
Ans. The main symptoms of ADHD that helps in (ii) Write about some commonly abused substances.
identifying disorder are Inattentive, Hyeractive and Ans. l
Alcohol
Impulsive. A person with ADHD struggles harder in l
Amphetamines: dextroamphetamines, methamphetamines,
paying attention, listen, follow direction, etc. diet pills
(ii) What is impulsivity? Explain. l
Caffeine: coffee, tea, caffeinated soda, analgesics, chocolate,
Ans. Impulsivity is the tendency to act without thinking. cocoa
Children who are impulsive find it difficult to wait l
Cannabis: marijuana or ‘bhang’, hashish, sensimilla
his turn. For eg. Run across the strect without l
Cocaine
looking, buy something without any plan, etc. l
Hallucinogens: LSD, mescaline
(iii) What is hyperactivity? What are the l
Inhalants: gasoline, glue, paint thinners, spray paints,
characteristics of a hyperactivity? typewriter correction fluid, sprays
Ans. Hyperactivity is a state of being unusually or l
Nicotine: cigarettes, tobacco
abnormally active. The child who shows a pattern of l
Phencyclidine
hyperactive may fidgel, squirm, climb and run l
Sedatives
around the room aimlessly.
(iii) Write a short note on Heroin abuse.
Tactile Hallucination This refers to the feelings of
Ans. Heroin intake significantly interferes with social and
movement or sensation on body that are not actually
occupational functioning. Most abusers further develop a
present. dependence on heroin. Patients often develop a tolerance for
Visual Hallucination This refers to a condition in it, and experiencing a withdrawal reaction when they stop
which a person sees something that does not exist or taking it. The most direct withdrawal symptoms are feelings of
sees something that does exist but sees it incorrectly. depression, fatigue, sleep problems, irritability and anxiety.
Chapter Test
Multiple choice questions
1. Alogia means
(a) Sponge taste of drink (b) Poverty of speech
(c) Smell of poison (d) None of these
2. Which of the following is an opioid?
(a) Morphine (b) Heroin
(c) Cough syrup (d) All of these
3. Which of the following contains nicotine?
(a) Tobacco (b) Bhang
(c) Coffee (d) Heroin
4. One day during his lunch hour, Geraldo suddenly could not breathe. He felt his heart racing, he began to
hyperventilate, and he became worried that he was dying. He wanted to get help from his coworkers, but he was
worried about embarrassing himself in front of them. If these episodes continue, then Geraldo might be diagnosed
with ________.
(a) bipolar disorder (b) panic disorder
(c) generalized anxiety disorder (d) simple phobia
Short Answer Type Questions

5. Discuss conduct disorder.
6. Briefly discuss anorexia nervosa.
7. Describe in brief the sub-types of schizophrenia.
8. Explain diathesis-stress model.
9. Describe biological and genetic factors responsible for abnormal behaviour.
10. Shalini often eat excessive amounts of food, then purge her body of food by using medicines such as laxatives or
diuretics or by vomiting. Identify the psychological disorder that Shalini may have? Also, Give reason why she might
be doing so?
Long Answer Type Questions
11. Elaborate major anxiety disorders and their symptoms.
12. Elaborate the symptoms of schizophrenia.
13. Explain various effects of alcohol.
14. A psychologist while diagnosing the patient has concluded that the psychological disorder of patient can be
attributed to biochemical or physiological basis. Identify the approach that psychologist has employed to diagnose
his patient. Also, enumerate the various factors that have been included in his approach.
Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a)
CHAPTER 02
Therapeutic
Approaches
In this Chapter...
l Introduction
l Nature and Process of Psychotherapy
l Types of Therapies
l Rehabilitation of the Mentally ILL
Characteristics of Psychotherapy
Introduction
Psychotherapeutic approaches have the following
There are various types of psychotherapy. Some of them characteristics
focus on acquiring self-understanding, some other therapies l
There is a systematic application of principles underlying
are more action-oriented. The effectiveness of a therapeutic
the different theories of therapy.
approach for a patient depends on a number of factors such as
severity of the disorder, degree of distress faced by others
l
Persons who have received practical training under expert
and the availability of time, effort and money among others. supervision only can practice psychotherapy. An untrained
person may unintentionally cause more harm than any good.
All therapeutic approaches are corrective and helping in l
The therapeutic situation involves a therapist and a client
nature. All these approaches involve interpersonal
who seeks and receives help for her/his emotional
relationship between the patient and the therapist. These can
problems.
be directive or non-directive in nature.
l
The interaction of these two persons i.e. the therapist and
Nature and Process of the client, results in the formation of the therapeutic
relationship. This is a confidential, interpersonal and
Psychotherapy dynamic relationship. This human relationship is central to
Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the client any type of psychological therapy and is the vehicle for
(patient) and the therapist. The purpose of the relationship is change.
to help the client to solve the psychological problems being
faced by her or him.
Goals of Psychotherapy
All psychotherapies aim at a few or all of the following goals
Psychotherapies aim at changing the abnormal behaviours,
decreasing the sense of personal distress and helping the
l
Support client for attaining betterment
client to adapt better to her/his environment. l
Reduce emotional pressure
l
Unfolding the potential for positive growth It is also important for the therapeutic alliance that the
l
Modifying habits therapist must keep secret all the experiences and feelings
l
Changing thinking patterns shared by the patient to him.
l
Increasing self-awareness The therapist must not exploit the trust and the confidence of
l
Improving interpersonal relations and communication the client in anyway. It is a professional relationship between
the therapist and the client.
l
Facilitating decision-making
l
Becoming aware of one’s choices in life Parameters of Classification
l
Relating to one’s social environment in a more creative and of Psychotherapies
self-aware manner
The classification of psychotherapies is based on the
Therapeutic Relationship following parameters
The special relationship between the client and the therapist 1. Cause of the Problem
is known as the therapeutic relationship or alliance. There are Psychodynamic therapy views intrapsychic conflicts i.e. the
two major components of a therapeutic alliance, which are as conflicts that are present within the psyche of the person, are
follows the source of psychological problems. According to behaviour
(i) The first component is the contractual (protected) therapies, psychological problems arise due to faulty learning
nature of the relationship in which two willing of behaviours and cognitions. The existential therapies claims
individuals, the client and the therapist, enter into a that the questions about the meaning of one’s life and
partnership which aims at helping the client to existence are the cause of psychological problems.
overcome her/his problems.
2. Existence of Cause
(ii) The second component of therapeutic alliance is the
In the psychodynamic therapy, unfulfilled desires of
limited duration of the therapy. This alliance lasts until
childhood and unresolved childhood fears lead to intrapsychic
the client becomes able to deal with her/his problems
conflicts. The behaviour therapy suggested that faulty
and take control of her/ his life.
conditioning patterns, faulty learning and faulty thinking and
This relationship has several unique properties. It is a beliefs lead to abnormal (maladaptive) behaviours that, in
trusting and confiding relationship. The high level of trust turn, lead to psychological problems. It is the feeling of
makes the client or patient to unburden himself to the loneliness, alienation, sense of futility (insignificance ) of
therapist by saying all his psychological and personal one’s existence, etc., which cause psychological problems.
problems. The therapist encourages this by being accepting,
empathic, genuine and warm to the client. 3. Method of Treatment
The therapist conveys by her/his words and behaviours that Psychodynamic therapy uses the methods of free
she/he is not judging the client and will continue to show the association and reporting of dreams to generate the
same positive feelings towards the client even if the client is thoughts and feelings of the client. This material is
rude. This is the unconditional positive regard which the interpreted to the client to help her/him to confront and
therapist has for his client. resolve the conflicts and thus overcome problems.
Behaviour therapy identifies the faulty conditioning
Empathy Towards the Client patterns and sets up alternate behavioural contingencies
The therapist has empathy for the client. Empathy is different (events) to improve behaviour.
from sympathy. In sympathy, one has compassion and pity The cognitive methods employed in this type of theraphy
towards the suffering of another but is not able to feel like the challenge the faulty thinking patterns of the client and help
other person. On the other hand, empathy is present when her/him to overcome psychological distress.
one is able to understand the plight of another person and The existential therapy provides a therapeutic environment
feel like the other person. which is positive, accepting and non-judgemental. The client
It means understanding things from the other person’s is able to talk about the problems and the therapist acts as a
perspective. Empathy enriches the therapeutic relationship facilitator. The client arrives at the solutions through a
and transforms it into a healing relationship. process of personal growth.
4. Nature of the Therapeutic Relationship Steps in the Formulation of a Client’s Problem

between the Client and the Therapist
Clinical formulation refers to formulating the problem of the client in
Psychodynamic therapy assumes that the therapist the therapeutic model being used for the treatment. The clinical
understands the intrapsychic conflicts of the client formulation has the following advantages
better than the client himself. The therapist interprets Understanding of the Problem The therapist is able to understand
the thoughts and feelings of the client to her/him so the full implications of the distress being experienced by the client.
that she/he gains an understanding of the same. Identification of the Areas to be Targeted for Treatment in
The behaviour therapy assumes that the therapist is Psychotherapy The theoretical formulation clearly identifies the
able to detect the faulty behaviour and thought problem areas to be targeted for therapy. Thus, if a client seeks help
for inability to hold a job and reports inability to face superiors, the
patterns of the client. The existential therapies
clinical formulation in behaviour therapy would state it as lack of
emphasise that the therapist provides a warm, assertiveness skills and anxiety. The target areas are identified as
empathic relationship in which the client feels secure inability to assert oneself and heightened anxiety.
to explore the nature and causes of her/his problems Choice of Techniques for Treatment The choice of techniques for
by herself/himself. treatment depends on the therapeutic system in which the therapist
has been trained. However, even within this broad domain, the choice
5. Chief Benefit to the Client of techniques, timing of the techniques and expectations of outcome of
Psychodynamic therapy values emotional insight as the therapy depend upon the clinical formulation.
the important benefit that the client derives from the This clinical formulation is an ongoing process which may require
treatment. Emotional insight is present when the reformulation as clinical insights are gained in the process of therapy.
client understands her/his conflicts intellectually and
able to accept the same emotionally and is able to
change her/his emotions towards the conflicts. The Types of Therapies
client’s symptoms and distresses reduces as a Psychotherapies differ greatly in concepts, methods and techniques.
consequence of this emotional insight. They may be classified into three broad groups, viz the
The behaviour therapy considers changing faulty psychodynamic, behaviour and existential psychotherapies.
behaviour and thought patterns to adaptive ones Psychodynamic therapy emerged first followed by behaviour
as the chief benefit of the treatment. Instituting therapy, while the existential therapies which are also called the third
adaptive or healthy behaviour and thought patterns force, emerged last. Behaviour therapy, cognitive therapy,
ensures reduction of distress and removal of humanistic-existential therapy and alternative therapies are discussed
symptoms. as follows
The humanistic therapy values personal growth as the Behaviour Therapy
main benefit. Personal growth is the process of
increasing understanding of oneself and one’s This therapy claims that psychological distress arises because of
aspirations, emotions and motives. faulty behaviour patterns or thought patterns. It is focused on the
behaviour and thoughts of the client in the present. The past is
6. Duration of the Treatment relevant only to the extent of understanding the origins of the faulty
The duration of classical psychoanalysis may continue behaviour and thought patterns.
for several years. Psychodynamic therapies are Behaviour therapy consists of a large set of specific techniques and
completed in 10–15 sessions. Behaviour and cognitive interventions. The symptoms of the client and the clinical diagnosis
behaviour therapies as well as existential therapies are are the guiding factors in the selection of the specific techniques or
shorter and are completed in a few months. interventions to be applied in the behaviour therapy.
Thus, different types of psychotherapies differ on Treatment of phobias or excessive and crippling fears would require
multiple parameters. However, they all share the the use of one set of techniques, while that of anger outbursts would
common method of providing treatment for require another. A depressed client would be treated differently
psychological distress through psychological means. from a client who is anxious.
Method of Treatment used by the child’s mother by preparing the child’s favourite
Behavioural analysis is conducted to find malfunctioning dish whenever she/he does homework at the appointed time.
behaviours, the antecedents of faulty learning and the factors The positive reinforcement of food will increase the
that maintain or continue faulty learning. behaviour of doing homework at the appointed time.
Malfunctioning behaviours are those behaviours which Aversive Conditioning
cause distress to the client. Antecedent factors are those It refers to repeated association of undesired response with
factors which affect the person to indulge in that behaviour. an adverse consequence. For example, an alcoholic is given a
Maintaining factors are those factors which lead to the mild electric shock and asked to smell the alcohol.
persistence of the faulty behaviour. With repeated pairings, the smell of alcohol is aversive as the
The aim of the treatment is to eliminate the faulty behaviours pain of the shock is associated with it and the person will give
and substitute them with adaptive behaviour patterns. The up alcohol.
therapist does this through establishing antecedent
operations and consequent operations. Token Economy
Antecedent operations control behaviour by changing Person with behavioural problems can be given a token as a
something that precedes such a behaviour. The change can reward every time when a wanted behaviour occurs. The
be done by increasing or decreasing the reinforcing value of a tokens are collected and exchanged for a reward such as an
particular consequence which is called establishing outing for the patient or a treat for the child. This is known as
operation. For example, if a child creates trouble in eating token economy.
dinner, then decrease the quantity of food served at tea time. Differential Reinforcement
It will increase the hunger at dinner and he will take proper Unwanted behaviour can be reduced and wanted behaviour
quantity of food at dinner. Praise the child for this behaviour. can be increased simultaneously through differential
Here, the antecedent operation is the reduction of food at tea reinforcement. Positive reinforcement for the wanted
time and the consequent operation is praising the child for behaviour and negative reinforcement for the unwanted
eating dinner properly. behaviour attempted together may be one such method. The
Behavioural Techniques other method is to positively reinforce the wanted behaviour
and ignore the unwanted behaviour. The latter method is less
There are various techniques for changing behaviour. The
painful and equally effective.
principles of these techniques are to reduce the arousal level
of the client, alter behaviour through classical conditioning1 For example, a girl cries and refuses to talk (sulk) when she is
or with different contingencies of reinforcements, as well as not taken to the cinema. The parent is instructed to take her
to use vicarious (indirect) learning procedures. to the cinema if she does not cry and sulk. The parent is also
instructed to ignore the girl when she cries and sulks.
Some techniques of behaviour modification are as follows
Gradually, the wanted behaviour of politely asking to be
Negative Reinforcement taken to the cinema increases and the unwanted behaviour of
Negative reinforcement is a major technique of behaviour crying and sulking decreases.
modification. Responses that lead organisms to get rid of Systematic Desensitisation
painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them provide
negative reinforcement. Systematic desensitisation is a technique introduced by
Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational fears. The client is
For example, one learns to put on woollen clothes, burn
interviewed to generate fear-provoking situations. The
firewood or use electric heaters to avoid the unpleasant cold
therapist relaxes the client and asks the client to think about
weather. Person learns to move away from dangerous stimuli
the least anxiety-provoking situation.
because they provide negative reinforcement.
The client is asked to stop thinking of the fearful situation if
Positive Reinforcement the slightest tension is felt. After some sessions, the client is
If an adaptive behaviour occurs rarely, positive reinforcement able to imagine more severe fear-provoking situations while
is given to increase the deficit. For example, if a child does maintaining the relaxation. The client gets systematically
not do homework regularly, positive reinforcement may be desensitised (stop being sensitive) to the fear.
1 Classical Conditioning It is a type of learning that happens unconsciously.

Principle of Reciprocal (Mutual) Inhibition The distorted perception of the antecedent event due to the
This principle states that the presence of two mutually irrational belief leads to the consequence i.e. negative
opposing forces at the same time, inhibits the weaker force. emotions and behaviours. Irrational beliefs are assessed
Thus, the relaxation response is first built up and mildly through questionnaires and interviews.
anxiety-provoking scene is imagined, through which the In the process of RET, the irrational beliefs are opposed by
anxiety is overcome by the relaxation. The client is able to the therapist through a process of non-directive questioning.
tolerate progressively greater levels of anxiety because of The questions make the client to think deeper into her/his
her/his relaxed state. assumptions about life and problems. Gradually, the client is
Modelling able to change the irrational beliefs by making a change in
her/his philosophy about life. The rational belief system
Modelling is the procedure wherein the client learns to
replaces the irrational belief system and there is a reduction
behave in a certain way by observing the behaviour of a role
in psychological distress.
model or the therapist who initially acts as the role model.
Vicarious learning i.e. learning by observing others, is used Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
and through a process of rewarding small changes in the Aaron Beck gave another cognitive therapy. His theory of
behaviour, the client gradually learns to acquire the psychological distress is characterised by anxiety or
behaviour of the model. depression. It states that childhood experiences provided by
The skill of the therapist lies in conducting an accurate the family and society develop core schemas or systems,
behavioural analysis and building a treatment package with which include beliefs and action patterns in the individual.
the appropriate techniques. Negative thoughts which develop are persistent irrational
thoughts. These are characterised by cognitive distortions.
Relaxation Procedures For example, ‘Nobody loves me’, ‘I am ugly’, ‘I am stupid’,
Relaxation procedures are used to decrease the anxiety levels. etc.
For instance, progressive muscular relaxation and meditation Cognitive distortions (deformation) are ways of thinking
induce a state of relaxation. In progressive muscular
which are general in nature but distort the reality in a
relaxation, the client is taught to contract individual muscle
groups in order to give the awareness of tenseness or muscular negative manner. These patterns of thought are called
tension. After the client has learnt to tense the muscle group dysfunctional cognitive structures.
such as the forearm, the client is asked to let go the tension. Repeated occurrence of these thoughts leads to the
With repeated practice the client learns to relax all the
development of feelings of anxiety and depression. The aim
muscles of the body.
of the therapy is to achieve cognitive restructuring which, in
turn, reduces anxiety and depression. The therapist uses
Cognitive Therapy questioning, which is gentle, non-threatening disputation of
These therapies revealed the cause of psychological distress the client’s beliefs and thoughts. Examples of such questions
in irrational thoughts and beliefs. are as follows
Following approaches have been used as cognitive therapy l
Why should everyone love you?
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What does it mean to you to succeed?
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
The questions make the client think in a direction opposite to
It was formulated by Albert Ellis. The central idea of this
that of the negative automatic thoughts whereby she/he gains
therapy is that irrational beliefs mediate between the
insight into the nature of her/his dysfunctional schemas and is
antecedent events2 and their consequences. The first step in
able to alter her/his cognitive restructuring which, in turn,
RET is the Antecedent Belief-Consequence (ABC) analysis.
reduces, anxiety and depression.
Antecedent events, which caused the psychological distress,
are noted. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)
The client is also interviewed to find the irrational beliefs, Cognitive behaviour therapy is the most popular therapy. It is
which are distorting the present reality. These beliefs are a short and efficacious treatment for a wide range of
characterised by thoughts with ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’, i.e. psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, panic
things ‘must’ and ‘should’ be in a particular manner. attacks and borderline personality disorder, etc.
2 Antecedent Events The events, actions or circumstances that occur immediately before a behaviour.
It adopts a biopsychosocial approach to the delineation Neurotic anxieties arise when the problems of life are
(explain in detail) of psychopathology. It combines cognitive attached to the physical, psychological or spiritual aspects of
therapy with behavioural techniques. It addresses the one’s existence. Frankl emphasised the role of spiritual
biological aspects through relaxation procedures. The anxieties in leading to meaninglessness. Hence, it may be
psychologist through behaviour and cognitive therapy called an existential anxiety i.e. neurotic anxiety of spiritual
techniques and the social ones with environmental origin.
manipulations makes CBT a comprehensive technique which The goal of logotherapy is to help the patients to find
is easy to use and is applicable to a variety of disorders. meaning and responsibility in their life irrespective of their
life circumstances. The therapist emphasises the unique
Humanistic-Existential Therapy
nature of the patient’s life and encourages them to find
This therapy claims that psychological distress arises from meaning in their life.
feelings of loneliness, alienation and an inability to find
meaning and genuine fulfilment in life. Human beings are Client-centred Therapy
motivated by the desire for personal growth and Client-centred therapy was given by Carl Rogers. Rogers
self-actualisation and an innate need to grow emotionally. combined scientific determination with the individualised
When these needs are controlled by society and family, practice of client-centred psychotherapy. Rogers brought into
human beings experience psychological distress. psychotherapy the concept of self, with freedom and choice
Self-actualisation is defined as an inborn force that moves the as the core of one’s being.
person to become more complex, balanced and integrated. As The therapy provides a warm relationship in which the client
lack of food and water causes distress, frustration of can reconnect with her/his disintegrated feelings. The
self-actualisation also causes distress. therapist shows empathy, i.e. understanding the client’s
Healing occurs when the client is able to perceive the experience. Empathy sets up an emotional resonance
obstacles to self-actualisation in her/his life and is able to between the therapist and the client.
remove them. Unconditional positive regard indicates that the positive
The therapy creates a permissive, non-judgemental and warmth of the therapist is not dependent on what the client
accepting atmosphere in which the client’s emotions can be reveals or does in the therapy sessions. This unique
freely expressed and the complexity, balance and integration unconditional warmth ensures that the client feels secure, can
could be achieved. The fundamental assumption is that the trust the therapist. The client feels secure enough to explore
client has the freedom and responsibility to control her/his her/his feelings.
own behaviour. The therapist reflects the feelings of the client in a
The therapist is a facilitator and guide and the client himself non-judgemental manner. The reflection is achieved by
is responsible for the success of therapy. rephrasing the statements of the client i.e. seeking simple
clarifications to enhance the meaning of the client’s
The main aim of the therapy is to expand the client’s
statements.
awareness. Healing takes place by a process of understanding
the unique personal experience of the client by herself/himself. This process of reflection helps the client to become
The client initiates the process of self-growth through which integrated. Personal relationships improve with an increase in
healing takes place. adjustment. This therapy helps a client to become her/his real
self with the therapist working as a facilitator.
Existential Therapy
Victor Frankl, a psychiatrist and neurologist propounded the Gestalt Therapy
Logotherapy. Logos is the Greek word for soul and The German word Gestalt means whole. This therapy was
logotherapy means treatment for the soul. Frankl calls this given by Freiderick (Fritz) Perls together with his wife Laura
process of finding meaning even in life-threatening Perls. The goal of this therapy is to increase an individual’s
circumstances as the process of meaning making. self-awareness and self-acceptance. The client is taught to
The basis of meaning making is a person’s quest for finding recognise the bodily processes and the emotions that are
the spiritual truth of one’s existence. The spiritual being blocked out from awareness. The therapist does this by
unconscious include love, aesthetic awareness and values of encouraging the client to act out fantasies about feelings and
life. conflicts. This therapy can also be used in group settings.
Factors Contributing to Alternative Therapies

Healing in Psychotherapy
There are alternative treatment possibilities to the
There are several factors which contribute to the healing conventional drug treatment or psychotherapy. There are
process. Some of these factors are as follows many alternative therapies such as yoga, meditation,
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A major factor in the healing is the techniques adopted by acupuncture, herbal remedies and so on.
the therapist and the implementation of the same with the
Yoga and Meditation
patient/client. If the behavioural system and the CBT
school are adopted to heal an anxious client, the relaxation In the past 25 years, yoga and meditation have gained
procedures and the cognitive restructuring largely popularity as treatment programmes for psychological
contribute to the healing. distress. Yoga is an ancient Indian technique detailed in the
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The therapeutic alliance, which is formed between the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. Yoga is commonly
therapist and the patient/client, has healing properties, refer to the asanas or body posture component or to
because of the regular availability of the therapist and the breathing practices or pranayama.
warmth and empathy provided by the therapist. Yoga techniques enhance well-being, mood, attention, mental
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At the beginning of therapy, while the patient/client is focus and stress tolerance. Proper training by a skilled
being interviewed in the initial sessions to understand the teacher and a 30-minute practice every day will maximise the
nature of the problem, she/he unburdens the emotional benefits. Insomnia is treated with yoga. Yoga also reduces the
problems being faced. This process of emotional time to go to sleep and improves the quality of sleep.
unburdening is known as catharsis and it has healing Meditation refers to the practice of focusing attention on
properties. breath or on an object or thought or a mantra. In Vipasana
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There are several non-specific factors associated with meditation, also known as mindfulness-based meditation,
psychotherapy. Some of these factors are attributed to the there is no fixed object or thought to hold the attention. The
patient/client and some to the therapist. These factors are person passively observes the various bodily sensations and
called non-specific because they occur across different thoughts that are passing through in her or his awareness.
systems of psychotherapy and across different Prevention of repeated episodes of depression may be treated
clients/patients and different therapists. by mindfulness-based meditation or Vipasana.
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Non-specific factors attributable (available) to the
Sudarshana Kriya Yoga
client/patient are motivation for change, expectation of
improvement due to the treatment, etc. These are called In Sudarshana Kriya Yoga (SKY) the rapid breathing
patient variables. Non-specific factors attributable to the techniques are used to induce hyperventilation. It is beneficial
therapist are positive nature, absence of unresolved for the treatment of stress, anxiety, Post-Traumatic Stress
emotional conflicts, presence of good mental health, etc. Disorder (PTSD), depression, stress related medical illnesses,
These are called therapist variables. substance abuse and rehabilitation of criminal offenders.
Research conducted at the National Institute of Mental
Ethics in Psychotherapy Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), India has shown
that SKY reduces depression. Further, alcoholic patients who
Some of the ethical standards that need to be practised by
professional psychotherapists are practice SKY have reduced depression and stress levels.
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Consent of client should be taken. Kundalini Yoga
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Confidentiality of the client should be maintained. Kundalini Yoga is taught in the USA. It is effective in the
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Alleviating personal distress and suffering should be the treatment of mental disorders. The Institute for Non-linear
goal of all attempts of the therapist.
Science, University of California, San Diego, USA has found
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Integrity of the practitioner-client relationship is important.
that Kundalini Yoga is effective in the treatment of obsessive
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Respect for human rights and dignity.
compulsive disorder. Kundalini Yoga combines pranayama or
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Professional competence and skills are essential.
breathing techniques with chanting of mantras.
Rehabilitation of the Mentally Ill occupational therapy, social skills training and vocational
therapy. These are discussed as follows
The treatment of psychological disorders has two components l
In occupational therapy, the patients are taught skills such
i.e. reduction of symptoms and improving the level of as candle making, paper bag making and weaving to help
functioning or quality of life. In the case of milder (lighter) them to form a work discipline.
disorders such as generalised anxiety disorder, reactive l
Social skills training helps the patients to develop
depression or phobia, reduction of symptoms, etc.,
interpersonal skills through role play, imitation and
is associated with an improvement in the quality of life.
instruction. The objective is to teach the patient to function
However, in the case of severe mental disorders such in a social group.
as schizophrenia, reduction of symptoms may not l
Cognitive retraining is given to improve the basic
be associated with an improvement in the quality of life. cognitive functions of attention, memory and executive
Rehabilitation is required to help patients become functions. After the patient improves sufficiently,
self-sufficient. The aim of rehabilitation is to empower the vocational training is given wherein the patient is helped
patient to become a productive member of society to the to gain skills necessary to undertake productive
extent possible. In rehabilitation, the patients are given employment.
Chapter
Practice
PART 1 5. Systematic desensitisation is used to treat _________.
(a) Schizophrenia (b) ADHD
Objective Questions (c) Phobias (d) Autism
Ans. (c) Systematic desensitisation is used to treat phobias or
irrational fears.
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Multiple Choice Questions
6. Naina was shown by her elder sister how to behave
1. Salim does not like to play in the park as he is in front of the guest. This technique of learning is
allergic to dust. Hence, dust is_____ . known as _________.
(a) Aversive conditioning
(a) Token economy (b) Modelling
(b) Positive reinforcement
(c) Rational emotive therapy (d) Relaxation therapy
(c) Differential reinforcement
(d) Negative reinforcement Ans. (b) The technique of learning shown by Nainas elder
sister i.e. how to behave in front of the guest is known as
Ans. (d) Dust is a negative reinforcement which is a major
modelling. Modelling is the procedure wherein the client
technique of behaviour modification.
learns to behave in a certain way by observing the
2. Which of the following involves associating of behaviour of a role model.
undesired response with an adverse consequence?
8. Who propounded the logotherapy?
(a) Aversive conditioning (b) Token economy
(a) Sigmund Freud (b) Victor Frankl
(c) Modelling (d) Positive reinforcement
(c) Ivan Pavlov (d) B.F. Skinner
Ans. (a) Aversive conditioning involves associating of
Ans. (b) Victor Frankl, a psychiatrist and neurologist
undesired response with an adverse consequence.
propounded the logotherapy.
3. Which of the following is/are the behavioural 7. Learning by observing others is known as
technique?
(a) Reciprocal inhibition
1. Negative Reinforcement
(b) Vicarious learning
2. Aversive Conditioning
3. Token Economy (c) Systematic desensitisation
4. Transference (d) Token economy
Choose the correct option Ans (b) Learning by observing others is known as Vicarious
(a) 1,2,3 (b) 2,3,4 (c) 3,4,1 (d) 1,2,4 learning.
Ans. (a) Negative reinforcement, aversive conditioning and 9. Which of the following is true about Gestalt
token economy are behavioural techniques while therapy?
transference is a modality of treatment. 1. Gestalt is a German word which means whole.
4. In _________therapy a person is given a token as 2. This therapy was given by Freiderick (Fritz) Perls
reward for behaving in a required way. together with his wife Laura Perls.
(a) Reciprocal inhibition 3. The goal of this therapy is to increase an individual’s
(b) Vicarious learning self-awareness and self-acceptance.
(c) Systematic desensitisation 4. This therapy cannot be used in group settings.
(d) Token economy Choose the correct option
Ans (d) In Token economy therapy a person is given a token as (a) 1,2,3 (b) 2,3, 4
reward for behaving in a required way. (c) 1,3,4 (d) 2,4, 1
Ans (a) The German word Gestalt means whole. This therapy Ans. (c) Sanjay is in unconscious resistance in this process
was given by Freiderick (Fritz) Perls together with his Unconscious resistance is assured to be present when the
wife Laura Perls. The goal of this therapy is to increase an client becomes silent during the therapy session, recalls
individual’s self-awareness and self-acceptance. trivial details without recalling the emotional ones, misses
appointments and comes late for therapy sessions.
10. Which of the following statements are correct about
the client-centred therapy? 15. Sagar was taught skills such as candle making,
1. It was given by Carl Rogers. paper bag making and weaving to help him to form
2. It combined scientific determination with the a work discipline. This is known as _________.
individualised practice of client-centred (a) Positive reinforcement (b) Occupational therapy
psychotherapy. (c) Alternative therapy (d) Behavioural therapy
3. The therapist must show no empathy. Ans. (b) To induce work discipline, Sagar was taught skills such
4. It provides a warm relationship in which the client as candle making, paper bag making and weaving. The
can reconnect with her/his disintegrated feelings. given therapy is known as occupational therapy.
(a) 1,3,4 (b) 1,2,4 (c) 1,2,3 (d) 3,2,1
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Assertion-Reasoning MCQs
Ans. (b) The client-centred therapy was given by Carl Rogers. Directions (Q. Nos. 1-4) Each of these questions
Here, scientific determination is combined with contains two statements, Assertion (A) and Reason
individualised practice of therapy. The client is provided (R). Each of these questions also has four alternative
such an environment where the client can reconnect with choices, any one of which is the correct answer. You
his/her disintegrated feelings. have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d)
11. Raman has been diagnosed with a psychological given below.
disorder. He approached a psychologist who (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
prescribed certain psychotherapies for him. The of A
goal of psychotherapies is to (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
(a) change the maladaptive behaviours explanation of A
(b) decrease the sense of personal distress (c) A is true, but R is false
(c) help the client to adapt better to his environment (d) A is false, but R is true
(d) All of the above 1. Assertion (A) In systematic desensitisation client
Ans. (d) The goal of psychotherapies is to change the asked to think about the least anxiety-provoking
maladaptive behaviours, decrease the sense of personal situations.
distress, help the client to adapt better to his Reason (R) The client hence, learns to deal with
environment. fearful situations.
12. Which of the following is not an alternative therapy? Ans. (a) In systematic desensitisation client learns to deal with
(a) Yoga (b) Meditation fearful situation as he is interviewed to deal with fear
(c) Drugs (d) Acupuncture provoking situation and then asked to think about least
Ans. (c) Drugs, is not an alternative therapy. Yoga, Acupuncture, anxiety provoking situation. Thus, Both A and R are true
meditation and herbal therapies are alternative therapies. and R is not the correct explanation of A.
13. In ______________, the rapid breathing techniques 2. Assertion (A) In principle of reciprocal inhibition,
the relaxation response is first built up and a
are used to induce hyperventilation. mildly anxiety-provoking scene is imagined,
(a) Kundalini yoga (b) Vipasana through which the anxiety is overcome by the
(c) Sudarshana Kriya Yoga (d) Ashtanga relaxation.
Ans. (c) In Sudarshana Kriya Yoga (SKY), the rapid breathing Reason (R) The presence of two mutually
techniques are used to induce hyperventilation. It is opposing forces at the same time, inhibits the
beneficial for the treatment of stress, anxiety, weaker force.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, etc.
Ans. (a) The principle of reciprocal inhibition states that the
14. Sanjay becomes silent during the therapy session, presence of two mutually opposing forces at the same
recalls trivial details without recalling the time, inhibits the weaker force. Thus, the relaxation
emotional ones, misses appointments and comes response is first built up and a mildly anxiety-provoking
late for therapy sessions. Sanjay is in _________. scene is imagined, through which the anxiety is overcome
(a) Shock (b) Denial by the relaxation. Hence, Both A and R are true and R is
(c) Unconscious resistance (d) Attitude the correct explanation of A.
3. Assertion (A) Rational Emotive Therapy was (a) Electric shock makes Manish unable to drink.
formulated by Albert Ellis. (b) Electric shock hinders with the taste of the alcohol.
Reason (R) The first step in RET is the Antecedent (c) The association of electric shock with alcohol intake
makes alcohol intake less attractive.
Belief-Consequence analysis.
(d) Electric shock gives bad side effects with alcohol.
Ans. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct
explanation of A. Rational Emotive Therapy was Ans. (c) This therapy helped Manish to get rid of alcoholism as
formulated by Albert Ellis. Antecedent association of electric shock with alcohol intake makes
Belief-Consequence analysis is the first step in RET. alcohol intake less attractive.
4. Assertion (A) Cognitive distortions are ways of (iii) Which type of learning is seen in the given
thinking that may be the cause behind depression. psychotherapy?
(a) Classical conditioning (b) Operant conditioning
Reason (R) Repeated occurrence of negative
(c) Random learning (d) None
thoughts leads to the development of feelings of
anxiety and depression. Ans. (a) Classical conditioning is seen in the given
Ans. (a) Cognitive distortions are ways of thinking which are
psychotherapy. Any learning which is taught by
general in nature but which distort the reality in a conditioning a required response to a stimulus is known
negative manner. Repeated occurrence of these thoughts as classical conditioning.
leads to the development of feelings of anxiety and (iv) Which of the following types of psychotherapy is
depression. Hence, Both A and R are true and R is the aversive conditioning?
correct explanation of A. (a) Biomedical technique
(b) Alternative technique
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Case Based MCQs (c) Behavioural technique
1. Manish is a hard-core alcoholic. He had started (d) Cognitive therapy
drinking in his school days and has been drinking Ans. (c) Behavioural technique is a type of psychotherapy
alcohol since the age of seventeen. Now he is 32 and which is aversive conditioning.
highly motivated to give up his habit. However, no (v) In this new therapy, what aversive response is
matter how hard he tries after a period of abstinence being subjected to Manish for drinking?
comes a phase of relapse. (a) A medicine
Around two years back he joined an alcohol support (b) A high degree electric shock
group. From there he got motivated to attend a few (c) A mild degree electric shock
psychotherapy sessions. He found these sessions (d) Imprisonment
quite relevant. Recently, his psychologists started a Ans. (c) Manish is being given a mild degree of electric shock
new technique. In this technique, Manish is given a whenever he drinks. This is to condition him to dislike
slight electric shock whenever he drinks alcohol. He drinking as he would eventually associate drinking with
has responded positively to this approach and after the pain of electric shock.
years his alcohol consumption has come down (vi) Assertion (A) In aversive therapy a token is given
remarkably. every time a person behaves in a required manner.
His family was initially apprehensive about this Reason (R) The client leaves the bad habit due to
approach but after looking at the positive results repeated pairing of bad behaviour and aversive
they are now in support of the therapy. response.
(i) What is this new therapy that Manish is being given (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
by his psychologists called? of A
(a) Aversive conditioning (b) Token economy (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
(c) Positive reinforcement (d) Systematic desensitisation explanation of A
(c) A is true, but R is false
Ans. (a) The new therapy that Manish is being given by his
(d) A is false, but R is true
psychologists is called Aversive conditioning. It refers to
repeated association of undesired response with an Ans. (d) In aversive conditioning, repeated association of
adverse consequence. undesired response is done with an adverse
consequence. The client associates and leaves the bad
(ii) How this therapy helping Manish to get rid of habit due to repeated pairing of bad behaviour and
alcoholism? aversive response. Thus, A is false, but R is true.
PART 2
l
Short Answer (SA) Type Questions (ii) The high level of trust enables the client to unburden
herself/himself to the therapist and confide her/his
1. What do we mean by psychotherapy? Explain. psychological and personal problems to the latter.
Ans. Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the (iii) The therapist encourages this by being accepting,
client (patient) and the therapist. The purpose of the empathic, genuine and warm to the client.
relationship is to help the client to solve the psychological
(iv) The therapist conveys by her/his words and
problems being faced by her or him.
behaviours that she/he is not judging the client and
Psychotherapies aim at changing the maladaptive will continue to show the same positive feelings
behaviours, decreasing the sense of personal distress and towards the client even if the client is rude.
helping the client to adapt better to her/his environment.
(v) The therapeutic alliance also requires that the
Inadequate marital, occupational and social adjustment
therapist must keep strict confidentiality of the
also require that major changes be made in an
experiences, events, feelings or thoughts disclosed
individual’s personal environment.
by the client.
2. State four characteristics of psychotherapeutic (vi) The therapist must not exploit the trust and the
approaches. (All India 2015) confidence of the client in anyway.
Ans. Psychotherapeutic approaches have the following (vii) It is a professional relationship between the therapist
characteristics and the client.
(i) There is systematic application of principles
underlying the different theories of therapy.
5. Explain positive regards for others in the context of
counselling.
(ii) Persons who have received practical training under
expert supervision only he can practice Ans. Unconditional positive regard indicates that the positive
psychotherapy. An untrained person may warmth of the therapist is not dependent on what the
unintentionally cause more harm than any good. client reveals or does in the therapy sessions. This unique
(iii) The therapeutic situation involves a therapist and a unconditional warmth ensures that the client feels secure,
client who seeks and receives help for her/his can trust the therapist and feels secure enough to explore
emotional problems. her/his feelings. The therapist reflects the feelings of the
client in a non-judgemental manner.
(iv) The interaction of these two persons i.e. the
therapist and the client results in the formation of The reflection is achieved by rephrasing the statements of
the therapeutic relationship. This is a confidential, the client i.e. seeking simple clarifications to enhance the
interpersonal and dynamic relationship. This human meaning of the client’s statements. This process of
relationship is central to any sort of psychological reflection helps the client to become integrated. This
therapy and is the vehicle for change. therapy helps a client to become her/his real self with the
therapist working as a facilitator.
3. What are the major components of a therapeutic
alliance? 6. Nikhil has some psychological disorders. He is
taking psychoanalytic therapy. What are the
Ans. There are two major components of a therapeutic alliance
different stages and duration of his treatment?
are as follows
Ans. Psychoanalytic therapy of Nikhil consists of three stages.
(i) The first component is the contractual nature of the
In stage one he becomes familiar with the routines,
relationship in which two willing individuals, the
establishes a therapeutic relationship with the analyst. He
client and the therapist, enter into a partnership
gets some relief with the process of recollecting the
which aims at helping the client to overcome her/his
superficial materials from the consciousness about the
problems.
past and present troublesome events.
(ii) The second component of therapeutic alliance is the
limited duration of the therapy. This alliance lasts Stage two is the middle phase, which is a long process
until the client becomes able to deal with her/his and it is characterised by transference, resistance on the
problems and take control of her/his life. part of Nikhil and confrontation and clarification, i.e.
working through on the therapist’s part. All these
4. Explain the main feature of therapeutic relationship. processes finally lead to insight.
Ans. Therapeutic relationship has several unique features Stage three is the termination phase where in the
which are as follows relationship with the analyst and Nikhil is dissolved and
(i) It is a trusting and confiding relationship. he prepares to leave the therapy.
7. Explain psychological distress according to the child’s mother by preparing the child’s favourite dish
behaviour therapy. Describe any one behavioural whenever she/he does homework at the appointed time.
technique. (All India 2017) The positive reinforcement of food will increase the
behaviour of doing homework at the appointed time.
Ans. According to the behaviour therapies, psychological
distress arises because of faulty behaviour patterns or 10. Ankit rarely does his homework regularly. Her
thought patterns. It is focused on the behaviour and mother promised him to prepare his favourite dish
thoughts of the client in the present. whenever he does homework at the appointed time.
The past is relevant only to the extent of understanding Identify the reinforcement given by Ankit’s
the origins of the faulty behaviour and thought patterns. mother? How does it benefit the person?
Only the faulty patterns are corrected in the present. Ans. In the given case, Ankit’s mother is giving positive
Behaviour therapy consists of a large set of specific reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is a process that
techniques and interventions. The symptoms of the strengthens the likelihood of a particular response of
client and the clinical diagnosis are the guiding factors in adding a stimulus after the positive reinforcement is used
the selection of the specific techniques of behaviour by the child’s mother by preparing the child’s favourite
therapy. One behavioural technique is given below dish whenever he does homework at the appointed time.
Aversive Conditioning is a major technique of behaviour The positive reinforcement of food will increase the
modification. Aversive conditioning refers to repeated behaviour of doing homework at the appointed time.
association of undesired response with an aversive Persons with behavioural problems can be given a token
consequence. For example, an alcoholic is given a mild as a reward every time a wanted behaviour occurs. Thus,
electric shock and asked to smell the alcohol. With a positive reinforcement is given to increase the deficit.
repeated pairings the smell of alcohol is aversive as the 11. What kind of problems is cognitive behaviour
pain of the shock is associated with it and the person will
therapy best suited for?
give up alcohol.
Ans. Cognitive behaviour therapy is a short and efficacious
8. What is behaviour therapy? How is behaviour treatment for a wide range of psychological disorders
therapy used to treat phobia? such as anxiety, depression, panic attacks and borderline
Ans. Behaviour therapy is a term that describes a broad range personality, etc. It is the most popular therapy. It adopts a
of techniques which are used to change maladaptive biopsychosocial approach to the delineation of
behaviour. It is focussed on the behaviour and thoughts of psychopathology. It combines cognitive therapy with
the client in present. It is a technique introduced by behavioural techniques. It addresses the biological
Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational fears. The client is aspects through relaxation procedures.
interviewed to elicit fear-provoking situations. The psychologist through behaviour and cognitive
The therapist relaxes the client and asks the client to therapy techniques and the sociologist with
think about the least anxiety- provoking situation. The environmental manipulations makes CBT a
client is asked to stop thinking of the fearful situation if comprehensive technique which is easy to use and is
the slightest tension is felt. After some sessions, the client applicable to a variety of disorders.
is able to imagine more severe fear-provoking situations 12. What is the meaning of logotherapy? (Delhi 2016)
while maintaining the relaxation. The client gets
systematically desensitised to the fear. Ans. Victor Frankl, a psychiatrist and neurologist propounded
the logotherapy. Logos is the Greek word for soul and
9. Explain negative reinforcement and positive logotherapy means treatment for the soul. Frankl calls this
reinforcement for behaviour modification. process of finding meaning even in life-threatening
Ans. Negative Reinforcement It is a major technique of circumstances as the process of meaning making. The
behaviour modification. Responses that lead organisms to basis of meaning making is a person’s quest for finding
get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them the spiritual truth of one’s existence.
provide negative reinforcement. The spiritual unconscious includes love, aesthetic
For example, one learns to put on woolen clothes, burn awareness, and values of life. Neurotic anxieties arise
firewood or use electric heaters to avoid the unpleasant when the problems of life are attached to the physical,
cold weather. Person learns to move away from dangerous psychological or spiritual aspects of one’s existence.
stimuli because they provide negative reinforcement. The goal of logotherapy is to help the patients to find
Positive Reinforcement If an adaptive behaviour occurs meaning and responsibility in their life irrespective of
rarely, positive reinforcement is given to increase the their life circumstances. The therapist emphasises the
deficit. For example, if a child does not do homework unique nature of the patient’s life and encourages them to
regularly, positive reinforcement may be used by the find meaning in their life.
13. Discuss briefly Gestalt Therapy. (Delhi 2015) A psychoanalytical account for the same phobia could
involve attribution to unconscious and repressed
Or Discuss Client-centred Therapy.
experiences. For example, suppose in your childhood you
Ans. Gestalt Therapy was given by Freiderick (Fritz) Perls watched a group of roudy boys brutally torturing a
together with his wife Laura Perls. The goal of Gestalt cockroach/snake which eventually died, although you
therapy is to increase an individual’s self-awareness and going about the incidence after some days but it might
self-acceptance. The client is taught to recognise the remain in back of your mind forever and disturb you
bodily processes and the emotions that are being blocked emotionally.
out from awareness. The therapist does this by encouraging
the client to act out fantasies about feelings and conflicts. 16. What are the Alternative Therapies for the
This therapy can also be used in group settings. conventional drug treatment or psychotherapy.
Client-centred Therapy Client-centred therapy was Mention Yoga and Meditation as Alternative
given by Carl Rogers. The therapy provides a warm Therapies.
relationship in which the client can reconnect with Ans. There are alternative treatment possibilities to the
her/his disintegrated feelings. The therapist shows conventional drug treatment or psychotherapy. There are
empathy, i.e. understanding the client’s experience. many alternative therapies such as yoga, meditation,
Empathy sets up an emotional resonance between the accupuncture, herbal remedies and so on.
therapist and the client. Yoga and Meditation is an ancient Indian technique
14. The aim of the behaviour therapy is to extinguish detailed in the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras.
Yoga is commonly refer to the asanas or body posture
the faulty behaviour. Illustrate with example how
component or to breathing practices or pranayama.
antecedent operations and consequent operations
are used in this therapy. Yoga techniques enhance well-being, mood, attention,
mental focus and stress tolerance. Proper training by a
Ans. The aim of the behaviour therapy is to extinguish the
skilled teacher and a 30-minute practice every day will
faulty behaviour and substitute them with adaptive
maximise the benefits. Insomnia is treated with yoga.
behaviour pattern.
Yoga also reduces the time to go to sleep and improves
The therapist does this through establishing antecedent the quality of sleep.
operations and consequent operations. Antecedent
Meditation refers to the practice of focusing attention on
operations control behaviour by changing something that
breath or on an object or thought or a mantra. In
precedes such a behaviour. The change can be done by
Vipasana meditation, also known as mindfulness-based
increasing or decreasing the reinforcing value of a
meditation, there is no fixed object or thought to hold the
particular consequence. This is called establishing
attention.
operation.
For example, if a child gives trouble in eating dinner, an l
Long Answer (LA) Type Questions
establishing operation would be, to decrease the quantity
of food served at tea time. This would increase the hunger 1. Describe the nature and scope of psychotherapy.
at dinner and thereby increase the reinforcing value of Highlight the importance of therapeutic
food at dinner. Praising the child when she/he eats relationship in psychotherapy. (NCERT)
properly tends to encourage this behaviour. It establishes
Or Explain the importance of therapeutic relationship
the response of eating dinner.
in psychotherapy. State the ethical standards in
15. How would a social learning theorist account for psychotherapy. (CBSE 2018)
a phobic fear of lizards/cockroaches? How would a Ans. Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the
psychoanalyst account for the same phobia?(NCERT) client (patient) and the therapist. The purpose of the
Or A person has a phobia of cockroaches. Explain this relationship is to help the client to solve the psychological
phobia from the social learning perspective and problems being faced by her or him.
psychoanalyst view point by giving examples. Psychotherapies aim at changing the maladaptive
(CBSE 2018) behaviours, decreasing the sense of personal distress and
Ans. Social learning theories work on the principle that our helping the client to adapt better to her/his environment.
experience be it positive or negative such as phobia of Inadequate marital, occupational and social adjustment
lizards/cockroaches are the result of learning process also require that major changes be made in an
which start early in life. Small children can play with individual’s personal environment.
snakes, they are not aware of danger involved. For them, The interactions between the therapist and the client
it is just another play object, as they grow up the fear of results in the formation of therapeutic relationship.
these things are instilled by their parents and society This is a confidential, interpersonal and dynamic
which is reinforced and accounts for reaction like phobia. relationship.
This human relationship is central to any type of l Aversive Conditioning It refers to repeated
psychotherapy. The ethical standards in psychotherapy association of undesired response with an aversive
should include consequence.
l Support client for attaining betterment. l Positive Reinforcement If an adaptive behaviour
l Lessening emotional pressure. occurs rarely, positive reinforcement is given to increase
l Unfolding the potential for positive growth. the deficit.
l Modifying habits. l Token Economy Person with behavioural problems
l Changing thinking patterns. can be given a token as a reward every time when a
l Increasing self-awareness. wanted behaviour occurs. The tokens are collected
l Improving interpersonal relations and communication. and exchanged for a reward such as an outing for the
l Facilitating decision-making. patient or a treat for the child. This is known as token
l Becoming aware of one’s choices in life. economy.
l Relating to one’s social environment in a more creative l Differential Reinforcement Unwanted behaviour can
and self-aware manner. be reduced and wanted behaviour can be increased
simultaneously through differential reinforcement.
2. What are the different types of psychotherapies? Positive reinforcement for the wanted behaviour and
Explain the principles on which humanistic- negative reinforcement for the unwanted behaviour
existential therapy is based. attempted together may be one such method.
Ans. The different types of psychotherapies are as follows The other method is to positively reinforce the wanted
(i) Behaviour Therapy Behaviour therapies postulate behaviour and ignore the unwanted behaviour. The
that psychological distress arises because of faulty latter method is less painful and equally effective.
behaviour patterns or thought patterns. It is, therefore, l Systematic Desensitisation It is a technique introduced
focused on the behaviour and thoughts of the client by Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational fears. The
in the present. The past is relevant only to the extent client is interviewed to elicit fear-provoking situations.
of understanding the origins of the faulty behaviour The therapist relaxes the client and asks the client to
and thought patterns. Behaviour therapy consists of a think about the least anxiety-provoking situation. The
large set of specific techniques and interventions. client is asked to stop thinking of the fearful situation if
the slightest tension is felt.
(ii) Cognitive Therapy Cognitive therapies locate the
l Principle of Reciprocal Inhibition This principle states
cause of psychological distress in irrational thoughts
that the presence of two mutually opposing forces at the
and beliefs. Albert Ellis formulated the Rational
same time inhibits the weaker force. Thus, the relaxation
Emotive Therapy (RET). The central thesis of this
response is first built up and mildly anxiety-provoking
therapy is that irrational beliefs mediate between the
scene is imagined, through which the anxiety is
antecedent events and their consequences. overcome by the relaxation. The client is able to tolerate
(iii) Humanistic–Existential Therapy The progressively greater levels of anxiety because of her/his
humanistic-existential therapies claims that relaxed state.
psychological distress arises from feelings of l Modelling It is the procedure wherein the client learns
loneliness, alienation and an inability to find to behave in a certain way by observing the behaviour of
meaning and genuine fulfilment in life. a role model or the therapist who initially acts as the
Principles of Humanistic-Existential Therapy The role model.
humanistic-existential therapy works on the principle of 4. How is Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) used in
self-actualisation. Self-actualisation requires free
treating psychological disorders?
emotional expression.
This therapy creates a permissive, non-judgemental and Or How does Rational Emotive Therapy help in
accepting atmosphere in which the client’s emotions can reducing distress? Support your answer with the
be freely expressed and the complexity, balance and help of an example. (CBSE 2019)
integration could be achieved. Or Explain the key features of cognitive therapies as
3. Discuss the various techniques used in behaviour explained by Albert Ellis. (CBSE 2020)
therapy. (NCERT, CBSE 2020) Ans. Albert Ellis formulated the Rational Emotive Therapy
Ans. Various techniques which are used in behaviour therapy (RET). The RET method helps in reducing psychological
are as follows disorders in the followings ways
l Negative Reinforcement It refers to following an l The first step in RET is the Antecedent
undesired response with an outcome that is painful or Belief-Consequence (ABC) analysis. Antecedent events,
not liked. which caused the psychological distress, are noted.
l The client is also interviewed to find the irrational (iii) At the beginning of therapy, while the patient/client
beliefs, which are distorting the present reality. is being interviewed in the initial sessions to
Irrational beliefs may not be supported by empirical understand the nature of the problem, she/he
evidence in the environment. These beliefs are unburdens the emotional problems being faced.
characterised by thoughts with ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’, This process of emotional unburdening is known as
i.e. things ‘must’ and ‘should’ be in a particular catharsis and it has healing properties.
manner. (iv) There are several non-specific factors associated
l The distorted perception of the antecedent event due to with psychotherapy. Some of these factors are
the irrational belief leads to the consequence i.e. attributed to the patient/client and some to the
negative emotions and behaviours. For example, ‘One therapist. Non-specific factors attributable (available)
should be loved by everybody all the time’ is an irrational to the client/patient are motivation for change,
belief which leads to consequence of negative emotions expectation of improvement due to the treatment, etc.
and behaviours. Irrational beliefs are assessed through These are called patient variables. Non-specific
questionnaires and interviews. In the process of RET, factors attributable to the therapist are positive nature,
the irrational beliefs are refuted by the therapist through absence of unresolved emotional conflicts, presence of
good mental health, etc. These are called therapist
a process of non-directive questioning.
variables.
l The questions make the client to think deeper into
her/his assumptions about life and problems. 6. Explain with examples that how cognitive
Gradually, the client is able to change the irrational distortions take place.
beliefs by making a change in her/his philosophy Or Explain cognitive distortion with the help of an
about life. The rational belief system replaces the example. (CBSE 2019)
irrational belief system and there is a reduction in Ans. Cognitive distortions are ways of thinking which are
psychological distress. general in nature but which distort the reality in a
5. Explain psychological distress according to negative manner. These patterns of thought are called
dysfunctional cognitive structure. They lead to errors of
Humanist-Existential therapy. (Delhi 2017)
cognition about the social reality. Psychological distress
Or Describe four factors which contribute to treatment develops due to negative experiences provided by family
of psychological distress. (All India 2017) and society. Individual develops negative thoughts like
Ans. Humanistic-Existential therapy claims that ‘Nobody loves me’, ‘I am ugly’, ‘I am stupid’, ‘I will not
psychological distress arises from feelings of loneliness, succeed’, etc. Such negative automatic thoughts are
alienation and an inability to find meaning and genuine characterised by cognitive distortions.
fulfilment in life. Human beings are motivated by the Repeated occurrence of these thoughts lead to the
desire for personal growth and self-actualisation and an development of feelings of anxiety and depression. The
innate need to grow emotionally. When these needs are therapist uses questioning which is gentle
controlled by society and family, individual experiences non-threatening disputation of the client’s beliefs and
psychological distress. thoughts. The therapist asks him ‘why should
Four factors which contribute to treatment of everyone love you’, or ‘what does it mean to you to
Psychological distress are as follows succeed’?
(i) A major factor in the healing is the techniques The question makes the client think in a direction
adopted by the therapist and the implementation of opposite to that of the negative automatic thoughts. He
the same with the patient/client. If the behavioural gains insight into the nature of his dysfunctional schemas
system and the CBT school are adopted to heal an and is able to alter his cognitive structure. The aim of
anxious client, the relaxation procedures and the this therapy is to achieve this cognitive restructuring
cognitive restructuring largely contribute to the which in turn reduces anxiety and depression.
healing. 7. What is rehabilitation? What are the techniques
(ii) The therapeutic alliance, which is formed between used in the rehabilitation of the mentally ill?
the therapist and the patient/client, has healing Ans. Rehabilitation is required to help patients become
properties, because of the regular availability of the self-sufficient. The aim of rehabilitation is to empower the
therapist and the warmth and empathy provided by patient to become a productive member of society to the
the therapist. extent possible.
In rehabilitation, the patients are given occupational of sulking for everything. She eventually learnt
therapy, social skills training and vocational therapy. The that asking for things politely is much better way
techniques used in the rehabilitation of the mentally ill are of behaving than sulking for everything.
Occupation Therapy, Social Skill Training, Cognitive
(i) What behavioural technique has been used by
Ritraining and Vocational Training. These are discussed as
Lovleen’s parents in the passage?
follows
Ans. The behavioural technique used in the given example is
l Occupational Therapy In this therapy, the patients are
called differential reinforcement. As per this technique
taught skills such as candle making, paper bag making
unwanted behaviour can be reduced and wanted
and weaving to help them to form a work discipline.
behaviour can be increased simultaneously through
l Social Skills Training It helps the patients to develop differential reinforcement.
interpersonal skills through role play, imitation and
instruction. The objective is to teach the patient to
(ii) Name all the behavioural techniques. Explain at
function in a social group. least one in detail.
Ans. Following are the behavioural techniques:
l Cognitive Retraining It is given to improve the basic
cognitive functions of attention, memory and executive l Positive reinforcement
functions. l Aversive conditioning
l Vocational Training When the patient becomes l Differential reinforcement
self-sufficient vocational training is given wherein the l Token economy
patient is helped to gain skills necessary to undertake l Negative reinforcement
employment. l Systematic desensitisation
Modelling
Case Based Questions
l
l
l Principle of Reciprocal Inhibition
1. Lovleen is a 10-year old teenage girl who cries and Modelling It is the procedure wherein the client learns
refuses to talk (sulk) when she is not taken to the to behave in a certain way by observing the behaviour of
cinema. Her mother, who is a teacher, came across a a role model or the therapist who initially acts as the role
psychological technique for handling such behaviour model.
in a parenting book. Lovleen’s parents took her to (iii) Lovleen is given a token every time she behaves in
the cinema if she did not cry and sulk. However, if a desired way? What is this technique called?
Lovleen cried and sulked, her parents simply Explain it in detail.
ignored her and did not take her to the cinema. Ans. This technique is known as token economy. Person with
Gradually, the wanted behaviour of politely asking to behavioural problems can be given a token as a reward
be taken to the cinema increased and the unwanted every time when a wanted behaviour occurs. The tokens
behaviour of crying and sulking decreased. This in are collected and exchanged for a reward such as an
fact helped to improve Lovleen’s overall behaviour outing for the patient or a treat for the child.
Chapter Test
1. Who introduced systematic desensitisation technique?
(a) Carl Jung (b) Wolpe
(c) Laura Peris (d) Fritz
2. The stage of transference in which the therapist becomes a substitute for
the person in present is known as
(a) Transference neurosis (b) Transference neurons
(c) Transference process (d) Transference therapist
3. The inborn force that forces a person to become more balanced is known as
(a) Self-realisation (b) Self-perception
(c) Self-actualisation (d) Self-acknowledgement
4. The goal of ______ is to increase an individual’s self-awareness and self-acceptance.
(a) Gestalt Therapy (b) Client-Centred Therapy
(c) Logotherapy (d) None of these
5. _______ is the procedure wherein the client learns to behave in a certain way by observing
the behaviour of a role model or the therapist who initially acts as the role model.
(a) Token Economy (b) Aversive Conditioning
(c) Modelling (d) All of these

4. Define psychotherapy.
5. What are the aims of psychotherapies?
6. What do you mean by alliance?
7. Define modelling.
8. Explain the technique of token money.
9. Discuss methodology used in behaviour therapy.
10. Describe modality of psychoanalysis as a therapy.
11. How can we formulate a client’s problems?
Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c)
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CHAPTER 03
Attitude and
Social Cognition
In this Chapter...
l Introduction l Attitude Formation and Change
l Social Behaviour l Prejudice and Discrimination
l Nature and Components of Attitude l Strategies for Handling Prejudice
Introduction situations and this process is known as attribution.

Social psychology is that branch of psychology which Impression formation, attributions, attitudes–these three
investigates how the behaviour of an individual is affected by processes are collectively called social cognition. Social
others and the social environment. All of us form attitudes or cognition is activated by cognitive units called schemas.
ways of thinking about specific topics and people. We also Cognitive processes cannot be directly seen. They have to be
form impressions about persons we meet and assign causes to inferred on the basis of an externally shown behaviour. There
their behaviour. Besides, our own behaviour gets influenced are other examples of social influence that are in the form of
by other individuals and groups. In some situations, people observable behaviour. Two such examples are, social
show pro-social behaviour, that is, helping the needy and the facilitation/inhibition i.e. the improvement or decline in
distressed, without expecting anything in return. Many of performance in the presence of others. Pro-social behaviour
these social behaviours seem to be simple. Yet, explaining the is responding to others who are in need or distress. In order
processes that lie behind these behaviours is a complex matter. to understand how the social context influences the
individual, it is necessary to study both social-cognitive
Social Behaviour process and social behaviour.
Social behaviour is a necessary part of human life. It is much Social psychologists suggest that one must go beyond
more than just being in the company of others. Our social common sense and folk wisdom to explain how people
environment influences our thoughts, emotions and observe and understand their own and others’ behaviour. To
behaviour in complex ways. Social psychologists examine explain social behaviour we have to adopt scientific methods
various forms of social behaviour and try to explain their and systematic-objective observations.
basis. Due to social influences, people form views or attitudes In order to understand completely how the social
about people and different issues that exist in the form of context influences the individual, it is necessary to study both
behavioural tendencies. social-cognitive processes and social behaviour. Through
Impression formation happens when we meet people and systematic and objective observations and by adopting
make conclusion about their personal qualities. We also scientific methods, it is possible to establish logical cause and
assign causes to the behaviour shown in specific social effect relationships that explain social behaviour.
Nature and Components Features of an Attitude

of Attitude Attitudes provide a background that makes it easier for a
person to decide how to act in new situations. In addition to
An attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views or thoughts, the affective, cognitive and behavioural components,
regarding some topic (called the ‘attitude object’), which have attitudes also have other properties. Four significant features
an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral quality). It of attitudes are as follows
is accompanied by an emotional component and a tendency to
act in a particular way with regard to the attitude object. If our 1. Valence (Positivity or Negativity)
views are not merely thoughts, but also have emotional and The valence of an attitude tells us whether an attitude is
action components, then these views are the examples of positive or negative towards the attitude object. A
attitudes. neutral attitude would have neither positive nor negative
valence.
Components of an Attitude
For example, an attitude towards nuclear research has to be
The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect, expressed on a 5 point scale, ranging from 1 (very bad), 2
the emotional component is known as the affective aspect and (bad), 3 (neutral-neither good nor bad), 4 (good) and 5 (very
the tendency to act is called the behavioural (or conative) good). If an individual rates his view as 1, 2 then it is
aspect. These three aspects have been referred to as the negative attitude, if he rates 4 to 5 then it is positive attitude
A-B-C components i.e. Affective-Behavioural and Cognitive and if he rates 3 then it is neutral attitude i.e. neither
components of attitude. positive nor negative valence.
For example, suppose a group of people in your
neighbourhood start a tree plantation campaign as part of a 2. Extremeness
‘green environment’ movement. Based on sufficient The extremeness of an attitude indicates how positive or
information about the environment, your view towards a negative an attitude is. For example, if an individual rates
‘green environment’ is positive (cognitive or ‘C’ component, the nuclear research as 1 or 5, these are regarded as extreme
along with the evaluative aspect). You feel very happy when ratings. They are only in the opposite directions (valence). A
you see greenery. neutral attitude is lowest on extremeness.
You feel sad and angry when you see trees being cut down.
3. Simplicity or Complexity (Multiplicity)
These aspects reflect the affective (emotional) or ‘A’
component of the same attitude. Now suppose you also actively This feature refers to how many attitudes are there within a
participate in the tree plantation campaign. This shows the broader attitude. In case of various topics, such as health and
behavioural or ‘B’ component of your attitudes towards a ‘green world peace, people hold many attitudes instead of single
environment’. attitude. An attitude system is said to be simple if it contains
only one or a few attitudes and complex if it is made up of
In general, we expect all three components to be consistent
many attitudes. The attitude towards a particular person is
with each other, that is, in the same direction. Predicting one
likely to consist of mainly one attitude.
component on the basis of the other two may not always give
us the correct picture about an attitude. The multiple member-attitudes within an attitude system
should not be confused with the three components
Beliefs and Values described as A-B-C components.
Attitudes have to be distinguished from two other closely 4. Centrality
related concepts, namely beliefs and values. Beliefs refer to the
cognitive component of attitudes and form the ground on which This refers to the role of a particular attitude in the attitude
attitudes stand, such as belief in God or belief in democracy as system. An attitude with higher centrality would have a
a political ideology. Values are attitudes or beliefs that contain a larger impact on other attitudes (non-central attitudes).
‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral or ethical values. For
example, one should work hard or one should be honest. For example, in the attitude towards world peace, a negative
Values are formed when a particular belief or attitude becomes attitude towards high military expenditure may be present as
an inseparable part of the person’s outlook on life. a core or central attitude. This influences all attitudes in the
Consequently, values are difficult to change. multiple attitude system.
Attitude Formation Over time, these norms may become part of our social
cognition in the form of attitudes. For example, offering
and Change money, sweets, fruit and flowers in a place of worship is a
Attitudes towards different topics, things and people are normative behaviour in some religions.
formed as we interact with others. However, there are When individual sees that such behaviour is socially
specific conditions that lead to the formation of specific approved, he may develop a positive attitude towards such
attitudes. In general, attitudes are learned through one’s own behaviour and the associated feelings of devotion.
experiences and through interaction with others.
Learning through Exposure to Information
Process of Attitude Formation Many attitudes are learned in a social context, but not
The processes and conditions of learning may be different, necessarily in the physical presence of others. Today, with
resulting in varying attitudes among people. Various process the huge amount of information that is being provided
of attitude formation are as follows through various media, both positive and negative attitudes
are being formed.
Learning Attitudes by Association
By reading the biographies of self-actualised persons1, an
You might have seen that students often develop a liking for a
individual may develop a positive attitude towards hard work
particular subject because of the positive qualities in that
and other aspects as the means of achieving success in life.
teacher. These positive qualities get linked to the subject that
she/he teaches and ultimately get expressed in the form of Factors that Influence Attitude Formation
liking for the subject. In other words, a positive attitude The following factors influence the learning of attitudes
towards the subject is learned through the positive
1. Family and School Environment
association between a teacher and a student.
Family and the school environment play a significant role in
Learning Attitudes by Being
shaping attitude formation.
Rewarded or Punished
Learning of attitudes within the family and school usually
If an individual is praised for showing a particular attitude,
takes place by association, through rewards and punishments
chances are high that she/he will develop that attitude
and through modelling.
further. For example, if a teenager does yogasanas regularly
and gets the honour of being ‘Miss Good Health’ in her 2. Reference Groups
school, she may develop a positive attitude towards yoga and It indicates to an individual the norms regarding acceptable
health in general. behaviour and ways of thinking. Thus, they reflect learning of
Similarly, if a child frequently falls ill because of his intake of attitudes through group or cultural norms. Attitudes towards
junk food instead of proper meals, gradually he develops a various topics, such as political, religious and social groups,
negative attitude towards junk food and positive attitude occupations, national and other issues are often developed
towards healthy meal. through reference groups.
Learning Attitudes through Their influence is noticeable especially during the beginning
Modelling (Observing Others) of adolescence, at which time it is important for the
We learn attitudes by observing others being rewarded or individual to feel that she/he belongs to a group. Therefore,
punished for expressing thoughts or showing behaviour of a the role of reference groups in attitude formation may also be
particular kind towards the attitude object. For example, a case of learning through reward and punishment.
children may form a respectful attitude towards elders, by 3. Personal Experiences
observing that their parents show respect for elders and are Many attitudes are formed through direct personal
appreciated for it. experiences which bring about a drastic change in our
Learning Attitudes through Group attitude towards people and our own life.
or Cultural Norms For example, a driver in army escaped death in an accident
We learn attitudes through the norms of our group or culture. where all his companions got killed. After that he left the job
Norms are unwritten rules about behaviour that everyone is and became a community leader for the upliftment of his
supposed to show under specific circumstances. community.
1 Self-actualised Persons These are those persons who accept themselves and others as they are.
4. Media-related Influences negative. Balance is found when all three sides are positive or
Technological advances in recent times have made audio-visual two sides are negative and one side is positive.
media and the Internet very powerful sources of information 2. The Concept of Cognitive Dissonance
that lead to attitude formation and change. In addition,
It was proposed by Leon Festinger. It emphasises that the
school level textbooks also influence attitude formation.
cognitive components of an attitude must be consonant
These sources first strengthen the cognitive and affective
(opposite of dissonant) i.e. they should be logically in line
components of attitudes and gradually may affect the
with each other.
behavioural component.
The media can apply both good and bad influences on Festinger and Carlsmith, two social psychologists, conducted
attitudes. The media can be used to create consumerist an experiment that showed the working of cognitive
attitude where it does not exist. It can also create positive dissonance2. Both balance and cognitive dissonance are
attitudes to facilitate social harmony. examples of cognitive consistency.
Cognitive consistency means that two components, aspects or
Attitude Change elements of the attitude or attitude system, must be in the
During and after the process of attitude formation, attitudes same direction. Each element should logically fall in line with
may be changed and modified through various influences. other elements.
Attitudes that are still in the formative stage, are much more If this does not happen, then the person experiences a kind of
likely to change compared to attitudes that have become firmly mental discomfort i.e. the sense that ‘something is not quite
established and have become a part of the individual’s values. right’. In such a state, some aspect in the attitude system
changes in the direction of consistency, because our cognitive
Process of Attitude Change system requires logical consistency.
Three major concepts of processes in attitude change are
3. The Two-Step Concept
described as follows
It was proposed by SM Mohsin, an Indian psychologist.
1. The Concept of Balance According to him, attitude change takes place in the form of
It was proposed by Fritz Heider. It is also described in the two steps. These are as follows
form of the P-O-X triangle, which represents the relationships (i) In the first step, the target of change identifies with the
between three aspects or components of the attitude. source. The target is the person whose attitude is to be
l
P is the person whose attitude is being studied. changed. The source is the person through whose
l
O is another person. influence the change is to take place. Identification
l
X is the topic towards which the attitude is being studied means that the target has liking and regard for the source.
(attitude object). The source must also have a positive attitude towards the
target and the regard and attraction becomes mutual.
Consider the example of dowry as an attitude topic (X). A
(ii) In the second step, the source herself/himself shows an
person has a positive attitude toward dowry (P-X positive). P
attitude change, by actually changing her/his behaviour
is planning to get his son married to the daughter of some
towards the attitude object. Observing the source’s
person O. O has a negative attitude towards dowry (O-X
changed attitude and behaviour, the target also shows
negative).
an attitude change through behaviour. This is a kind of
If O initially has a positive attitude towards P, the situation imitation or observational learning.
would be unbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is positive but
O-X is negative. This situation is a situation of imbalance. Factors that Influence Attitude Change
One of the three attitudes will have to change to make the Following are the major factors that influence attitude change
situation as a situation of balance. Characteristics of the Existing Attitude
It is also possible that all three are persons. An attitude All four features i.e. valence (Positivity and Negativity),
changes if there is a state of imbalance between the P-O extremeness, simplicity and centrality of attitudes determine
attitude, O-X attitude and P-X attitude because imbalance is attitude change. In general, positive attitudes are easier to
logically uncomfortable. change than negative attitudes. Extreme attitudes and central
Therefore, the attitude changes in the direction of balance. attitudes are more difficult to change than the less extreme
Imbalance is found when all three sides of the P-O-X triangle and peripheral (less significant) attitudes. Simple attitudes are
are negative or two sides are positive, and one side is easier to change than multiple attitudes.
2 Cognitive Dissonance It refers to the mental conflict that occurs when a person’s behaviours and beliefs do not align.
An attitude change may be congruent (favourable), it may Persons who have a low self-esteem and do not have
change in the same direction as the existing attitude (for sufficient confidence in themselves, change their attitudes
example, a positive attitude may become more positive or a more easily than those who are high on self-esteem.
negative attitude may become more negative). More intelligent people may change their attitudes less
On the other hand, an attitude change may be incongruent easily than those with lower intelligence. However,
(incompatible). It may change in a direction opposite to the sometimes more intelligent persons change their attitudes
existing attitude (for example, a positive attitude becomes less more willingly than less intelligent ones, because they base
positive/negative or a negative attitude becomes less their attitude on more information and thinking.
negative/positive). Moreover, an attitude may change in the
direction of the information that is presented or in a direction Relationship between Attitude
opposite to that of the information presented. and Behaviour
Source Characteristics An individual’s attitudes may not always be exhibited
through behaviour. One’s actual behaviour may be
Source credibility and attractiveness are two features that affect
contrary to one’s attitude towards a particular topic.
attitude change. Attitudes are more likely to change when the
Attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of one’s
message comes from a highly credible source rather than from a
behaviour. Sometimes, it is behaviour that decides the
low-credible source.
attitude.
For example, a person wants to buy a laptop will be more
Psychologists have found that there would be consistency
convinced to hear recommendation from a computer engineer
between attitudes and behaviour when
than a school child who gives the same information.
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The attitude is strong and occupies a central place in the
Message Characteristics attitude system.
The message is the information that is presented in order to l
The person is aware of her/his attitude.
bring about an attitude change. Attitudes will change when the l
There is very little or no external pressure for the person
amount of information that is given about the topic is just to behave in a particular way.
enough, neither too much nor too little. l
The person’s behaviour is not being watched or
Whether the meassage contains a rational or an emotional evaluated by others.
appeal makes a difference. For example, an advertisement for l
The person thinks that the behaviour would have a
cooking food in a pressure cooker may point out that this saves positive consequence and therefore, intends to engage
fuel and it is economical. The motives activated by the message in that behaviour.
determine attitude change.
For example, drinking milk may be said to make a person Prejudice and Discrimination
healthy, good looking, energetic and successful. The mode of
Prejudices are examples of attitudes towards a particular
spreading the message plays a significant role. The benefits of
group. They are usually negative and in many cases, may
taking ORS spread through visual media like posters,
be based on stereotypes (the cognitive component) about
advertisement on television, etc.
the specific group. A stereotype is a cluster of ideas
Face-to-face transmission of the message is usually more regarding the characteristics of a specific group.
effective than indirect transmission i.e. through letters and Stereotypes consist of undesirable characteristics about
pamphlets or even through mass media. the target group and they lead to negative attitudes or
Target Characteristics prejudices towards members of specific groups.
Qualities of the target, such as persuasibility, strong prejudices, Prejudice may also grow as discrimination but prejudices
self-esteem and intelligence influence the likelihood and extent can exist without showing discrimination. Similarly,
of an attitude change. discrimination3 can be shown without prejudice.
People who have a more open and flexible personality, change Wherever prejudice and discrimination exist, conflicts are
more easily. People with strong preconceptions are less prone very likely to arise between groups within the same
or inclined to any attitude change. society.
3 Discrimination It is the behaviour that shows a distinction being made between two or more persons often on the basis of the person’s (or
person’s) membership of a particular group.
For example, the genocide committed by the Nazis in l

Self-fulfilling Prophecy In some cases, the group that is the
Germany against Jewish people is an example of how target of prejudice is itself responsible for continuing the
prejudice can lead to hatred, discrimination and mass prejudice. The target group may behave in ways that justify the
killing of innocent prople. We get numerous examples prejudice i.e. confirm the negative expectations.
from history containing discrimination based on race and For example, if the target group is described as ‘dependent’ and
caste on social class. therefore unable to make progress. The members of this target
Social psychologists have shown that prejudice has the group may actually behave in a way that proves this description to
following sources be true.
l
Learning Like other attitudes, prejudices can also be
learned through association, reward and punishment, Strategies for Handling Prejudice
observing others, group or cultural norms and The first step in handling prejudice is to know about its causes or
exposure to information that encourages prejudice. sources. Thus, the strategies for handling prejudice would be
The family, reference groups, personal experiences effective if they aim at
and the media may play a role in the learning of l
Minimising opportunities for learning prejudices.
prejudices. l
Changing prejudice attitudes.
People who learn prejudiced attitudes may develop a l
De-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the ingroup.
‘prejudiced personality’ and show low adjusting
capacity, anxiety and feelings of hostility against the
l
Discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling prophecy
outgroup. among the victims of prejudice.
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A Strong Social Identity and Ingroup Bias These goals can be accomplished through
Individuals who have a strong sense of social identity l
Education and information dissemination, for correcting
and have a very positive attitude towards their own stereotypes related to specific target groups and tackling the
group boost this attitude by holding negative attitudes problem of a strong ingroup bias.
towards other groups. These are shown as prejudices. l
Increasing intergroup contact helps to have more
l
Scapegoating This is a phenomenon by which the communication between different groups, helps to reduce any
majority group places the blame on a minority feelings of mistrust and also helps to discover positive aspects of
outgroup for its own social, economic or political different groups.
problems. The minority is too weak or too small in These strategies are successful only if
number to defend itself against such accusations – The two groups meet in a cooperative rather than competitive
(complaints). Scapegoating is a group based way of context.
expressing frustration and it often results in negative – Close interactions between the groups helps them to know each
attitudes or prejudice against the weaker group. other better.
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Kernel of Truth Concept Sometimes people may – The two groups are not different in power or status.
continue to hold stereotypes because they think that l
Highlighting individual identity rather than group
there must be some truth or ‘kernel of truth’ in what identity, which weaken the importance of group (both ingroup
everyone says about the other group. and outgroup) as a basis of evaluating the other person.
Chapter
Practice
PART 1 7. There was a marriage in which dowry was being
given. Ramesh is the groom and does not want
Objective Questions dowry. Sunita is the bride who is giving the dowry.
As per P-O-X triangle, what can be denoted as O.
(a) Ramesh (b) Sunita
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Multiple Choice Questions (c) Dowry (d) None
1. Performance on specific tasks is influenced by the Ans. (c) As per P-O-X triangle. Dowry can be denoted as O.
mere presence of others. This is called 8. In 1957, Leon Festinger published his theory of
(a) Social facilitation (b) Social obligation
(a) Balance
(c) Social norm (d) Social attribution
(b) Cognitive Dissonance
Ans. (a) Performance on specific tasks is influenced by the (c) Attribution
mere presence of others called social facilitation. Social
(d) None of the above
facilitation refers to impact posed by presence of people
on a person’s behaviours. Ans. (b) Leon Festinger published his theory of Cognitive
dissonance in 1957.
2. An augmentation in behaviour due to the presence
of other individuals is known as 9. Students often develop a liking for a particular
(a) Imitation (b) Social facilitation
subject because of the teacher. This liking is
because of
(c) Interaction (d) None of the above
(a) Positive association between a teacher and a student
Ans. (b) An augmentation in behaviour due to the presence of
(b) Negative association between a teacher and a student
other individuals is known as Social facilitation .
(c) Neutral association between a teacher and a student
3. What indicates the degree of how positive or (d) Both (a) and (b)
negative an attitude is? Ans. (a) This liking is because of Positive association between a
(a) Extremeness (b) Simplicity teacher and a student.
(c) Centrality (d) Valence 10. Two-step concept was proposed by_______.
Ans. (a) It is extremeness of an attitude that indicates how (a) Sigmund Freud (b) Ivan Pavlov
positive or negative an attitude is. (c) SM Mohsin (d) Fritz Heider
4. Shashi has a score of 5 in her behaviour. Her Ans. (c) The two-step concept was proposed by SM Mohsin, an
behaviour is Indian psychologist.
(a) Neutral (b) Extreme (c) Average (d) Moderate
11. Which among the following influences attitude
Ans. (b) Shashi’s behaviour is extreme. The extremeness of an change?
attitude indicates how positive or negative an attitude is.
1. Characteristics of the Existing Attitude
5. _________attitude is lowest on extremeness. 2. Characteristic of the attitude of other people
(a) Positive (b) Negative (c) Neutral (d) Happy 3. Source Characteristics
Ans. (c) A Neutral attitude is lowest on extremeness. 4. Target Characteristic
6. Which of the following influences your attitude? Choose the correct option
(a) Media (b) Parents (a) 1,2,3 (b) 2,3 (c) 1,3,4 (d) 2,4
(c) School (d) All of these Ans. (c) The factors that influences attitude change are
Ans. (d) Media, parents and schools are the factors that Characteristics of the Existing Attitude, Source
influence our attitude. Characteristics and Target Characteristic.
12. Which of the following is true about prejudices and l

discrimination?
Direction (Q. Nos. 1-4) Each of these questions
1. Prejudices are examples of attitudes towards a
particular group.
contains two statements, Assertion (A) and Reason
(R). Each of these questions also has four alternative
2. They are usually negative and in many cases, may be
based on stereotypes. choices, any one of which is the correct answer. You
3. Prejudice may also grow as discrimination.
have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d)
given below.
4. Prejudices cannot exist without showing
discrimination. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct
(a) 1,2,3 (b) 2,3 explanation of A
(c) 1,3,4 (d) 2,4 (c) A is True and R is false
Ans. (a) Prejudices generally refer to an attitude developed for (d) A is false and R is true
a particular group of people. Such an attitude is generally
negative and in many cases may be based on stereotypes.
1. Assertion (A) Centrality refers to the role of a
Prejudice may also grow as discrimination.
particular attitude in the attitude system.
Reason (R) An attitude with greater centrality
13. Cluster of ideas regarding the characteristics of a would influence the other attitudes in the system
specific group is known as much more than non-central (or peripheral)
(a) Progressive attitudes.
(b) Stereotype
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
(c) Belief of A. Centrality refers to the role of a particular attitude in
(d) Attitude the attitude system. A central attitude is thought to
Ans. (b) A stereotype is a cluster of ideas regarding the influence the other attitudes in the system much more than
characteristics of a specific group. non-central attitudes. This influences all attitudes in the
14. Which of the following statements are true about multiple attitude system. Hence, R correctly explains A.
prejudice and discrimination? 2. Assertion (A) Reference groups are the norms
1. Prejudice may also grew as discrimination. regarding acceptable behaviour and ways of
2. Discrimination can be shown without prejudice. thinking.
3. Conflicts are likely to arise between groups and in Reason (R) A person’s attitude development for
same society wherever prejudice and discrimination certain topics often occurs as per these norms.
exist.
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
4. Prejudice can not exist without shown discrimination
of A. Reference groups are the norms regarding
Choose the correct options
(a) 1, 2, 3 acceptable behaviour and ways of thinking. Thus, A
person’s attitude towards various topics, such as political,
(b) 2, 3, 4
religious and social groups, are ofter developed as per
(c) 1, 2, 4 these norms.
(d) 2, 4, 1
Ans. (a) Statements 1, 2, 3 are true but statement 4 is not true
3. Assertion (A) Qualities of the target influence
as Prejudice can exist without shown discrimination. attitude change.
Thus, correct option is (a). Reason (R) People who are more flexible do not
15. Tarun’s group has won the elections from his change more easily.
constituency. His opponents, Ramesh and his group, are Ans. (c) Qualities of the target, such as persuasibility, strong
weak and too small in number. Tarun often expresses prejudices, self-esteem and intelligence influence the
frustration and negative attitude towards Ramesh’s group. attitude change. People who are more open and flexible
This is known as ________ . change more easily. People with strong preconceptions
(a) Learning are less prone or inclined to any attitude change. Hence,
(b) Kernel of truth concept A is true and R is false.
(c) Scapegoating 4. Assertion (A) Attitude is strong and occupies a
(d) Imitation central place in the attitude system.
Ans. (a) This is known as scapegoating. It is the group based Reason (R) One’s actual behaviour may be contrary
way of expressing frustration and negative attitude. to one’s attitude towards a particular topic.
Ans. (b) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct (iii) Balance of attitude is found in which condition?
explanation of A. Attitude is strong and occupies a central (a) All three sides are negative
place in attitude system. One’s actual behaviour maybe (b) Two sides are negative
differ from one’s attitude towards particular thing. R do (c) Two sides are positive
not explain A.
(d) All three sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative
l
Case Based MCQs Ans (b) When two sides are negative balance of attitude is found.
(iv) The attitude change always occur in the direction of
1. Tanya is a mother of two boys. One of her boys, (a) Balance (b) Imbalance
Varun, had been complaining of a stomach ache (c) Any direction (d) It does not change
lately. Tanya took Varun to the doctor. Doctor
Ans (a) The attitude change always occurs in the direction of
prescribed a few painkillers along with an balance.
antibiotic. However, Tanya had a strong belief that
antibiotics do not work and can lead to serious side (v) Which of the following is incorrect?
effects. This mindset of Tanya’s developed because (a) It is also possible that all three components of the
P-O-X triangle are persons
of the penicillin allergy that her best friend has. So
(b) Attitude changes because imbalance is comfortable
Tanya did not give antibiotics to Varun. Sadly, (c) Other name for P-O-X triangle is concept of balance
Varun’s condition did not improve and eventually (d) It was given by Fritz Heider
deteriorated. When doctors questioned Tanya about
Ans (b) Attitude changes because imbalance is comfortable is
the medicine consumption Tanya admitted that she not correct.
did not give Varun the prescribed antibiotics.
Hence, Tanya was scolded badly by the doctor and (vi) Assertion (A) Changing the attitude of Tanya
she eventually gave antibiotics to Varun. Varun's towards antibiotics was difficult.
condition thereafter improved. Reason (R) This belief had been there since a while
(i) As per the P-O-X who is denoted as P. and the attitude had become firm.
Codes
(a) Tanya
(b) Doctor of A
(c) Varun (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
(d) Antibiotics use explanation of A
Ans (a) As per the P-O-X Tanya is denoted as P. (c) A is true, but R is false
(ii) Imbalance is found when_____ . (d) R is true, but A is false
(a) All three sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative Ans (a) Both A and R are true, R is the correct explanation
(b) Two sides are positive for A. As changing in attitude of tanya was difficult
Attitudes that are still in the formative stage, are much
(c) One side is negative
more likely to change compared to attitudes that have
(d) All of the above
become firmly established and have become a part of the
Ans (d) Imbalance is found in all the given options. individual’s values.
PART 2
l
Short Answer (SA) Type Questions object’), which have an evaluative feature (positive,
negative or neutral quality).
1. Define attitude. Discuss the components of an
Attitude have three components. These are as follows
attitude. (NCERT)
(i) The thought component is referred to as the
Or What is attitude. Explain its various components. cognitive aspect. It consists of belief, ideas, values
(CBSE 2020) and other information that a person may possess or
Ans. An attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views or has faith in. It makes little difference if the
thoughts, regarding some topics (called the ‘attitude information is correct or incorrect.
(ii) The emotional component is known as the affective These sources first strengthen the cognitive and affective
aspect. It is related to person’s feelings about another components of attitudes, and subsequently may also affect
person, which may be positive, negative or neutral. the behavioural component. The media can exert both
(iii) The tendency to act is called the behavioural (or good and bad influences on attitudes. On one hand, the
cognative) aspect. It is related to impact of various media and internet make people better informed than
situations or objects that lead to individual’s behaviour other modes of communication. They are also gradually
based on cognitive and affective components. Only becoming stronger in guiding public opinion. On the
this component of attitude is visible. other hand, there may be no check on the nature of
information being provided.
2. Distinguish between belief and values.
Ans. The difference between belief and values are as follows 5. Discuss the concept of balance in attitude change.
Ans. Concept of balance was proposed by Fritz Heider. It is
Belief Values also described in the form of the ‘P-O-X’ triangle, which
(i) Beliefs refer to cognitive Values are attitudes or represents the relationships between three aspects or
component of attitudes beliefs that contain the components of the attitude.
and form the grounds on ‘should be’ or ‘ought to’ P is the person whose attitude is being studied, O is
which the attitudes form factor. another person and X is the topic towards which the
such as belief in god.
attitude is being studied (attitude object). It is also
(ii) Belief can be changed Values are inseparable part possible that all three are persons.
more easily. of a person’s life and hence,
are difficult to change. An attitude changes if there is a state of imbalance
between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, and P-X attitude
(iii) Beliefs are concepts that Values are ideas that hold
because imbalance is logically uncomfortable.
we hold to be true. to be important.
Therefore, the attitude changes in the direction of
3. Discuss the four significant features of attitude. balance. Imbalance is found when all three sides of the
(NCERT) P-O-X triangle are negative, or two sides are positive, and
Ans. Four significant features of attitudes are as follows one side is negative.
(i) Valence (Positivity or Negativity) The valence of an Balance is found when all three sides are positive, or two
sides are negative, and one side is positive.
attitude tells us whether an attitude is positive or
negative towards the attitude object. A neutral 6. Discuss cognitive dissonance component in attitude
attitude would have neither positive nor negative change process.
valence. Ans. Cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger. It
(ii) Extremeness The extremeness of an attitude emphasises that the cognitive components of an attitude
indicates how positive or negative an attitude is. must be ‘consonant’ (opposite of dissonant) i.e. they
They are only in the opposite directions (valence). A should be logically in line with each other.
neutral attitude is lowest on extremeness. Festinger and Carlsmith, two social psychologists,
(iii) Simplicity or Complexity (Multiplicity) This feature conducted an experiment that showed the working of
refers to how many attitudes are there within a cognitive dissonance. Both balance and cognitive
broader attitude. In case of various topics, such as dissonance are examples of cognitive consistency.
health and world peace, people hold many attitudes Cognitive consistency means that two components,
instead of single attitude. An attitude system is said aspects or elements of the attitude, or attitude system,
to be simple if it contains only one or a few must be in the same direction. Each element should
attitudes, and complex if it is made up of many logically fall in line with other elements.
attitudes. If this does not happen, then the person experiences a
(iv) Centrality This refers to the role of a particular kind of mental discomfort. In such a state, some aspecsts
attitude in the attitude system. An attitude with in the attitude system changes in the direction of
greater centrality would influence the other attitudes consistency, because our cognitive system requires logical
in the system much more than non-central (or consistency.
peripheral) attitudes. 7. Discuss the attitude-behaviour relationship.
4. Discuss how media can influence the attitude change. Ans. An individual’s attitude may not always be exhibited
Ans. In today’s modern era media can influence the attitude through behaviour. One’s actual behaviour may be
change. Technological advances in recent times have made contrary to one’s attitude towards a particular topic.
audio-visual media and the internet very powerful sources Attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of one’s
of information that lead to attitude formation and change. behaviour. Sometimes, it is behaviour that decides the
attitude. Psychologists have found that there would be prejudice may transformed into discrimination. Here,
consistency between attitudes and behaviour when people behave in a less positive way toward a particular
Following are some important points of attitude group than others. Exactly this was happened in Nazi
behaviour relationship Germany where prejudice and discrimination led to mass
l The attitude is strong, and occupies a central place in killings of innocent Jewish people.
the attitude system. 10. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype.
l The person is aware of her/his attitude. (NCERT)
l There is very little or no external pressure for the Ans. The difference between prejudice and stereotype are as
person to behave in a particular way. follows
l The person’s behaviour is not being watched or Prejudice Stereotype
evaluated by others.
(i) Prejudices are example of A stereotype is a cluster of
l The person thinks that the behaviour would have a attitudes towards a particular ideas regarding the
positive consequence, and therefore, intends to group. They are usually characteristics of a specific
engage in that behaviour. negative, and in many cases, group.
may be based on stereotypes
8. Prejudice can exist without discrimination (the cognitive component)
and vice versa. Comment. (NCERT) about the specific group.
Ans. Prejudices can exist without being shown in the form of (ii) Prejudice may also get Stereotypes consist of
discrimination. Similarly, discrimination can be shown translated into discrimination, undesirable characteristics
without prejudice. Yet, the two go together very often. the behavioural component, about the target group, and
when people behave in a less they lead to negative
Wherever, prejudice and discrimination exist, conflicts positive way towards a attitudes or prejudices
are very likely to arise between groups within the same particular target group towards members of specific
society. compared to another group groups. Thus, prejudice may
Our own society has witnessed many deplorable which they favour. be based on stereotypes.
instances of discrimination, with and without prejudice
based on gender, religion, community, caste, physical 11. State the strategies for overcoming prejudice.
handicap, and illnesses such as AIDS. Ans. The first step in handling prejudice is to know about its
Moreover, in many cases discriminatory behaviour can causes or sources. Thus, the strategies for handling
be curbed by law. But, the cognitive and emotional prejudice would be effective if they aim at
components of prejudice are more difficult to change. l Minimising opportunities for learning prejudices.
9. How do you explain prejudice and discrimination l Changing such attitudes.
in the genocide committed by the Nazis in l De-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the
Germany against the Jewish people? ingroup.
Ans. Prejudices are examples of attitudes towards a l Discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling
particular group. These are usually negative in nature. prophecy among the victims of prejudice.
Sometimes these are based on stereotypes. Stereotype These goals can be accomplished through
is an overgeneralised and unverified prototype about a l Education and information dissemination, for correcting
particular group. It is a cluster of ideas regarding the stereotypes related to specific target groups, and tackling
characteristics of a specific group. All members the problem of a strong ingroup bias.
belonging to this group are assumed to possesses these l Increasing intergroup contact allows for direct
characteristics.
communication, removal of mistrust between the groups,
In Nazi Germany Jews remained the worst sufferers. and even discovery of positive qualities in the
Jews had been stereotyped as killers of Christ and outgroup.These strategies are successful only if
money lenders. Jews lived in separately marked areas
(a) The two groups meet in a cooperative rather than
called ‘ghettos’. They were persecuted through periodic
competitive context.
organised violence and expulsion from the land. In
Nazism the Jews were terrorised, pauperised and (b) Close interactions between the groups helps them to
segregated. Large scale genocide was committed by the know each other better.
Nazis against the Jews. (c) The two groups are not different in power or status.
This is an extreme example of how prejudice can lead to l Highlighting individual identity rather than group
hatred, discrimination and mass killing of innocent identity, which weaken the importance of group (both
people. The cognitive component of prejudice is ingroup and outgroup) as a basis of evaluating the other
accompanied by dislike or hatred generally. Thus, person.
l
Long Answer (LA) Type Questions attitude towards community upliftment and evolved as a
community leader. As a community leader, his efforts
1. Are attitudes learnt? Explain how. (NCERT) completely changed the face of his village. Many attitudes
Or Explain the conditions which lead to the learning of are formed, not in the family environment or through
attitudes. (Delhi 2016) reference groups, but through direct personal experiences
which bring about a drastic change in our attitude
Or Explain the process involved in the learning of towards people and our own life as it happened in this
attitudes (CBSE Sample Paper 2020) case.
Ans. Yes, attitudes are learnt. It can be explained as follows Other factors that shape the attitude formation are as
Learning Attitudes by Association You might have seen follows
that students often develop a liking for a particular l Family and School Environment In the early years of
subject because of the positive qualities in that teacher. life, parents and other family members play a significant
These positive qualities get linked to the subject that role in shaping attitude formation. Later, the school
she/he teaches and ultimately get expressed in the form of environment becomes an important background for
liking for the subject. attitude formation.
Learning Attitudes by Being Rewarded or Punished If Learning of attitudes within the family and school
an individual is praised for showing a particular attitude, usually takes place by association, through rewards and
chances are high that she/he will develop that attitude punishments, and through modelling.
further. l Reference Groups Reference groups indicate to an
Learning Attitudes through Modelling (observing individual the norms regarding acceptable behaviour
others) We learn attitudes by observing others being and ways of thinking. Thus, they reflect learning of
rewarded or punished for expressing thoughts, or attitudes through group or cultural norms.
showing behaviour of a particular kind towards the l Media-Related Influences Technological advances in
attitude object. recent times have made audio-visual media and the
Learning Attitudes through Group or Cultural Internet very powerful sources of information that lead
Norms We learn attitudes through the norms of our to attitude formation and change.
group or culture. Norms are unwritten rules about 3. What are the factors that influence the formation of
behaviour that everyone is supposed to show under
an attitude? (Delhi 2017)
specific circumstances. Over time, these norms may
become part of our social cognition in the form of Ans. The following factors influence the learning of attitudes
attitudes. 1. Family and School Environment It plays a
Learning through Exposure to Information Many significant role in shaping attitude formation.
attitudes are learned in a social context, but not Learning of attitudes within the family and school
necessarily in the physical presence of others. Today, with usually takes place by association, through rewards
the huge amount of information that is being provided and punishments and through modelling.
through various media, both positive and negative 2. Reference Groups It indicates to an individual the
attitudes are being formed. By reading the biographies of norms regarding acceptable behaviour and ways of
self-actualised persons, an individual may develop a thinking. Thus, they reflect learning of attitudes
positive attitude towards hard work and other aspects as through group or cultural norms. Attitudes towards
the means of achieving success in life. various topics, such as political, religious and social
groups, occupations, national and other issues are
2. A driver in the army went through a certain often developed through reference groups.
experience that transformed his life. On one
3. Personal Experiences Many attitudes are formed
mission, he narrowly escaped death although all his
through direct personal experiences which bring
companions got killed. Wondering about the about a drastic change in our attitude towards people
purpose of his own life, he gave up his job in the and our own life.
army, returned to his native village in Maharashtra,
4. Media-related Influences Technological advances in
and worked actively as a community leader.
recent times have made audio-visual media and the
Identify the factor that affected the attitude Internet very powerful sources of information that
formation in army driver. Also, give a brief about lead to attitude formation and change. In addition,
other factors that shapes the attitude formation. school level textbooks also influence attitude
Ans. In the given case study, army driver transformed his life formation. These sources first strengthen the
through a purely personal experience when he narrowly cognitive and affective components of attitudes and
escaped death. This individual evolved a strong positive gradually may affect the behavioural component.
4. Radhika was fond of junk food and ate it too often. transmission of the message is usually more
However, she always felt guilty as she knew junk food effective than indirect transmission i.e. through
was harmful for her health and wanted to give it up. letters and pamphlets or even through mass media.
Explain the process that will lead to change in her (iv) Target Characteristics Qualities of the target,
attitude. (CBSE Sample Paper 2020) such as persuasibility, strong prejudices,
Ans. The process that will lead to change in her attitude is self-esteem and intelligence influence the
cognitive dissonance. The concept of cognitive dissonance likelihood and extent of attitude change.
was proposed by Leon Festinger. It emphasises the People who have a more open and flexible
cognitive component. Here the basic idea is that the personality, change more easily. People with strong
cognitive components of an attitude must be ‘consonant’ preconceptions are less prone or inclined to any
(opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e., they should be logically in line attitude change.
with each other. If an individual finds that two cognitions in More intelligent people may change their attitudes
an attitude are dissonant, then one of them will be changed less easily than those with lower intelligence.
in the direction of consonance. For example, think about the
following ideas.
6. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s
attitude? Explain with a relevant example.
Cognition I : Junk foods are harmful for health. It can lead
Ans. An individual’s attitudes may not always be exhibited
to obesity, increase sugar level and weight gain.
through behaviour. One’s actual behaviour may be
Cognition II : I eat Junk food. contrary to one’s attitude towards a particular topic.
Holding these two ideas or cognitions will make any Attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of one’s
individual feel that something is ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, behaviour. Sometimes, it is behaviour that decides the
in the attitude towards junk food. Therefore, one of these attitude.
ideas will have to be changed, so that consonance can be Psychologists have found that there would be
attained. In the example given above, in order to remove or consistency between attitudes and behaviour when
reduce the dissonance, I will stop eating junk food (change
l The attitude is strong, and occupies a central place in
Cognition II). This would be the healthy, logical and
the attitude system.
sensible way of reducing dissonance.
l The person is aware of her/his attitude.
5. State the factors that influence attitude change. l There is very little or no external pressure for the
(All India 2017) person to behave in a particular way.
Ans. The major factors that influence attitude change are as l The person’s behaviour is not being watched or
follows evaluated by others.
(i) Characteristics of the Existing Attitude All four l The person thinks that the behaviour would have a
features (valence, extremeness, simplicity and positive consequence and therefore, intends to engage
centrality) of attitudes determine attitude change. In in that behaviour.
general, positive attitudes are easier to change than
In the days when Americans were said to be prejudiced
negative attitudes. Simple attitudes are easier to
against the Chinese, Richard La Piere, an American
change than multiple attitudes. An attitude change
social psychologist, conducted the following study.
may be congruent (favourable) or incongruent (not
He asked a Chinese couple to travel across the United
favourable).
States, and stay in different hotels. Only once during
(ii) Source Characteristics Source credibility and these occasions they were refused service by one of the
attractiveness are two features that affect attitude hotels. Sometime later, La Piere sent out questionnaires
change. Attitudes are more likely to change when the to managers of hotels and tourist homes in the same
message comes from a highly credible source rather areas where the Chinese couple had travelled, asking
than from a low-credible source. them if they would give accommodation to Chinese
(iii) Message Characteristics The message is the guests. A very large percentage said that they would not
information that is presented in order to bring about an do so.
attitude change. Attitudes will change when the This response showed a negative attitude towards the
amount of information that is given about the topic Chinese, which was inconsistent with the positive
is just enough, neither too much nor too little. behaviour that was actually shown towards the
The message contains emotional appeal, motives and travelling Chinese couple. Thus, attitudes may not
moods of it also play significant role. Face-to-face always predict actual pattern of one’s behaviour.
l
Case Based Questions 3. Personal Experiences Many attitudes are formed
through direct personal experiences.
1. An attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views or 4. Media-related Influences Technological advances in
thoughts, regarding some topics (called the ‘attitude recent times have made audio-visual media and the
object’), which have an evaluative feature (positive, Internet very powerful sources of information that
negative or neutral quality). It is accompanied by an lead to attitude formation and change.
emotional component and a tendency to act in a 2. In the days when Americans were said to be
particular way with regard to the attitude object. If prejudiced against the Chinese, Richard LaPiere,
our views are not merely thoughts, but also have an American social psychologist, conducted the
emotional and action components, then these views following study. He asked a Chinese couple to
are the examples of attitudes. travel across the United States, and stay in different
The thought component is referred to as the hotels. Only once during these occasions they were
cognitive aspect, the emotional component is refused service by one of the hotels. Sometime
known as the affective aspect and the tendency to later, LaPiere sent out questionnaires to managers
act is called the behavioural (or cognitive) aspect. of hotels and tourist homes in the same areas where
These three aspects have been referred to as the the Chinese couple had travelled, asking them if
A-B-C components i.e. Affective-Behavioural and they would give accommodation to Chinese guests.
Cognitive components of attitude. A very large percentage said that they would not do
(i) What is the difference between attitude, beliefs and so. This response showed a negative attitude
values? towards the Chinese, which was inconsistent with
the positive behaviour that was actually shown
Ans. Values are attitudes or beliefs that contain a ‘should’ or
towards the travelling Chinese couple. Thus,
‘ought to’ aspect, such as moral or ethical values.
attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of
Attitudes have to be distinguished from two other closely
related concepts, namely beliefs and values.
one’s behaviour.
Beliefs refer to the cognitive component of attitudes (i) Explain the sources of prejudices.
and form the ground on which attitudes stand, such as Ans. Social psychologists have shown that prejudice has the
belief in God or belief in democracy as a political following sources
ideology. Learning Like other attitudes, prejudices can also be
(ii) What are the various features of attitude? Explain learned through association, reward and punishment, etc.
in detail. A Strong Social Identity and Ingroup Bias Individuals
Ans. Four significant features of attitudes are as follows who have a strong sense of social identity and have a very
positive attitude towards their own group boost this
1. Valence (Positivity or Negativity) The valence of an
attitude by holding negative attitudes towards other
attitude tells us whether an attitude is positive or
groups. These are shown as prejudices.
negative towards the attitude object.
Scapegoating This is a phenomenon by which the
2. Extremeness The extremeness of an attitude
majority group places the blame on a minority outgroup
indicates how positive or negative an attitude is.
for its own social, economic or political problems.
3. Simplicity or Complexity (Multiplicity) This feature
Kernel of Truth Concept Sometimes people may
refers to how many attitudes are there within a
continue to hold stereotypes because they think that
broader attitude. there must be some truth or ‘kernel of truth’ is what
4. Centrality An attitude with greater centrality would everyone says about the other group.
influence the other attitudes in the system much
(ii) Discuss the goals of handling prejudices.
more than non-central (or peripheral) attitudes.
Ans. These goals can be accomplished through
(iii) Explain the factors that influence attitude l Education and information dissemination, for correcting
formation. stereotypes related to specific target groups and tackling
Ans. The following factors influence the learning of attitudes the problem of a strong ingroup bias.
1. Family and School Environment Learning of l Increasing intergroup contact allows for direct
attitudes within the family and school usually takes communication, removal of mistrust between the groups
place by association, through rewards and and even discovery of positive qualities in the outgroup.
punishments and through modelling.
(iii) Give strategies for handling prejudices.
2. Reference Groups It indicates to an individual the
norms regarding acceptable behaviour and ways of Ans. The strategies for handling prejudice would be effective if
thinking. they aim at
l Minimising opportunities for learning prejudices. In this case, P is Sunaina, O is her husband and X is
l Changing prejudice attitudes. attitude of speaking foul language.
l De-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the (ii) Name the factors which influenced change in
ingroup. Sunaina’s attitude.
l Discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling Ans. Following are the major factors that influence attitude
prophecy among the victims of prejudice. change
3. Sunaina had a habit of using foul language. She had Characteristics of the Existing Attitude All four features
no friends and could not sustain a single job due to (valence, extremeness, simplicity and centrality) of
her bad language. After she got married her attitudes determine attitude change.
husband Started putting great effort into changing Source Characteristics: Source credibility and
her attitude. He always kept reminding her to calm attractiveness are two features that affect attitude change.
down the moment she got agitated and used foul
language. He also made a punishment jar at home Message Characteristics The message is the information
in which anyone who spoke in a bad way would put that is presented in order to bring about an attitude
1`. At the end of the month he used the collected change.
money to buy something for the house. After some Target Characteristics Qualities of the target, such as
time, Sunaina’s language improved considerably. persuasibility, strong prejudices, self-esteem and
Her temper issues also got in control. Now the jar intelligence influence the likelihood and extent of attitude
remained empty. change.
(i) Can you explain P-O-X based on Sunaina's case? (iii) Throw some light on the relationship between
Ans. The P-O-X triangle represents the relationships between Sunaina’s attitude and behaviour.
three aspects or components of the attitude. Ans. An individual’s attitude may not always be exhibited
l P is the person whose attitude is being studied. through behaviour. One’s actual behaviour may be
contrary to one’s attitude towards a particular topic.
l O is another person.
Attitudes may not always predict the actual pattern of
l X is the topic towards which the attitude is being one’s behaviour. Sometimes, it is behaviour that decides
studied (attitude object). the attitude.
Chapter Test
1. The tendency to act is known as
(a) The cognitive aspect (b) The behavioural aspect (c) The affective aspect (d) None of these
2. Which is a significant feature of attitudes?
(a) Valence (b) Extremeness (c) Simplicity (d) All of these
3. Which of the following indicates how positive or negative an attitude is?
(a) Centrality (b) Valence (c) Extremeness (d) All of these
4. Consider the following statements:
Case I People, who have a more open and flexible personality, change more easily.
Case II People with strong prejudices are less prone to any attitude change than those who do not hold strong prejudices.
On the basis of two cases, which factor/s is more likely to contribute or influence the likelihood and extent of attitude
change?
(a) Persuasibility (b) Strong prejudices (c) Self-esteem and intelligence (d) All of these
5. Who suggested that stable factors are factors that do not change with time?
(a) Mohsin (b) Triplett (c) Heider (d) Wiener
Short Answer (SA) Type Questions

6. Define the various types of attitude.
7. What are the causes of emergence of prejudice?
8. State the sources of prejudice.
9. Explain P-O-X triangle in attitude change.
10. An advertisement for cooking food in a pressure cooker points out that this saves fuel such as cooking gas (LPG) and is
economical. Another advertisement says that pressure-cooking preserves nutrition, and that if one cares for the family,
nutrition would be a major concern. Compare the two advertisements and identify the message characteristics in both.
Do also differentiate in between the two advertisements.
Long Answer (LA) Type Questions
11. What are the important process of attitude change?
12. Discuss the characteristics of prejudice.
13. Preeti reads in the newspapers that a particular soft drink that she enjoys is extremely harmful. But Preeti sees that her
favourite sportsperson has been advertising the same soft drink. She has identified herself with the sportsperson, and
would like to imitate her/him. How do you think Preeti will able to change her habit? Identify the process of attitude
change in this case? Give all the steps involved in attitude change of Preeti.
Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d)
CHAPTER 04
Social Influence
and Group Processes
In this Chapter...
l Introduction
l Nature and Formation of Groups
l Types of Groups
l Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour
l Social Loafing
l Group Polarisation
Introduction Characteristics of a Group

In this chapter we shall try to understand about Groups Groups have the following salient characteristics
and their influence on our behaviour. l
It is a social unit consisting of two or more individuals who
Similarly, we would try to understand about group perceive themselves as belonging to the group. This
conflicts and strategies to resolve conflicts for harmonious characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one group
and united society. from the other and gives the group its unique identity.
l
It is a collection of individuals who have common motives and
Nature and Formation of goals. A group functions to achieve a desired goal or to keep
away from certain threats faced by the group.
Groups l
It is a collection of individuals who are interdependent, i.e.
A group may be defined as an organised system of two or what one is doing may have consequences for others. For
more interdependent individuals, who have common example, if a fielder in a cricket team drops an important catch
motives and norms to regulate the behaviour of its members. during the match, it will have consequence for the entire team.
A group not only provides us the needed support and l
Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through their joint
comfort but also facilitates our growth and development as association also influence each other.
an individual. Our lives are influenced by the nature of l
It is a gathering of individuals who interact with one another
group membership we have. It is very important to be a either directly or indirectly.
part of group which influences us positively and helps us in l
It is a collection of individuals whose interactions are structured
becoming good citizens. It is not only that others influence by a set of roles and norms. This means that the group members
us, but we as individuals are also capable of changing perform the same functions every time the group meets. Norm
others and the society. specify the behaviours expected from the group members.
Groups can be differentiated from other collections of as sense of belongingness, giving and receiving attention,
people. These are love and power through a group.
l
Crowd A crowd is a collection of people who may be l
Goal Achievement Groups help in achieving such goals
present at a place/situation by chance. Behaviour of which cannot be attained individually. There is power in the
people in crowds is irrational and there is no majority.
interdependence among members. For example, if you are l
Provide Knowledge and Information Group membership
going on the road and an accident takes place, a large provides knowledge and information and thus broadens our
number of people come there. This is an elaborate view. As individuals, we may not have all the required
example of crowd. There is no feeling of belongingness information.
and interdependence among members of a crowd.
l
Teams These are special kinds of groups. Members Group Formation
of teams often have complementary skills and Groups are formed by making contacts through or interactions
are committed to a common goal or purpose. Members between people. This interaction is facilitated by the following
are mutually accountable for their activities. In teams, conditions
there is a positive synergy (teamwork) attained through
Proximity Repeated interactions with the same set of
the coordinated efforts of the members.
individuals give us a chance to know them and their interests
l
Audience It is a collection of people who have assembled and attitudes. Common interests, attitudes and background are
for a special purpose, e.g. to watch a cricket match or a important determinants of our liking for our group members.
movie. Generally, audiences are passive but sometimes
Similarity Being exposed to someone over a period of time
they go into a frenzy and become mobs. Mob behaviour is
characterised by homogeneity of thought and behaviour makes us assess our similarities and paves the way for
as well as impulsivity. formation of groups. We like people who are similar because
people prefer consistency and like relationships that are
Differences between Groups and Teams consistent. When two people are similar, there is consistency
and they start liking each other.
l
In groups, performance is dependent on contributions of
individual members. In teams, both individual For example, I like playing football and one of my batch mate
contributions and teamwork matter. also like playing football. There is a high chances that we may
l
In groups, the leader or whoever is leading the group become friends as our interests are same.
holds responsibility for the work. However in teams,
although there is a leader, members hold themselves Common Motives and Goals When people have common
responsible. motives or goals, they get together and form a group which
may facilitate their goal attainment.
Reasons of Joining Groups For example, I want to teach children in a slum area who are
People join groups because these groups satisfy a range of unable to go to school. I can form a group with like minded
needs. Following are reasons to join groups friends and start teaching these children. In this way I can
achieve my goal with the help of others.
l
Security Groups reduce the feeling of insecurity when
we are alone. Being with people gives a sense of comfort Stages of Group Formation
and protection. As a result, people feel stronger and are
Tuckman suggested that groups pass through five
less vulnerable to threats.
developmental sequences. These are as follows
l
Status When we are members of a group that is
(i) Forming When group members meet for the first time, a
perceived to be important by others, we feel recognised
kind of uncertainty is created for achieving group goals.
and experience a sense of power.
People try to know each other and assess whether they
For example, when a school wins an inter-institutional will fit in or not. There is excitement as well as
debate competition, students feel proud and think that apprehensions. This stage is called the forming stage.
they are better than others.
(ii) Storming After forming stage, there is a stage of
l
Self-esteem Groups provide feelings of self-worth and intragroup conflict which is referred to as storming. In
establish a positive social identity. Being a member of this stage, there is conflict among members about the
prestigious groups enhances one’s self-concept. target, process, performance and control of resources.
l
Satisfaction of One’s Psychological and Social Needs When this stage is complete, hierarchyof leadership in
Groups satisfy one’s social and psychological needs such the group develops.
(iii) Norming The storming stage is followed by another stage Cohesiveness refer to the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ a
known as norming. Group members by this time develop sense of belongingness to the group. Psychologists
norms related to group behaviour. This leads to suggest groupthink which is a consequence of extreme
development of a positive group identity. cohesiveness.
(iv) Performing By this stage the structure of the group has
evolved and is accepted by group members. The group Groupthink
moves towards achieving the group goal. For some Irving Janis discovered a process known as groupthink in
groups, this may be the last stage of group development. which a group allows its concerns for unanimity. They
override the motivation to realistically appraise courses of
(v) Adjourning In this stage, once the function is over, the action. It results in the tendency of decision makers to make
group may be disbanded. However, all groups do not irrational and uncritical decisions.
always proceed from one stage to the next in the same Groupthink suggests the appearance of consensus or
manner. unanimous agreement within a group. All members of a
group agree upon a particular decision of the group. No one
Group Structure express dissenting (expressing) opinion as it can destroy the
During the process of group formation, groups also develop a cohesion of the group.
structure as members interact. Over the time, this interaction There are also some ways to prevent groupthink. These are
shows regularities in distribution of task to be performed, as follows
responsibilities assigned to members and the prestige or l Encouraging and rewarding critical thinking.
relative status of members. l Encouraging groups to present alternative courses of
action.
Four important elements of group structure are as follows l Inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s decisions.
(i) Roles These are socially defined expectations that l Encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted
individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil. others.
Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts a person
in a given social context. Types of Groups
Every individual has to play some role. As a daughter or
Groups may be different in many respects. Some have a
son she/he has to respect elders, listen to them and be
large number of members e.g. a country, some are small e.g.
responsible towards their studies. There are certain role
a family, some are short-lived e.g. a committee, some
expectations, i.e. behaviour expected of someone in a
remain together for many years e.g. religious groups, some
particular role.
are highly organised e.g. army, police, etc., and others are
(ii) Norms These are expected standards of behaviour and informally organised e.g. spectators of a match.
beliefs established, agreed upon and enforced by group
Major types of groups are discussed below
members. For example, in every family there are norms
that guide the behaviour of family members which Primary and Secondary Groups
represent their views of the world.
Primary groups are pre-existing formations, which are
(iii) Status It refers to the relative social position given to usually given to the individual. Thus, family, caste and
group members by others. This relative position or status religion are primary groups. In a primary group, there is a
may be either ascribed (given may be because of one’s face-to-face interaction, members have close physical
seniority) or achieved (the person has achieved status proximity and they share warm emotional bonds.
because of expertise or hard work).
Primary groups are central to individual’s functioning and
For example, the caption of a cricket team has a higher have a very major role in developing values and ideals of
status compared to other members inspite of all players the individual during the early stages of development. In
are equally important for the team’s success. the primary group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e.
(iv) Cohesiveness It refers to togetherness, binding or mutual members do not have the option to choose its membership.
attraction among group members. As the group becomes Secondary groups are those which the individual joins by
more cohesive, group members start to think, feel and act choice. Membership of a political party is an example of a
as a social unit, and less like isolated individuals. secondary group. Secondary groups are those where
Members of a highly cohesive group have more desire to relationships among members are more impersonal,
remain in the group in comparison to those who belong to indirect and less frequent. In secondary groups, it is easy to
low cohesive groups. leave and join another group.
Formal and Informal Groups Some reasons for the occurring of social loafing are as
follows
The formation of formal groups is based on some specific rules
or laws and members have definite roles. There are a set of
l
Group members feel less responsible for the overall task
norms which help in establishing order. A university is an being performed and therefore exert less effort.
example of a formal group. l
Motivation of members decreases because they realise
The functions of a formal group are explicitly (clearly) stated in that their contributions will not be evaluated on
the case of an office organisation. The formation of informal individual basis.
groups is not based on rules or laws and there is close l
The performance of the group is not to be compared with
relationship among members. other groups.
l
There is an improper coordination (or no coordination)
Ingroup and Outgroup among members.
The term ingroup refers to one’s own group and outgroup l
Belonging to the same group is not important for
refers to another group. For ingroup members, we use the members. It is only an aggregate of individuals.
word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word ‘they’ is used.
Some measures to reduce social loafing are as follows
By using the words we and they, one is categorising people as
similar or different.
l
Making the efforts of each person identifiable.
People in the ingroup are generally similar, seen favourably
l
Increasing the pressure to work hard (making group
and have desirable traits. Members of the outgroup are viewed members committed to successful task performance).
differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to l
Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task.
the ingroup members. l
Making people feel that their individual contribution is
Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect our social lives. In important.
some cultures, plurality is celebrated as in India. We have a l
Strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the
unique composite culture which is reflected not only in the motivation for successful group outcome.
lives we live, but also in our art, architecture and music.
Group Polarisation
Influence of Group on Group polarisation focuses on how groups usually make
Individual Behaviour decisions that are more extreme than the original thoughts
and views of the individual team members. It refers to the
Groups are powerful, as they are able to influence the
tendency of a group to make decisions that are more
behaviour of individuals. Two situations to understand the
extreme than the initial inclination of its members. For
nature and impact of group influence are as follows
example, suppose you favour capital punishment1 for
(i) An individual performing an activity alone in the heinous crimes and you were interacting this issue with
presence of others (social facilitation). like-minded people. After this interaction, your views may
(ii) An individual performing an activity along with the become stronger.
others as part of a larger group (social loafing). This firm conviction is because of the following three
Social Loafing reasons
(i) In the company of like-minded people, you are likely
Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working
to hear newer arguments favouring your viewpoints.
in a group. Such situations give opportunities to group
members to relax and become a free rider. (ii) When you find others also favouring capital
punishment, you feel that this view is validated by the
This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many
public. This is a type of bandwagon effect2.
experiments by Latane and his associates. They asked group of
male students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible because (iii) When you find people having similar views, you are
they wanted to know how much noise people make in social likely to perceive them as ingroup. You start
settings. The result revealed that although the total amount of identifying with the group, begin showing conformity
noise rose up, the amount of noise produced by each and as a consequence your views become
participant dropped. strengthened.
1 Capital Punishment The legally authorised killing of someone as punishment.

2 Bandwagon Effect It is a Phychological phenomenon in which people do something primarily because other people are doing it.
Chapter
Practice
PART 1 Ans. (c) The given option (c) i.e. It is a collection of individuals
who are not interdependent is not a characteristic of a
Objective Questions group.

6. Who had suggested the five development
sequences of group formation?
l
(a) Ivan Pavlov (b) Tuckman
1. A collection of people who may be present at a (c) Kelman (d) B.F. Skinner
place/situation by chance is known as _______. Ans. (b) Tuckman had suggested the five developmental
(a) crowd (b) teams sequences of group formation.
(c) audience (d) None of these 7. Piyush was part of a group where everyone was a
Ans. (a) A crowd is a collection of people who may be present non-drinker. In fact nobody liked drinking at all.
at a place/situation by chance. However, one member of the group, Vijay, started
2. In a society, people have assembled for a special drinking. Whenever the group met, Vijay helped
purpose i.e., to watch a cricket match in between himself with a few drinks. This was not very well
India and Pakistan. In this case, assembly of people appreciated by the rest of the members of the group
can be called as _______ . and hence, Vijay was soon moved out of the group.
(a) Crowd (b) Team (c) Audience (d) Association Which element of the group did Vijay did not
Ans. (c) In this case, assembly of people can be called as Audience. comply?
(a) Norm (b) Rule (c) Culture (d) Pact
3. Which among the following is not a reason for
Ans. (a) Vijay did not comply with the norm element of Group.
joining a group?
As Norms is the expected behaviour of shared rules
(a) Security (b) Status
varying from different cultures in the world.
(c) Self-esteem (d) All of these
Ans. (d) Security, status and self-esteem are the reasons for
8. _______refers to the relative social position given
forming a group. to group members by others.
(a) Status (b) Norms
4. Aneesh has friends from housing society and school (c) Cohesiveness (d) Roles
where he lives in and studies. In this case, Aneesh
Ans. (a) Status refers to the relative social position given to
was able to made friends because of _______ .
group members by others.
(a) Similarity (b) Social loafing
(c) Obedience (d) Proximity 9. Feeling of togetherness that keep a group intact is
Ans. (d) In this case, Aneesh was able to made friends because (a) Norms (b) Role
of Proximity. (c) Status (d) Cohesiveness
Ans. (d) Feeling of togetherness that keep a group intact is
5. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a cohesiveness.
group?
(a) It is a social unit consisting of two or more individuals 10. Membership of a club is an example of ______ .
who perceive themselves as belonging to the group. (a) Primary group
(b) It is a collection of individuals who have common (b) Secondary group
motives and goals. (c) Outgroup
(c) It is a collection of individuals who are not
(d) Large group
interdependent.
(d) Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through Ans. (b) Membership of a club is an example of secondary
their joint association also influence each other. group.
11. Lata left the tap on by mistake one morning. Lots of Ans. (a) Statements 1, 2 and 3 are true about team but
people in her colony saw the tap running but statement 4 is not true as it is a group wherein leader is
nobody closed it thinking that someone else would heading the group holds responsibility for the work.
do it as it is everyone’s responsibility to save water.
This type of attitude is known as _______ .
l
(a) Obedience (b) Social loafing Direction (Q. Nos. 1-4) Each of these questions
(c) Norm (d) Group polarisation contains two statements, Assertion (A) and Reason
Ans. (b) This type of attitude is known as social loafing. Social (R). Each of these question also has four alternative
loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working choices, any one of which is the correct answer. You
on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs are have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d)
combined with those of other group members. given below.
12. Which of the following statements are true about (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
of A
social loafing?
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
1. Group members feel responsible for the overall task explanation of A
being performed and therefore exert less effort. (c) A is true, but R is false
2. Motivation of members decreases because they (d) A is false, but R is true
realise that their contributions will not be evaluated
on individual basis. 1. Assertion (A) Roles are socially defined
3. The performance of the group is not to be compared expectations that individuals in a given situation are
with other groups. expected to fulfil.
4. There is an improper coordination (or no Reason (R) Status refers to the relative social
coordination) among members. position given to group members by others.
Ans. (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
(a) 1,2,3 (b) 2,3,4 explanation of A. Roles are socially defined expectations
(c) 4,1,2 (d) 1,3 that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil.
Ans. (b) Statements 2, 3 and 4 are true about social loafing but Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts a person
statement 1 is not true as group members feel less in a given social context.
responsible for the overall task being performed and Status refers to the relative social position given to group
therefore exert less effort in social loafing. members by others. Hence, R does not explain A.
13. After a long discussion, the initial position of the 2. Assertion (A) Members of a highly cohesive group
group became much stronger. This demonstrating have more desire to remain in the group in
the effect of _______ . comparison to those who belong to low cohesive
(a) Group polarisation (b) Group conformity groups.
(c) Group think (d) Group cohesiveness Reason (R) As the group becomes more cohesive,
Ans. (a) This demonstrating the effect of Group polarisation. group members start to think, feel and act as a
14. Rahul has always been against dowry but one day in social unit, and less like isolated individuals.
office discussion when majority was supporting Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
dowry then he also went with the flow and started explanation of A. Cohesiveness refers to togetherness,
speaking in favour of the rotten norm of the society. as the group becomes more cohesive, the group
This effect is more commonly known as members start feeling and act as a social unit. Hence,
(a) Compliance (b) Personality members of cohesive group are more likely to remain in
(c) Conformity (d) Bandwagon effect the group in comparison to those who belong to low
cohesive groups.
Ans. (d) This effect given is more commonly known as
Bandwagon effect. 3. Assertion (A) The formation of formal groups is
based on some specific rules or laws and members
15. Which of the following statements are true about have definite roles.
team?
(a) Teams are special kind of groups. Reason (R) There are a set of norms which help in
(b) In teams, members are mutually accountable for their establishing order.
activities. Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation
(c) Members of teams often have complementary skills. of A. Formation of formal groups is based on some
(d) In team, the leader is heading the group holds specific rules or laws which is establishing order to the
responsibility for the work. group and a code of conduct to the organisation.
4. Assertion (A) Social loafing is a reduction in (iii) Which of the following is not a form of social
individual effort when working on a collective influence?
task. (a) Compliance (b) Identification
Reason (R) It has been found that individual work is (c) Internalisation (d) Externalisation
less hard in a group. Ans. (d) Externalisation is not a form of social influence. The
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation three forms of social influence are compliance,
of A. In social loafing an individual efforts reduces when identification and internalisation.
working in a collective task. (iv) Which of the following is the definition of
Bandwagon effect?
l
Case Based MCQs (a) When nobody supports your view.
(b) When a view is supported by a few people and so you
1. Atul was a simple middle class person with no issues think that it is right.
with anyone. One day he and his friends went to a (c) When you understand that few people supporting an
restaurant for dinner. They had a good time. Later idea does not make it a right idea.
when the bill came, Atul, an extra charge of 40 Rs. (d) When there is multiple ideas over a topic.
had been added on the bill. Ans. (b) When a view is supported by a few people and so
Atul and his friends called out to the waiter for an you think that it is right is the definition of bandwagon
explanation. The waiter agreed to his fault and said effect.
sorry. However, Atul and his friends pushed the The bandwagon effect is a psychological phenomenon in
topic. One of his friends took out the phone and which people do something primarily because other
made a video of the restaurant, defaming it people are doing it, regardless of their own beliefs .
unnecessarily. Later, all the friends decided to make (v) What happens when someone has the same views
the video go viral on social media. Due to the as ours?
defamation caused by the video, the hotel manager (a) We see that person as an in group
fired the poor waiter who was the sole earning (b) We see that person as someone not belong to the group
member of the family. Later when Atul learnt about (c) We see that person as our best friend
this, he felt very guilty that he was involved in the
unnecessary action of viraling the video. He feels
Ans. (a) When someone has the same views as ours, we often
that had he been alone he would not have taken
see that person as a part of our group.
such an extreme decision for just ` 40.
(i) Atul took an extreme decision under the influence of (vi) Assertion (A) Group polarisation focuses on how
his friends. What is such type of behaviour called? groups usually make decisions that are more
extreme than the original thoughts and views of
(a) Social loafing (b) Group polarisation
the individual team members.
(c) Conformity (d) Obedience
Ans. (b) Such type of Behaviour is called Group polarisation. It
Reason (R) In the company of like-minded people,
focuses on how groups usually make decisions that are you are likely to hear newer arguments favouring
more extreme than the original thoughts and views of the your viewpoints.
individual team members. Choose the correct option
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
(ii) How would you rate the decision of Atul about video explanation of A
viraling? (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the a correct
(a) Very extreme explanation of A
(b) Too mild (c) A is true, but R is false
(c) Not too harsh (d) R is true, but A is false
(d) It was not his fault that the waiter got fired Ans. (a) Both A and R are true, R is the correct explanation
Ans. (a) Atul decided to defame a restaurant only for ` 40. for A. Group polarisation focuses usually make decisions
Without going through his thoughts. This decision was that are more extreme in company of like-minded
very extreme and impulsive. people. You are likely to hear newer arguments.
PART 2
l
Short Answer (SA) Type Questions 4. Cricket team in Ranjan’s locality is very famous.
1. Describe the characteristics of the group. Ranjan and his group of friends are active
members in this team. What are the main
Ans. The characteristics of the group are as follows
difference between their group and team?
l It is a social unit consisting of two or more individuals
Ans. The main differences between group of Ranjan and his
who perceive themselves as belonging to the group. This
friends and their cricket team are as follows
characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one
group from the other and gives the group its unique Group Team
identity.
In Ranjan and his firiends’ In cricket team both
l It is a collection of individuals who have common motives group, performance is individual contributions
and goals. Groups function either working towards a dependent on contributions of and teamwork matter.
given goal or away from certain threats facing the group. individual members.
l It is a collection of individuals who are interdependent,
In group, Ranjan is the leader In cricket team, although
i.e. what one is doing may have consequences for others. who is leading the group and there is a captain (leader),
l Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through their taking the responsibility for the members hold themselves
joint association also influence each other. work of the group. responsible for the
l It is a gathering of individuals who interact with one performance of the team.
another either directly or indirectly. Group have a small degree of Team has a higher degree
l It is a collection of individuals whose interactions are interdependence. of interdependence.
structured by a set of roles and norms.
5. In school Pooja joins the dance group. What are
2. Explain how crowd is different from the groups. the reasons that led her to join this group?
Ans. A group is an organised system of two or more individuals
Ans Pooja joins the dance group for the following reasons
who are interacting and interdependent. The members of a
group have common motives, have a set of role (i) Security Being with other friends gives a sense of
relationships among its members. The group has norms comfort and protection to Pooja.
that regulate the behaviour of its members. (ii) Status Being a member of the dance group, Pooja
On the other hand, a crowd is also a collection of people fell recognised and experience a sense of power.
who may be present at a place/situation by chance. For When their school wins in an Inter-School Dance
example, person is going on the road and an accident takes Competition, Pooja feels proud and thinks that she
place. Soon a large number of people tend to collect. There is better than others.
is neither any structure nor feeling of belongingness in a (iii) Self-esteem This group enhances Pooja’s self
crowd. Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational and concept or self-worth and establish a positive social
there is no interdependence among members. There is no identity.
norms that regulate the behaviour of the crowd. (iv) Satisfaction of One’s Psychological and Social
3. Explain the term audience and mob. Needs Dance group satisfies Pooja’s social and
Ans. Audience is a collection of people participating in different
psychological needs such as sense of belongingness,
ways for a special purpose, may be to watch a cricket giving and receiving attention, love and power
match or a movie. Audiences are generally passive but through this group.
sometimes they go into a frenzy and become mobs. (iv) Goal Achievement This group helps in achieving
Mob is an unruly and often violent group of people , the goals of Pooja which she can not achieve
especially one engaged in a riot or other lawless violence. individually.
In mob there is a definite sense of purpose. (v) Provide Knowledge and Information As
There is polarisation in attention and actions of persons are individual Pooja may not have all the required
in a common direction. Mob behaviour is characterised by information about the dance competitions. Group
homogeneity of thought and behaviour as well as supplements her the necessary information and
impulsivity. knowledge.
6. Describe the element of group structure. 8. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups
Ans. There are four important elements of group structure and ingroups and outgroups. (NCERT)
which are as follows Ans. We can compare formal group with informal group and
(i) Roles Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts ingroup with outgroup in the following ways
a person in a given social context. These are socially Formal Groups
defined expectations that individuals in a given (i) The functions of a formal group are explicitly
situation are expected to fulfil. stated in the case of an office organisation.
(ii) Norms These are expected standards of behaviour (ii) The roles of its group members are well defined.
and beliefs established, agreed upon, and enforced by (iii) The formal groups is based on some specific rules
group members. They may be considered as a group’s or law. For example, a university.
‘unspoken rules’.
Informal Groups
(iii) Status It refers to the relative social position given to
group members by others. This relative position or (i) Informal decision-making process may exist as
status may be either ascribed (given may be because of parallel mechanism.
one’s seniority) or achieved (the person has achieved (ii) Members of this group have a close relationship
status because of expertise or hard work). By being and take decision in informal settings.
members of the group, we enjoy the status associated (iii) There are no strict rules and regulation for this
with that group. group.
(iv) Cohesiveness It refers to togetherness, binding, or Ingroups
mutual attraction among group members. As the group (i) It is generally considered as me, my, we or our
becomes more cohesive, group members start to think, group.
feel and act as a social unit and less like isolated (ii) People in ingroup are viewed as having desirable
individuals. behaviour and admirable traits.
7. Distinguish between primary and secondary group. (iii) It is always good, strong, cohesive.
Ans. A major difference between primary and secondary groups Outgroup
are as follows (i) It is considered as ‘they’ group.
Primary Groups Secondary Groups (ii) Members are often perceived negatively.
(iii) It is always people with damaging, dangerous and
Primary group are Secondary group are those
negative emotions.
pre-existing formations which which the individual joins by
are usually given to the choice. 9. Who discovered the process of Groupthink. Also
individual. discuss about the process of groupthink.
Family, caste, and religion Membership of a political Ans. Irving Janis discovered a process known as groupthink
are examples of primary party is an example of a in which a group allows its concerns for unanimity.
groups. secondary group.
They override the motivation to realistically appraise
In a primary group, there is a In secondary groups courses of action. It results in the tendency of decision
face-to-face interaction, relationships among makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions.
members have close physical members are more
proximity, and they share impersonal, indiect, and less Groupthink suggests the appearance of consensus or
warm emotional bonds. frequent. unanimous agreement within a group. All members of a
group agree upon a particular decision of the group. No
Primary groups are central to Secondary groups did not
individual’s functioning and play an important role in one express dissenting (expressing) opinion as it can
have a very major role in developing values and ideals. destroy the cohesion of the group.
developing values and ideals There are also some ways to prevent groupthink.
of the individual during the These are as follows
early stages of development. l
Encouraging and rewarding critical thinking.
In the primary group, In secondary groups it is l
Encouraging groups to present alternative courses of
boundaries are less easy to leave and join action.
permeable, i.e. members do another group.
not have the option to choose
l
Inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s
its membership as compared decisions.
to secondary groups. l
Encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted
others.
10. Differentiate between ingroup and outgroup. members about target, process, performance and
Ans. The main differences between ingroup and outgroup
control, resources. When this stage is complete, some
are as follows sort of hierarchy of leadership in the group develops.
(iii) Norming The storming stage is followed by another
Ingroup Outgroup stage known as norming. Group members by this
The term ingroup refers to Outgroup refers to another time develop norms related to group behaviour. This
one’s own group. For ingroup group. For outgroup leads to development of a positive group identity.
members, we use the word members, the word ‘they’ is
‘we’. used. (iv) Performing By this stage the structure of the group
has evolved and is accepted by group members. The
It has been found that persons Members of the outgroup
in the ingroup are generally are viewed differently and group moves towards achieving the group goal. For
supposed to be similar, are are often perceived some groups, this may be the last stage of group
viewed favourably, and have negatively in comparison to development.
desirable traits. the ingroup members. (v) Adjourning In this stage, once the function is over,
Members of the ingroup are Members of the outgroup the group may be disbanded. However, all groups do
are often perceived positively. are viewed differently and not always proceed from one stage to the next in same
are often perceived
negatively in comparison to manner.
the ingroup members. 2. What are the major types of Groups? Discuss in
11. What is meant by social loafing? Give suitable detail. (NCERT)
examples. (All India 2015, Delhi 2017) Ans. Major types of groups are discussed below
Or Explain the phenomenon of ‘social loafing’ by Primary and Secondary Groups Primary groups are
giving examples. pre-existing formations, which are usually given to the
Ans. Social loafing is a phenomenon in which an individual individual. In a primary group, there is a face-to-face
work less hard in a group than they do when performing interaction, members have close physical proximity and
alone. they share warm emotional bonds.
Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when Secondary groups are those which the individual joins by
working on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs choice. Membership of a political party is an example of a
are combined with those of other group members. Such secondary group. Secondary groups are those where
situations give opportunities to group members to relax relationships among members are more impersonal,
and become a free rider. indirect and less frequent. In secondary groups, it is easy to
An example of such a task is the game of tug-of-war. It is leave and join another group.
not possible for you to identify how much force each Formal and Informal Groups The formation of formal
member of the team has been exerting. Such situations groups is based on some specific rules or laws and members
give opportunities to group members to relax and have definite roles. There are a set of norms which help in
become a free rider. establishing order.
The formation of informal groups is not based on rules or
l
Long Answer (LA) Type Questions laws and there is close relationship among members.
1. What is group? Explain giving examples the Ingroup and Outgroup The term ingroup refers to one’s
stages of group formation. own group and outgroup refers to another group. For
Ans A group may be defined as an organised system of two or
ingroup members, we use the word ‘we’ while for outgroup
more interdependent individuals, who have common members, the word ‘they’ is used. By using the words we
motives and norms to regulate the behaviour of its and they, one is categorising people as similar or different.
members. 3. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think
Tuckman suggested five stages of group. These are as of any two incidents of social loafing in school. How
follows did you overcome it? (NCERT)
(i) Forming When group members meet for first Ans. Social loafing is a negative group influence which occurs
time, a kind of uncertainty is created for achieving due to defusion of responsibility.
group goals. People try to know each other and
It is a reduction in individual effort when working on a
assess whether they will fit in or not. There is
collective task, i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with
excitement as well as apprehensions. This stage is
called the forming stage. those of other group members.
(ii) Storming After forming stage, there is a stage of Two incidents of social loafing in school are as follows
intragroup conflict which is referred to as (i) Some students work very less in group projects and
storming. In this stage, there is conflict among works.
(ii) Sometimes during sports competition, some students conflicts and strategies to resolve conflicts for a
practice very less and thus this affect the whole team. harmonious and united society.
Some measures to reduce social loafing are as follows (i) What are the salient features seen in a group?
l Making the efforts of each person identifiable. Ans. The salient features seen in a group are as follows
l Increasing the pressure to work hard (making group l
It is a social unit consisting of two or more
members committed to successful task performance). individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to
l Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task. the group.
l Making people feel that their individual contribution is l
It is a collection of individuals who have common
important. motives and goals.
l Strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the l
It is a collection of individuals who are interdependent,
motivation for successful group outcome. i.e. what one is doing may have consequences for
others.
4. Explain group polarisation. Give reasons for l
Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through
occurrence of group polarisation. (CBSE 2018) their joint association also influence each other.
Ans Group polarisation focuses on how groups usually make
(ii) What do you mean by the terms crowd, teams and
decisions that are more extreme than the original thoughts
audience?
and views of the individual team members. It refers to
the tendency for a group to make decisions that are Ans. The terms crowd teams and audience are as follows
more extreme than the initial inclination of its members. Crowd A crowd is a collection of people who may be
For example, suppose you favour capital punishment for present at a place/situation by chance. Behaviour of
heinous crimes and you were interacting this issue with people in crowds is irrational and there is no
like-minded people. After this interaction, your views interdependence among members
may become stronger as a result of group interaction and Teams These are special kinds of groups. Members of
discussion. teams often have complementary skills and are committed
to a common goal or purpose.
Group polarisation occurs because of the following three
reasons Audience It is a collection of people who have assembled
for a special purpose, e.g. to watch a cricket match or a
(i) In the company of like-minded people, you are likely
movie.
to hear newer arguments favouring your viewpoints.
(ii) When you find others also favouring capital
(iii) Explain the reasons why people join a group?
punishment, you feel that this view is validated by Ans. Security Groups reduce the feeling of insecurity when
the public. This is a sort of bandwagon effect. we are alone.
(iii) When you find people having similar views, you are Status When we are members of a group that is perceived
likely to perceive them as ingroup. You start to be important by others, we feel recognised and
identifying with the group, begin showing experience a sense of power.
conformity and as a consequence your views become Self-esteem Groups provide feelings of self-worth and
strengthened. establish a positive social identity. Being a member of
prestigious groups enhances one’s self-concept.
l
Case Based Questions Goal Achievement Groups help in achieving such goals
which cannot be attained individually. There is power in
1. A group may be defined as an organised system of the majority.
two or more interdependent individuals, who have
common motives and norms to regulate the 2. Social loafing occurs due to failure on the part of
behaviour of its members. A group not only the individual worker, not any failure on the part of
provides us the needed support and comfort but the collective. It has to do with members of the
also facilitates our growth and development as an group feeling less pressure to perform because
individual. there are others to share the burden. This
viewpoint is likely to breed resentment within the
Our lives are influenced by the nature of group group and reduce overall performance even more.
membership we have. It is very important to be a Some example of social loafing are discuss below
part of a group which influences us positively and l
Restaurant employees failing to put in equal amounts of
helps us in becoming good citizens. It is not only effort is an example of social loafing. If there is a small
that others influence us, but we as individuals are number of customers present then all the servers need
also capable of changing others and the society. not work even if they are all on duty, so lazier workers
Similarly, we would try to understand group will let the ‘in’ group take on all the responsibility.
l
Have you ever been at a concert or an event where the profits equally and are best of friends. They
main speaker asks the audience to say something or manage the staff, the daily problems and the
maybe clap? This is a perfect place for social loafing to customers together. If at all an argument breaks in
happen. Sometimes the speaker may even say "That they dissolve it and let nothing come over their
wasn't loud enough". Interestingly, the same thing business.
happens as tug of war; as you add more people to a
(ii) Describe the factors which helped Rajesh, Kumar
group, they are less likely to participate in what the
and Sameer to interact during the formation of
speaker is asking them to do.
their group.
l
Another example of social loafing in the workplace is
Ans. Various factors that help Rajesh, Kumar and Sameer to
simply logging off when members of your team step up
interact during the formation of their group are
to complete the daily tasks shared in a meeting. When
proximity similarity and common motives and goals.
you’re in a Zoom conference room of 100, it’s easier to
These are discussed as follows
feel like you can turn your camera off, grab a snack, or
zone out.
l
Proximity Repeated interactions with the same set of
individuals give us a chance to know them and their
(i) What are the reasons for the occurrence of social interests and attitudes.
loafing? l
Similarity Being exposed to someone over a period of
Ans. Some reasons for the occurrence of social loafing are as time makes us assess our similarities and paves the way
follows for formation of groups.
l Group members feel less responsible for the overall task l
Common Motives and Goals: When people have
being performed and therefore exert less effort. common motives or goals, they get together and form a
l Motivation of members decreases because they realise group which may facilitate their goal attainment.
that their contributions will not be evaluated on an
(ii) Describe in detail various stages of group
individual basis.
formation.
l The performance of the group is not to be compared with
Ans. Tuckman suggested that groups pass through five
other groups.
developmental sequences. These are as follows
(ii) Give some measures to reduce social loafing? (i) Forming When group members meet for the first
Ans. Some measures to reduce social loafing are time, a kind of uncertainty is created for achieving
l Making the efforts of each person identifiable. group goals.
l Increasing the pressure to work hard (making group (ii) Storming After forming a stage, there is a stage of
members committed to successful task performance). intragroup conflict which is referred to as storming.
l Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task. (iii) Norming The storming stage is followed by another
l Making people feel that their individual contribution is stage known as norming.
important. (iv) Performing By this stage the structure of the group
l Strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the has evolved and is accepted by group members.
motivation for successful group outcome. (v) Adjourning In this stage, once the function is over,
(iii) What was the experiment of Latane? Explain. the group may be disbanded.
Ans. How much noise people make in social settings this (iii) Explain four important elements of group structure.
phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments Ans. The four important elements of the group structure are
by Latane and his associates. They asked a group of male as follows
students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible because 1. Roles These are socially defined expectations that
they wanted. The result revealed that although the total individuals in a given situation are expected to
amount of noise rose up, the amount of noise produced by fulfil.
each participant dropped. 2. Norms These are expected standards of behaviour
3. Rajesh, Kumar and Sameer, formed a group years and beliefs established, agreed upon and enforced
ago when they wanted to open a small restaurant. by group members.
The three of them invested an equal amount of 3. Status It refers to the relative social position given
money and shared the profit earned from it equally. to group members by others.
Soon their business grew and they eventually 4. Cohesiveness It refers to togetherness, binding or
opened a chain of restaurants. They still divide the mutual attraction among group members.
Chapter Test
1. Which of the following is an example of a group?
(a) Family (b) Class
(c) Playground (d) All of these
2. People join group for the reason of
(a) Security (b) Status
(c) Self-esteem (d) All of these
3. Group usually go through stages of
(a) Formation (b) Conflict
(c) Performance (d) All of these
4. Which of the following are not the element of group structures?
(a) Role (b) Norms
(c) Status (d) Expectations
5. A collection of people around a road side performer is an example of
(a) Crowd (b) Group
(c) Mob (d) Audience

5. Explain in detail the concept of group think.
6. Who was Tuckman?
7. State some examples of primary groups.
8. Elaborate the term social loafing with examples.
9. Define the term social facilitation.
10. What do you understand by the term norm?
11. Define Group. Mention its characteristics.
12. Describe conditions for the formation of group.
13. Are you a member of certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that group.
Answers
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d)
Phychology
Class 12th (Term II)
*
Practice Paper 1
(Solved)
General Instructions Time : 2 Hours
Max. Marks : 35
1. There are 9 questions in the question paper. All questions are compulsory.
2. Question no. 1 is a Case Based Question, which has five MCQs. Each question carries one mark.
3. Question no. 2-6 are Short Type Questions. Each question carries 3 marks.
4. Question no. 7-9 are Long Answer Type Questions. Each question carries 5 marks.
5. There is no overall choice. However, internal choice have been provided in some questions.
Students have to attempt only on of the alternatives in such questions
* As exact Blue-print and Pattern for CBSE Term II exams is not released yet. So the pattern of this
paper is designed by the author on the basis of trend of past CBSE Papers. Students are advised
not to consider the pattern of this paper as official. It is just for practice purpose.
Case Based Questions (5 Marks)

1. Read the given passage and answer the following questions.
Sangeeta is a 12-years-old schizophrenic girl. She behaves strangely and is not adequate at personal or
social tasks. She often hears voices which do not exist. Sangeeta’s speech is not very well developed. She
speaks in a slow and sluggish manner. She also keeps on repeating the same things again and again. She
often starts speaking something else in the middle of a conversation. She also invents new words which
make no sense. Sangeeta also shows very less emotions like anger or sadness. There are times when she
would remain in one single position for hours. Currently, she is consulting a psychiatrist but her
condition has only been deteriorating. (1 × 5 = 5)
(i) What type of hallucination is Sangeeta experiencing?
(a) Auditory (b) Visual (c) Tactile (d) Somatic
(ii) What is the lack of speech development in schizophrenics called?
(a) Inattention (b) Alogia (c) Delusion (d) Catatonia
(iii) Sangeeta shows very few emotions. What is this phenomenon called?
(a) Flat affect (b) Lack affect (c) Blunted affect (d) Sharp affect
(iv) Sangeeta keeps on repeating the same thoughts again and again. This situation of Sangeeta is called
(a) Derailment (b) Delusion (c) Neologisms (d) Perseveration
(v) Assertion (A) Sangeeta is known to sit motionless for hours.
Reason (R) Such behaviour is commonly seen in schizophrenic patients.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(d) A is false, but R is true
Short Answer Questions (3 Marks)

2. What are the factors underlying abnormal behaviour? Explain any two factors in detail.
Or Name all the anxiety disorders and explain at least two anxiety disorders in detail.
3. What are the characteristics of psychotherapeutic approach?
Or What are the various parameters of classification of psychotherapy?
4. Explain valence and extremeness as the features of attitude.
Or Explain prejudice and discrimination with examples.
5. Explain the phenomenon of groupthink. Also write some ways to prevent groupthink.
6. Write a short note on social loafing. Why social loafing occur. Give reasons.
Long Answer Questions (5 Marks)
7. Explain the ancient theory of abnormal behaviour. Which approaches of abnormality are believed in the past?
Discuss in detail.
Or Lalit is a software engineer and works in a reputed company. He has a notorious habit of eating too much.
Recently, he gained 10 kgs while working on an important office project. Explain in detail various kinds of
substance abuse.
8. Siyaan is a five-years-old boy whose parents used to give him a toffee everytime, he used to do something good.
Gradually, they reduced the frequency of toffee. Now, they give him toffee sometimes for good behaviour but
sometimes they just appreciate him. However, Siyaan’s habit of behaving good has stayed irrespective of being
given a toffee or not. Explain in detail various types of behavioural therapies.
Or Vaibhavi always thought less of herself as she was not earning as much as her sisters. The thought disturbed her
so much that she gradually drifted towards depression. Explain in detail various types of cognitive therapies that
could help Vaibhavi.
9. Explain the major concepts involved in the process of attitude change.
Or Social psychologists have shown various sources that lead to prejudices in society. Discuss these sources of
prejudices in detail.
Answers
1. (i) (a) Sangeeta is experiencing auditory type of 2. Factors that underlying abnormal behaviour include
hallucination. This symptom is particularly associated l
Biological factors
with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders. l
Genetic factors
(ii) (b) The lack of speech development in schizophrenics l
Psychological models
is called Alogia. l
Psychodynamic models
(iii) (c) The phenomenon of showing very few emotions l
Behavioural models
by Sangeeta is called Blunted affect. Blunted affect is l
Cognitive model
also referred to as emotional blunting. It is a l
Humanistic-existential model
prominent symptom of schizophrenia. Patients with l
Socio-cultural model
blunted affect have difficulty in expressing their
emotions.
l
Diathesis-stress model
(iv) (d) This situation of Sangeeta is called Perseveration. Two factors of abnormal behaviour are discussed as
follows
(v) (a) People like Sangeeta who suffered from
schizophrenia show psychomotor symptoms. They Cognitive Model This model states that abnormal
moveless spontaneously or make odd grimaces and functioning can result from cognitive problems. People
gestures. These symptoms may take extreme forms may hold assumptions and attitudes about themselves
known as catatonia. People in a catatonic stupor that are irrational and inaccurate. They may also
remain motionless and silent for long stretches of repeatedly think in illogical ways. Sometimes they make
time. Hence, both A and R are true and R is the over-generalisations and draw broad, negative
correct explanation of A. conclusions on the basis of a single insignificant event.
Practice Paper 1 75
Humanistic-Existential Model This model focuses on Or

broader aspects of human existence. Humanists believe The classification of psychotherapies is based on the
that human beings are born with a natural tendency to following parameters
be friendly, cooperative and constructive. They are 1. Psychodynamic therapy views intrapsychic conflicts
driven to self-actualise i.e. to fulfil this potential for i.e. the conflicts that are present within the psyche of
goodness and growth. Existentialists believe that from the person, are the sources of psychological problems.
birth we have total freedom to give meaning to our 2. In the psychodynamic therapy, unfulfilled desires of
existence or to avoid that responsibility. Those who childhood and unresolved childhood fears lead to
avoid the responsibility would live empty, inauthentic intrapsychic conflicts. The behaviour therapy
and dysfunctional lives. suggested that faulty conditioning patterns, faulty
Or learning and faulty thinking and beliefs lead to
Following are the various types of anxiety disorders abnormal (maladaptive) behaviours that, in turn, lead
to psychological problems.
l
Generalised anxiety disorder
l
Panic disorder 3. Psychodynamic therapy uses the methods of free
association and reporting of dreams to generate the
l
Phobia
thoughts and feelings of the client. This material is
l
Post-traumatic stress disorder interpreted by the client to help her/him to confront
l
Obsessive-compulsive disorder and resolve the conflicts and thus overcome problems.
l
Separation anxiety disorder 4. Nature of the Therapeutic Relationship between the
Two anxiety disorders are discussed as follows Client and the Therapist Psychodynamic therapy
Generalised Anxiety Disorder It consists of continued, assumes that the therapist understands the client’s
vague (unclear), unexplained and intense fears that are intrapsychic conflicts better than the client himself.
not attached to any particular object. The symptoms The therapist interprets the thoughts and feelings of
include worry and apprehensive feelings about the the client to her/him so that she/he gains an
future, hypervigilance which involves constantly understanding of the same.
scanning the environment for dangers. It is marked by 5. Chief Benefit to the Client Psychodynamic therapy
motor tension, as a result of which the person is unable values emotional insight as the important benefit that
to relax, is restless and visibly shaky (weak) and tense. the client derives from the treatment.
Panic Disorder It consists of recurrent anxiety attacks 4. Valence (Positivity or Negativity) as a feature of attitude
in which the person experiences intense terror. A panic The valence of an attitude tells us whether an attitude is
attack denotes an abrupt rise of intense anxiety rising to positive or negative towards the attitude object. A neutral
a peak when thoughts of a particular stimuli are attitude would have neither positive nor negative valence.
present. For example, an attitude towards nuclear research has to be
Such thoughts occur in an unpredictable manner. The expressed on a 5 point scale, ranging from 1 (very bad), 2
clinical features include shortness of breath, dizziness, (bad), 3 (neutral-neither good nor bad), 4 (good) and 5 (very
trembling, palpitations, choking, nausea, chest pain or good). If an individual rates his view as 1, 2 then it is
discomfort, fear of going crazy, losing control or dying. negative attitude, if he rates 4 to 5 then it is positive
3. Psychotherapeutic approaches have the following attitude and if he rates 3 then it is neutral attitude i.e.
characteristics neither positive nor negative valence.
l
There is systematic application of principles Extremeness as a feature of attitude
underlying the different theories of therapy. The extremeness of an attitude indicates how positive or
l
Persons who have received practical training under negative an attitude is. For example, if an individual rates
expert supervision only can practice psychotherapy. the nuclear research as 1 or 5, these are regarded as
An untrained person may unintentionally cause more extreme ratings. They are only in the opposite directions
harm than any good. (valence). A neutral attitude is lowest on extremeness.
l
The therapeutic situation involves a therapist and a Or
client who seeks and receives help for her/his Prejudices are examples of attitudes towards a particular
emotional problems. group. They are usually negative and in many cases, may
l
The interaction of these two persons i.e. the therapist be based on stereotypes (the cognitive component) about
and the client, results in the formation of the the specific group. A stereotype is a cluster of ideas
therapeutic relationship. This is a confidential, regarding the characteristics of a specific group.
interpersonal and dynamic relationship. This human Stereotypes consist of undesirable characteristics about the
relationship is central to any sort of psychological target group and they lead to negative attitudes or
therapy and is the vehicle for change. prejudices towards members of specific groups.
Prejudice may also grew as discrimination. But l

Belonging to the same group is not important for
prejudices can exist without showing discrimination. members. It is only an aggregate of individuals.
Similarly, discrimination can be shown without prejudice. 7. Ancient theory about abnormality holds that abnormal
Wherever prejudice and discrimination exist, conflicts behaviour can be explained by the operation of
are very likely to arise between groups within the same supernatural and magical forces such as evil spirits
society. (bhoot-pret) or the devil (shaitan). Exorcism i.e. removing
For example, the genocide committed by the Nazis in the evil that resides in the individual through
Germany against Jewish people is an example of how countermagic and prayer is still commonly used.
prejudice can lead to hatred, discrimination and mass Various approaches of abnormality believed in the past
killing of innocent people. We get numerous examples included: Biological or Organic Approach. The history of
from history containing discrimination based on race and abnormal psychology believed that individuals behave
caste on social class. strangely because their bodies and their brains are not
5. Irving Janis discovered a process known as ‘group working properly. This is the biological or organic
think’.In this process, a group allows its concerns for approach. In the modern era, there is evidence that body
unanimity. They override the motivation to realistically and brain processes have been linked to many types of
appraise courses of action. It results in the tendency of maladaptive behaviour.
decision makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions. Following are the approaches of abnormality which are
Groupthink suggests the appearance of consensus or believed in the past.
unanimous agreement within a group. All members of a Psychological Approach According to this point of
group agree upon a particular decision of the group. No view, psychological problems are caused by
one express dissenting opinion as it can destroy the inadequacies in the way an individual thinks, feels or
cohesion of the group. perceives the world.
There are also some ways to prevent ‘groupthink’. These Organismic Approach In the ancient Western world,
are as follows philosophers and temperament physicians of ancient
l
Encouraging and rewarding critical thinking. Greece such as Hippocrates, Socrates and Plato
l
Encouraging groups to present alternative courses of developed the organismic approach and viewed disturbed
action. behaviour as arising out of conflicts between emotion and
reason. Galen elaborated the role of the four humours in
l
Inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s
personal character and temperament.
decisions.
Demonology and Superstition Demonology is related to
l
Encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted
a belief that people with mental problems were evil and
others. there are numerous instances of ‘describe witch hunts’
6. Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when during the middle age. In this period, demonology and
working on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs are superstition gained renewed importance in the
combined with those of other group members. Such explanation of abnormal behaviour.
situations give opportunities to group members to relax The Renaissance Period was marked by increased
and become a free rider. humanism and curiosity about behaviour. Johann Weyer
This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many emphasised psychological conflict and disturbed
experiments by Latane and his associates. interpersonal relationships as causes of psychological
Some reasons for the occurring of social loafing are as disorders.
follows Reforms of asylums were initiated in both Europe and
l
Group members feel less responsible for the overall America. The aspect of the reform movement was the
task being performed and therefore exerting less effort. new inclination for deinstitutionalisation which placed
l
Motivation of members decreases because they realise emphasis on providing community care for recovered
that their contributions will not be evaluated on mentally ill individuals.
individual basis. Biopsychosocial Approach
l
The performance of the group is not to be compared In this approach, all three factors i.e. biological,
with other groups. psychological and social play important roles in
l
There is an improper coordination (or no coordination) influencing the expression and outcome of psychological
among members. disorders.
Practice Paper 1 77
Or Positive Reinforcement If an adaptive behaviour occurs

Various types of substance disorders are as follows rarely, positive reinforcement is given to increase the
1. Alcohol Abuse and Dependence deficit. For example, if a child does not do homework
regularly, positive reinforcement may be used by the
People who abuse alcohol, drink large amounts of
child’s mother by preparing the child’s favourite dish
alcohol regularly and rely on it to help them face
difficult situations. Drinking interferes with social whenever she/he does homework at the appointed time.
behaviour and ability to think and work. For many Token Economy Person with behavioural problems can
people, the pattern of alcohol abuse extends to be given a token as a reward every time when a wanted
dependence i.e. their bodies build up a tolerance for behaviour occurs. The tokens are collected and
alcohol and they need to drink even in greater exchanged for a reward such as an outing for the patient
amounts to feel its effects. or a treat for the child. This is known as token economy.
Some effects of alcohol abuse are as follows Differential Reinforcement Unwanted behaviour can be
l
Alcoholism destroys millions of families, social reduced and wanted behaviour can be increased
relationships and careers. Intoxicated drivers are simultaneously through differential reinforcement.
responsible for many road accidents. Systematic Desensitisation It is a technique
l
It also has serious effects on the children of introduced by Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational
persons with this disorder. fears. The client is interviewed to generate
l
These children have higher rates of psychological fear-provoking situations.
problems, particularly anxiety, depression, phobias Principle of Reciprocal Inhibition This principle states
and substance-related disorders. that the presence of two mutually opposing forces at the
l
Excessive drinking can seriously damage physical same time, inhibits the weaker force. Thus, the relaxation
health. response is first built up and a mildly anxiety-provoking
scene is imagined, through which the anxiety is overcome
2. Heroin Abuse and Dependence
by the relaxation.
l
Heroin intake significantly interferes with social
Modelling It is the procedure wherein the client learns
and occupational functioning. Most abusers further
to behave in a certain way by observing the behaviour of
develop a dependence on heroin and experience a
a role model or the therapist who initially acts as the role
withdrawal reaction when they stop taking it.
model. Vicarious learning i.e. learning by observing
l
The most direct danger of heroin abuse is an others, is used and through a process of rewarding small
overdose, which slows down the respiratory changes in the behaviour, the client gradually learns to
centres in the brain, almost paralysing breathing acquire the behaviour of the model.
and in many cases causing death.
Or
3. Cocaine Abuse and Dependence
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET), Aaron Beck’s
Regular use of cocaine may lead to a pattern of Cognitive Therapy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
abuse in which the person may be intoxicated
(CBT) can help Vaibhavi. These therapies revealed the
throughout the day and function poorly in social
cause of psychological distress in irrational thoughts and
relationships and at work. It may also cause
beliefs. These therapies are discussed as follows
problems with short-term memory and attention. In
case of dependency, cocaine dominates the person’s Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
life as more drugs are needed to get the desired It was formulated by Albert Ellis. The central idea of this
effects and stopping it results in feelings of therapy is that irrational beliefs mediate between the
depression, fatigue, sleep problems, irritability and antecedent events and their consequences. The first step
anxiety. Cocaine poses serious dangers. It has in RET is the Antecedent Belief-Consequence (ABC)
dangerous effects on psychological functioning and analysis. Antecedent events, which caused the
physical well-being. psychological distress are noted.
8. There are various techniques for changing behaviour. Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
Some techniques of behaviour modification are as follows
Aaron Beck gave another cognitive therapy. His theory of
Negative Reinforcement It is a major technique of psychological distress is characterised by anxiety or
behaviour modification. Responses that lead organisms to depression. It states that childhood experiences provided
get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them by the family and society develop core schemas or
provide negative reinforcement. systems, which include beliefs and action patterns in the
Aversive Conditioning It refers to repeated association of individual. Negative thoughts which develop are
undesired response with an adverse consequence. For persistent irrational thoughts. These are characterised by
example, an alcoholic is given a mild electric shock and cognitive distortions. For example, ‘Nobody loves me’, ‘I
asked to smell the alcohol. am ugly’, ‘I am stupid’, etc.
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) (ii) In the second step, the source herself/himself
CBT is the most popular therapy. It is a short and efficacious shows an attitude change, by actually changing
treatment for a wide range of psychological disorders such her/his behaviour towards the attitude object.
as anxiety, depression, panic attacks and borderline Observing the source’s changed attitude and
personality, etc. It adopts a biopsychosocial approach to the behaviour, the target also shows an attitude
delineation (explain in detail) of psychopathology. change through behaviour. This is a kind of
9. Three major concepts involved in the process of attitude imitation or observational learning. One of the
change are described as follows three attitudes will have to change to make the
situation a situation of balance.
1. The Concept of Balance
Or
It was proposed by Fritz Heider. It is also described in the
Social psychologists have shown that prejudice has the
form of the P-O-X triangle, which represents the
following sources
relationships between three aspects or components of the
attitude. l
Learning Like other attitudes, prejudices can also be
l
P is the person whose attitude is being studied. learned through association, reward and
l
O is another person. punishment, observing others, group or cultural
norms and exposure to information that encourages
l
X is the topic towards which the attitude is being studied
prejudice. The family, reference groups, personal
(attitude object).
experiences and the media may play a role in the
Consider the example of dowry as an attitude topic (X). A learning of prejudices. People who learn prejudiced
person has a positive attitude toward dowry (P-X positive). P
attitudes may develop a ‘prejudiced personality’ and
is planning to get his son married to the daughter of some
show low adjusting capacity, anxiety and feelings of
person O. O has a negative attitude towards dowry (O-X
hostility against the outgroup.
negative). If O initially has a positive attitude towards P, the
situation would be unbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is
l
A Strong Social Identity and Ingroup Bias
positive but O-X is negative. This is a situation of Individuals who have a strong sense of social identity
imbalance. and have a very positive attitude towards their own
group boost this attitude by holding negative
2. The Concept of Cognitive Dissonance
attitudes towards other groups. These are shown as
It was proposed by Leon Festinger. It emphasises that the prejudices.
cognitive components of an attitude must be consonant l
Scapegoating This is a phenomenon by which the
(opposite of dissonant) i.e. they should be logically in line
majority group places the blame on a minority
with each other. Festinger and Carlsmith, two social
psychologists, conducted an experiment that showed the outgroup for its own social, economic or political
working of cognitive dissonance. Both balance and cognitive problems. The minority is too weak or too small in
dissonance are examples of cognitive consistency. number to defend itself against such accusations
(complaints). Scapegoating is a group based way of
3. The Two-Step Concept
expressing frustration and it often results in negative
It was proposed by SM Mohsin, an Indian psychologist. attitudes or prejudice against the weaker group.
According to him, attitude change takes place in the form of l
Kernel of Truth Concept Sometimes people may
two steps. These are as follows
continue to hold stereotypes because they think that
(i) In the first step, the target of change identifies with the there must be some truth or ‘Kernel of Truth’ in
source. The target is the person whose attitude is to be
what everyone says about the other group.
changed. The source is the person through whose
influence the change is to take place. Identification
l
Self-fulfilling Prophecy In some cases, the group
means that the target has liking and regard for the that is the target of prejudice is itself responsible for
source. The source must also have a positive attitude continuing the prejudice. The target group may
towards the target and the regard and attraction behave in ways that justify the prejudice i.e. confirm
becomes mutual. the negative expectations.
Phychology
*
Practice Paper 2
(Unsolved)
Max. Marks : 35

Mr. John is a twenty-seven years old man who consulted a psychologist to discuss what he calls his ‘silly
habits’. He reports that for several years he had to check and recheck electrical appliances, as well as doors
and windows, before leaving home each morning and again before going to bed. At times, the checking has
made him late for work and has disturbed his sleep such that he had to get up to check everything several
times yet again. When questioned about the reasons for this behaviour, Mr. John reported that he could not
stop thinking that electrical appliances may short circuit and cause a disastrous fire or that his house may be
broken into and he will lose all valuables. He recognises these concerns and the resulting checking as
excessive and unreasonable yet feels compelled to do something to alleviate the anxiety associated with the
thoughts. During counselling, the psychologist found out that some time before the checking rituals started,
a major fire had broken in Mr. John’s office and all important papers were destroyed. (1 × 5 = 5)
(i) Identify Mr. John’s disorder.
(a) Generalised anxiety disorder (b) Major depressive disorders
(c) Obsessive-compulsive disorder (d) Somatic symptom disorder
(ii) Which of the following statements represents his repetitive thoughts?
(a) For a number of years, he had to check and recheck electrical appliances.
(b) He had to get up to check everything a number of times.
(c) The checking has made him late for work.
(d) He could not stop thinking that electrical appliances may short circuit and cause a disastrous fire.
(iii) Which disorder also comes under the category of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders?
(a) Excoriation disorder (b) Acute stress disorder
(c) Adjustment disorder (d) Cyclothymic disorder
(iv) Obsessive behaviour is the inability to stop thinking about a particular _________ .
(a) idea or topic (b) rule
(c) person (d) None of these
(v) People affected by obsessive-compulsive disorder are unable to prevent themselves from_____.
(a) repeatedly carrying out a particular act
(b) sleeping in day
(c) overeating

2. Fatima is experiencing generalised anxiety disorder. Enumerate any two causes with reference to diathesis stress
model which may have led to the disorder.
Or Differentiate between hostile aggression and proactive aggression.
3. How is behaviour therapy used to treat phobia?
Or Explain the ethical standards that need to be practised by psychotherapists.
4. What are simplicity and complexity features of attitude?
Or Rohit is a 7 years old boy. Which factors play a significant role in shaping his attitude formation?
5. Explain the reasons that make people join groups.
6. What is Bandwagon effect. Write in brief.
7. Veena has been getting rage attacks for the past one year. She has also been depressed for some time. Discuss in
detail Veena’s condition of bipolar mood disorder.
Or Sohail has been telling his parents that he has been seeing few things and hearing few voices which do not exist.
Hence, Sohail is having hallucinations. Explain delusion and hallucination in detail.
8. Yoga and meditation both are important for health. Meditation is a part of yoga, which deals with mental
relaxation and concentration. Write in detail about yoga and meditation.
Or Veni has just gone through an extensive treatment for her depression. She is currently in a rehabilitation center
and she is being taught various skills to help her get out of the depressive situation. Explain in detail how Veni
and other mentally ill patients can be given help by rehabilitation.
9. There are various factors that influence learning of an attitude. Explain these factors in detail.
Or Meenakshi has been facing prejudice at work because she is a female employee. Explain in detail various
strategies for handling prejudices.
Answers
1. (i) (c) (ii) (d) (iii) (a) (iv) (a) (v) (a)
Phychology
*
Practice Paper 3
(Unsolved)
Max. Marks : 35

Raman washes his hands every time he touches something. One of his colleagues also observed that he
washes even things like coins. He further noticed that Raman steps only within the patterns on the floor or
road while walking. He also has the habit of stacking books and files on every table and gets annoyed with a
little bit of mess. He even gets a duster to the office and repeatedly likes to wipe his desk. He does not like
anyone eating around his desk. The habit is so intense that he loses a good amount of his working hours over
his habit of cleaning and organising things. When the office counsellor spoke to Raman about it he denied
any of such extensive behaviour and also refused to take any treatment for it. (1 × 5 = 5)
(i) What is Raman suffering from?
(a) Bipolar disorder (b) Dissociative amnesia
(c) A general love for hygiene (d) Obsessive-compulsive disorder
(ii) Trichotillomania is a term used for
(a) Skin-picking disorder (b) Hair-pulling disorder
(c) Nail biting (d) Hoarding disorder
(iii) Which of the following symptoms is shown by Raman?
(a) Mania (b) Depression
(c) Tremors (d) Compulsive performance of an action
(iv) Why do you think Raman refused any treatment?
(a) He does not want the stigma of psychological disorder.
(b) He does not want to get cured.
(c) He cannot afford the treatment.
(d) He does not like medicines.
(v) Assertion (A) Compulsive behaviour is the need to perform certain behaviours over and over again.
Reason (R) Many compulsions deal with counting, ordering, checking, touching and washing.
Codes
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not a correct explanation of A
(d) R is true, but A is false

2. Write a short note on obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Or Write a short note on trauma and stress related disorder.
3. Rajesh is an alcoholic patient with depression. How the alternative therapies can help him to overcome this
difficulty?
Or Write a short note on relaxation procedures used in treating psychological disorders.
4. Write a short note on the relationship between attitude and behaviour.
Or Elaborate the ABC component of attitude.
5. Enumerate all the reasons for a person to join a group.
6. Explain the term role, status and cohesiveness in detail.
7. What are somatic symptoms and related disorders? Explain in detail.
Or Madhu suddenly is not able to remember anything from her past. This occurred after the sudden demise of her
husband in an accident. Explain all the dissociative disorders in detail.
8. Medication can be provided by a certified psychiatrist to treat psychological disorders. Explain in detail about
the biomedical therapy used for treating psychological disorders.
Or Discuss in detail the factors that contribute to healing in psychotherapy.
9. Saurabh is a young 9-years-old boy who is very mischievous but behaves very nicely in front of others. Throw
some light on the change in behaviour that occurs in the presence of others.
Or Smriti likes to throw the leftover bread to the dogs who live in her lane. Explain pro-social behaviour in detail.
Answers
1. (i) (d) (ii) (b) (iii) (d) (iv) (a) (v) (b)
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CBSE Term II

Cased Based Questions

Short/Long Answer Type Questions

3 Practice Papers with Explanations

ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (School Division Series)

Administrative & Production Offices

Watch Free Learning Videos

þ Video Solutions of CBSE Sample Papers

Unit Topic Periods Marks

. Attitude and Social Cognition

. Social Inﬂuence and Group Processes

Exam Scheme Term I & II

Hkkjr CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Hkkjr CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Hkkjr CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

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Introduction (i) Deviant/deviance It means abnormality different for different

Classification of Genetic Factors

overpro-tection, over permissiveness, faulty discipline,

Behavioural Model The broader social networks in which people operate

4 Debilitating Making someone body or mind very weak.

Characteristics of Individuals with Different Levels of Intellectual Disability

Mild Moderate Severe

Specific Learning Disorder or property rights of others. The behaviours in conduct

(iii) Binge Eating In this, there are frequent episodes of l

11. Dissociative amnesia is characterised by ________ . Assertion and Reasoning

(iv) Depersonalisation It involves an imaginary state l

Short Answer Type Questions

4. Nature of the Therapeutic Relationship Steps in the Formulation of a Client’s Problem

1 Classical Conditioning It is a type of learning that happens unconsciously.

Factors Contributing to Alternative Therapies

Short Answer Type Questions

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Introduction situations and this process is known as attribution.

Nature and Components Features of an Attitude

For example, the genocide committed by the Nazis in l

12. Which of the following is true about prejudices and l

Short Answer (SA) Type Questions

Introduction Characteristics of a Group

1 Capital Punishment The legally authorised killing of someone as punishment.

Objective Questions group.

Short Answer Type Questions

Case Based Questions (5 Marks)

Short Answer Questions (3 Marks)

Humanistic-Existential Model This model focuses on Or

Prejudice may also grew as discrimination. But l

Or Positive Reinforcement If an adaptive behaviour occurs

Case Based Questions (5 Marks)

Short Answer Questions (3 Marks)

Case Based Questions (5 Marks)

Short Answer Questions (3 Marks)

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