Chương 7.1 Các Phương Pháp Biến Dạng Khối

Chapter 5
Forging of Metals
Forged Components
Figure 14.1 (a) Schematic illustration of the steps involved in forging a knife. (b) Landing-
gear components for the C5A and C5B transport aircraft, made by forging. (c) General view
of a 445 MN (50,000 ton) hydraulic press. Source: (a) Courtesy of the Mundial LLC. (b and
c) Courtesy of Wyman-Gordon Company.
Microstructure as a Function of Manufacturing
Method
Figure 14.2 Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes showing grain
flow. (a) Casting by the processes described in Chapter 11. (b) Machining form a blank,
described in Part IV of this book, and (c) forging. Each process has its own advantages and
limitations regarding external and internal characteristics, material properties, dimensional
accuracy, surface finish, and the economics of production. Source: Courtesy of Forging
Industry Association.
Characteristics of Forging
Upsetting with Barreling
 2r 
Forging force, F  Y f r 2 1 
 3h 

Figure 14.3 (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform
deformation of the billet without friction. (c) Deformation with friction. Note the
barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billet-die interfaces.
Cogging Operation on a Rectangular Bar
Figure 14.4 (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

Blacksmiths use this process to reduce the thickness of bars by hammering the part on an
anvil. Reduction in thickness is accompanied by barreling, as in Fig. 14.3c. (b) Reducing the
diameter of a bar by open-die forging; note the movements of the dies and the workpiece. (c)
The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.
Impression-Die Forging
Figure 14.5 (a) through (c) Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet. Note
the formation of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed off (see Fig.
14.7). (d) Standard terminology for various features of a forging die.
Die Inserts
Figure 14.6 Die inserts used in

forging an automotive axle housing.
Forging a Rod, Fullering, and Edging
Figure 14.7 (a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note
the amount of flash required to ensure proper filling of the die cavities. (b) Fullering and (c)
edging operations to properly distribute the material when preshaping the blank for forging.
Force in Impression Die Forging
F  kY f A

Trimming Flash After Forging
Figure 14.8 Trimming flash from a forged part. Note that

the thin material at the center is removed by punching.
Closed-Die Forging Versus Flashless Forging
Figure 14.9 Comparison of closed-die forging with flash (left side of each illustration) and
precision or flashless forging (right side) of a round billet. Source After H. Takemasu, V.
Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.
The Coining
Process
(b)
Figure 14.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins were
made by open-die forging and lacked precision and sharp details. (b) An example of a
modern coining operation, showing the workpiece and tooling. Note the detail and superior
finish that can be achieve in this process. Source: Courtesy of C & W Steel Stamp Co., Inc.
Heading
Figure 14.11 (a) Heading operation to form heads on fasteners, such as nails and rivets.
(b) Sequence of operations to produce a typical bolt head by heading.
Grain Flow
in Forging
Figure 14.12 A pierced round

billet showing grain-flow
pattern (see also Fig 14.12c).
Source: Courtesy of Ladish
Co., Inc.
Stepped Pin
Figure 14.13 (a) The stepped pin used in Case Study 14.1. (b) Illustration of the
manufacturing steps used to produce the stepped pin. Source: Courtesy of National
Machinery, LLC.
Swaging
Figure 14.14 (a) Schematic illustration of the rotary-swaging process. (b) Forming internal
profiles on a tubular workpiece by swaging. (c) A die-closing swaging machine showing
forming of a stepped shaft. (d) Typical parts made by swaging. Source: Courtesy of J.
Richard Industries.
Swaging with and without a Mandrel
Figure 14.15 (a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel; note the increase in wall
thickness in the die gap. (b) Swaging with a mandrel; note that the final wall
thickness of the tube depends on the mandrel diameter. (c) Examples of cross-
sections of tubes produced by swaging on shaped mandrels. Rifling (internal
spiral grooves) in small gun barrels can be made by this process.
Metals in Decreasing Order of Forgeability
Defects in Forged Parts
Figure 14.16 Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during
forging; web thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects
caused by an oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the
center flows past the filled regions as the die closes.
Speed Ranges of Forging Equipment
Principles of Various Forging Machines
Figure 14.17 Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines.

(a) Mechanical press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft can be replaced by
a crankshaft to give the up-and-down motion to the ram. (b) Knuckle-joint press.
(c) Screw press. (d) Hydraulic press.
Cost-per-piece in Forging
Figure 14.18 Typical (cost-per-piece) in forging; note how the setup and the tooling costs-
per-piece decrease as the number of pieces forged increases if all pieces use the same die.
Costs of a Rod Made by Forging and Casting
Figure 14.19 Relative unit

costs of a small connecting
rod made by various forging
and casting processes.
Note that, for large
quantities, forging is more
economical. Sand casting
is the most economical
process for fewer then
about 20,000 pieces.
Lotus Elise Series 2 and Vertical Suspension Uprights
Figure 14.20 (a) The Lotus Elise Series 2 Sportscar; (b) illustration of the original
design for the vertical suspension uprights, using an aluminum extrusion; (c) retrofit
design, using a steel forging; (d) optimized steel forging design for new car models.
Source: Courtesy of Lotus Engineering and the American Iron and Steel Institute.
Comparison of Suspension Designs for the Lotus

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Chapter 5

Figure 14.4 (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

Figure 14.6 Die inserts used in

Figure 14.8 Trimming flash from a forged part. Note that

Figure 14.12 A pierced round

Figure 14.17 Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines.

Figure 14.19 Relative unit

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