Thermal Fatigue

4
THERMAL FATIGUE
4.1 General Description

Thermal fatigue is the result of cyclic stress caused by variations in temperature. Damage takes
the form of fatigue cracks that can occur anywhere in a metallic component where relative
movement or differential expansion is constrained, particularly under repeated thermal cycling.
Thermal fatigue can be found in piping and equipment in all industries. Examples include the
mixture points of two streams of widely disparate temperatures, such as locations where
condensate comes in contact with steam and steam quenching occurs.
4.2 Cycling’s Influence on Thermal Fatigue

Fatigue is an ambient temperature failure mechanism that develops from a variable stress; the
peak stress is higher than the safe operating stress, called the fatigue limit. Common fatigue
failures occur in pulverizer shafts, pump shafts, fan blades, and so on.
Thermal fatigue involves a variable stress at an elevated temperature high enough to form iron
oxide on the crack surfaces. Circumferential cracks in superheater and reheater tube-to-header
welds are a common form of thermal fatigue (see Figure 4-1).
Figure 4-1
Circumferentially oriented cracks are typical of thermal fatigue
4.3 Locations
All materials of construction are susceptible to thermal fatigue. Austenitic stainless steels and
nickel-based alloys are somewhat more sensitive because of their lower thermal conductivity,
where larger thermal gradients are possible.
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In steam-generating equipment, the most common locations are at rigid attachments between
neighboring tubes in the superheater and reheater. Slip spacers designed to accommodate the
relative movement can become frozen and act as a rigid attachment when plugged with fly ash.
Tubes in the high-temperature superheater or reheater that penetrate through the cooler
waterwalls can crack at the header connection if the tube is not sufficiently flexible.
These cracks are most common at the end where the expansion of the header relative to the
waterwall will be greatest. Steam-actuated sootblowers can cause thermal fatigue damage if the
first fluid exiting the sootblower nozzle contains water. Rapid cooling of the tube by the water
will promote this form of damage. The use of water lances or water cannons on waterwall tubes
can have the same effect.
Figure 4-2 shows the locations in the boiler where thermal fatigue is common.
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TF = thermal fatigue; BRN = burner; CRN = corner
Figure 4-2
Common locations of thermal fatigue in a boiler
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4.4 Appearance
Figure 4-3 is a closeup view of a tube affected by thermal fatigue. Thermal fatigue cracks
propagate transverse to the stress. However, cracking can be axial, circumferential, or both at the
same location. Thermal fatigue cracks usually initiate on the surface of the component, are
generally wide, and are filled with oxide due to exposure to elevated temperature. Cracks can
occur singly or in multiples. In steam-generating equipment, cracks usually follow the toe of the
fillet weld because the change in section thickness creates a stress raiser. Often, cracks start at
the end of an attachment lug, and if there is a bending moment as a result of the constraint, they
will develop into circumferential cracks in the tube. Water in sootblowers can lead to a crazing
pattern, with the predominant cracks being circumferential and the minor cracks being in an axial
direction. In cross-section, the cracks are always dagger-shaped (see Figure 4-4), transgranular,
and oxide-filled.
Figure 4-3
Thermal fatigue in a tube
Figure 4-4
Under magnification, the dagger-like morphology is apparent
Figure 4-5 shows a longitudinal section through circumferential grooves. The corrosion
resistance of the surface layer has been compromised by carburization.
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Figure 4-5
Longitudinal section through circumferential grooves (5x magnification)
4.5 Causes
The two key factors affecting thermal fatigue are the magnitude of the temperature swing and the
number of cycles. The likelihood of initiating damage and the extent of damage increase with
wider temperature swings and an increasing number of cycles. Startup and shutdown of
equipment can cause thermal fatigue. There is no set limit on temperature swings; however, as a
practical rule, cracking is suspected if the temperature swing exceeds about 200°F. Damage is
also promoted by rapid changes in surface temperature that result in a varied temperature through
the thickness or along the length of a component—for example, cold water on a hot tube
(thermal shock), rigid attachments and a smaller temperature differential, and inflexibility to
accommodate differential expansion.
Time to failure is a function of stress and the number of cycles. The presence of notches (such as
the toe of a weld) and sharp corners (such as the intersection of a nozzle with a vessel shell) and
changes in section thickness can serve as initiation sites. At elevated temperatures, crack
propagation is enhanced by the formation of oxides or other corrosion products. In the simplest
case of cyclic stress at elevated temperatures, the protective oxide cracks, exposing fresh metal to
further oxidation. A surface crack is wedged open by the formation of these scales because the
oxide occupies a greater volume than the metal from which it forms. The oxide edge imposes
higher stresses at the crack tip, and the crack propagation rate increases.
In some cases, thermal fatigue can be catastrophic, such as in the tube separation pictured in
Figure 4-6. Note that the width and depth of a thermal fatigue crack are not reliable gauges of the
crack’s severity (see Figure 4-7).
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Figure 4-6
Catastrophic tube separation from thermal fatigue
Figure 4-7
Width and depth are not reliable gauges of a thermal fatigue crack’s severity
4.6 Progressive Stages of Fatigue Cracking

The process of fatigue consists of the following five stages:
1. Cyclic plastic deformation prior to fatigue crack initiation
2. Initiation of one or more microcracks
3. Propagation or coalescence of microcracks to form one or more macrocracks
4. Propagation of one or more macrocracks until the remaining uncracked cross-section of a
part becomes too weak to carry the loads imposed
5. Final, sudden fracture of the remaining cross-section
Whereas thermal fatigue cracks are usually dagger-shaped, oxide-filled, and transgranular,
corrosion fatigue cracks are typically more rounded. The relative rates of corrosion wastage
along the sides of the crack and crack propagation determine the overall shape of the crack.
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4.7 Prevention
Thermal fatigue is best prevented through design and operation to minimize thermal stresses and
thermal cycling. Several methods of prevention apply, depending on the application. Designs
that incorporate reduction of stress concentrators, blend-grinding of weld profiles, and smooth
transitions should be used. Controlled rates of heating and cooling during startup and shutdown
of equipment can lower stresses, where appropriate. Differential thermal expansion between
adjoining components of dissimilar materials should be considered. Designs should incorporate
sufficient flexibility to accommodate all differential expansions. In steam-generating equipment,
slip spacers should slip, and rigid attachments should be avoided. Drain lines should be provided
on sootblowers to prevent condensate in the first portion of the sootblowing cycle.
4.8 Repairs
Replacement is the only suggested repair for components damaged by thermal fatigue.
4.9 Inspection Techniques

Because cracking is usually surface-connected, visual examination, magnetic particle testing, and
liquid penetrant are effective methods of inspection. External shear wave ultrasonic inspection
can be used for nonintrusive inspection and where reinforcing pads prevent nozzle examination.
Heavy-wall reactor vessel internal attachment welds can be inspected using specialized
ultrasonic techniques.
4.10 Inspection Case Histories

Figure 4-8 shows four examples of inspection reports that indicate the presence of thermal
fatigue.
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Figure 4-8
Inspection reports with indications of thermal fatigue in a front waterwall (first report),
circumferential cracking on a sidewall (second report), quench cracking in a waterwall
(third report), and circumferential cracking in a reheat outlet (fourth report)
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Figure 4-8 (continued)
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NDE = nondestructive evaluation; MWT = minimum wall thickness
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5
CORROSION FATIGUE
5.1 General Description

Corrosion fatigue is a term for water-side damage under both stress (>25,000–30,000 psi
[172.4–206.8 MPa]) and varying corrosivity. Another form of corrosion fatigue, more properly
called stress-assisted corrosion, forms when stresses are high enough to crack the magnetite
scale in an occasionally corrosive environment, that is, one with varying corrosivity. Corrosion
fatigue is a form of deterioration that can occur without concentration of a corrosive substance.
5.2 Cycling’s Influence on Corrosion Fatigue

Corrosion fatigue can occur in any location where stresses of sufficient magnitude are in play.
These failures more often occur in boilers that are in peaking service, used infrequently, or
otherwise operated cyclically. Unfortunately, the oldest boilers in a fleet are normally the ones
placed in this type of service. Rapid boiler ramp (startup or shutdown) greatly increases the
vulnerability to corrosion fatigue. Some serious corrosion fatigue problems have been eliminated
merely by modifying startup and shutdown rates.
The relative importance of stress and corrosivity on power generation boilers is still questioned.
Two factors are required—a strain (or stress) large enough to fracture the magnetite scale and
boiler water with excessive oxygen concentration or a too-low pH. Therefore, the damage might
not occur with only a high-strain, too-rapid startup when the boiler water chemistry is correct. It
is damage from high and variable corrosivity and constant stress or high and variable stress.
Hence, the preferred terminology is stress-assisted corrosion.
The condition is a result of the cyclic loading externally (OD) combined with a corrosive
environment internally (ID). These cracks can have their origin in surface imperfections or pits.
This condition should not be confused with cracks that are initiated on the outside of the tubing.
The physical description of these OD cracks is usually dagger-shaped, transgranular, wide, and
oxide-filled.
Weekend shutdowns have the worst effect in terms of temperature changes, and the risk of air
getting into the system is very high.
The common view is that this will lead to thermally induced corrosion fatigue of waterwalls,
feedwater heaters, and economizers, where high local stress and temperature gradients will lead
to the cracking of protective magnetite films. This is particularly the case if there is significant
bending or increased loads from differential expansion, when a power plant has been in service
long enough to form an oxidation notch.
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4

4.1 General Description

4.2 Cycling’s Influence on Thermal Fatigue

4.6 Progressive Stages of Fatigue Cracking

4.9 Inspection Techniques

4.10 Inspection Case Histories

5.1 General Description

5.2 Cycling’s Influence on Corrosion Fatigue

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