Applied Interpretation of “Rigved” Using Multi-dimensional Approach

By VR Patil (email:[email protected])

Rigved is the Oldest Document composed in the archaic Sanskrit Language that
presents thoughts of the generations of the Poets in the form of Hymns or Praise-Songs.
In the last two centuries, several scholars from different fields and countries have made
serious efforts to interpret and explore various facets of Rigved using different ways, and some
of them are given in Table-1.
Table-1
Type of Description
Approach
Traditional Many Ritualists believe that Rigved is revealed by the Gods to old
Rishis and it is meant for worship of Gods or Yajna Ritual only.
Philosophical Some Thinkers try to decode symbolism hidden in the Text and
generally interpret it as a link between Man and Nature.
Linguistic Language experts attempt to compare and evaluate the development
of several Indo-European Languages from an imaginary language
Proto-Indo European (PIE) that probably originated in Eurasia.
Historical Scholars systematically study the Text and try to fix the chronology
of the events that took place during the Bronze Age Period.
Scientific Researchers work in the fields of Archaeology and Genetic Science go
by physical evidence discovered or made available from time to time.
Common Man Several Enthusiasts, Amateurs or Freelance writers express their views
after reading research papers, articles published on Rigved in various
journals, conferences, forums and the books written by scholars.
In other words, Rigved the ancient literature originated in the Indian Sub-continent
definitely provides a very wide cultural landscape for the researchers and the ordinary people
to study, infer or frame their opinions as they feel and express the same in their own way.
Practically speaking, Rigved needs to be studied as a multi-disciplinary document as it
is definitely filled with several intricate themes, names of many imaginary and real characters,
variety of plots, and the imageries described gracefully in the highly symbolic language.

The main purpose of current essay is to reproduce information already traced from the
master document Rigved but to present in a new format using multi-dimensional approach.
A. Fundamental Dimension – “Rta/ ऋत”, the First Principle of Vedic Philosophy:

Even though many Vedic Scholars begin their commentaries on Rigved either with
Yajna or Rigvedic Deities but in reality, history of Vedic Philosophy commences with the
introduction to Rta. The Ancestors of the Rigvedic Poets for many years seriously observed
several natural processes and then tried to understand reasons behind these events that
subsequently culminated into the development of concept of Rta/ऋत.
There are more than 366 references of the word Rta/ऋत and its variants in the different
hymns of Ten Mandalas of Rigved [1, 2].
Although most of the Vedic Experts generally define the Rigvedic word Rta/ऋत as the
Cosmic or Celestial order/law that governs whole universe, but considering the fact that the
concept has its origin in the observations made by the pre-Rigvedic Rishis on the Natural
Phenomena, it is more appropriate to call it as Trikalabadhit Satya i.e. the natural processes
or the things that hold true in all three tenses means- past, present and future tenses.

With the recognition of Rta in the ancient Vedic world, the old Rishis believed that
every natural event noticed in the world is controlled by some unknown force(s) that indirectly
manifests existence of proper order in the universe and/or absence of chaos. Presence of Rta
in the world can be judged from the fact that daily rise of the Sun from the East and its setting
in the West without fail, and they firmly believed this order is set since origin of the world.
In other words, periodical or cyclic occurrences of the natural phenomena actually
resulted in the formation of ऋत/ Rta/Rita, the Earliest Vedic Idea, a very long ago but well
before fashioning of any Vedic God.
In true sense, with the introduction of a new concept of Rta in the Indian Sub-
continent, the Ancient Rishis had laid the foundation of the Earliest Vedic Philosophy.
“ऋत/Rta/Rita is the result of systematic mental exercise carried out by the
Forefathers of the Ancient Rishis on the basis of observation and analysis of the cyclic
patterns of Natural Events/Processes and briefly manifests the Fundamental or the First
Principle that governs the Universe or all activities that occur in Nature”.
 ऋत/Rta/Rita is the product of deep thought process.
 It is a narrative developed after examining natural things over a longer period.
 It demonstrates real but unchanging law of Nature.
 It is a symbolic expression for the Eternal Truth or Universal Order.
 The most remarkable thing about Rta is, it brings all the entities whether living, non-living
and the Natural Powers present in the world under one roof and also establishes equality among
the various worldly characters as the ancient concept Rta informs us that since beginning, all
of them are governed by the same or identical guiding principles whether the Natural Forces
(some are defined as the Deities subsequently) or the Living Beings including Men.

Following verses [1, 2] would briefly introduce the ancient concept of Rta.

Rv-4.23,8: ṛtasya hi śurudhaḥ santi pūrvīr ṛtasya dhītir vṛjināni hanti |

ṛtasya śloko badhirā tatarda karṇā budhānaḥ śucamāna āyoḥ ||

# Eternal Law hath varied food that strengthens; thought of eternal Law, removes transgressions.
The praise-hymn of eternal Law, arousing, glowing, hath opened the deaf ears of the living.

Another verse Rv-4.40,5 from Mandala-4 indirectly refers to God Surya /the Sun as
the bright Hamsa (swan bird) who appears daily in the world and moves in mid-air as a part
of real ऋत/Rta or eternal or everlasting truth (Surya’s daily arrival and departure) and then
his presence is experienced by all the things in the world in the form his light during day time.
Rv-4.40,5: haṃsaḥ śuciṣad vasur antarikṣasad dhotā vediṣad atithir duroṇasat |
nṛṣad varasad ṛtasad vyomasad abjā ghojā ṛtajā adrijā ṛtam ||
# The Hamsa homed in light, the Vasu in mid-air, the Priest beside the altar, in the house the Guest,
Dweller in noblest place, mid in men, in truth, in sky, born of flood, kine, truth, mountain, he is holy Law.

Rv-1.164,11: vādaśāraṃ nahi tajjarāya varvarti cakraṃ pari dyāṃ ṛtasya |

ā putrā agne mithunāso atra sapta śatāni viṃśatiśca tasthuḥ ||
# Formed with twelve spokes, by length of time, unweakened, rolls round the heaven this wheel of during order.
Herein established, joined in pairs together, seven hundred Sons and twenty stand, O Agni

In the above verse, the Poet has talked about circular movement a yearly wheel of time
(Kaal Chakra) that has of 12 spokes (manifests as an annual rotation of a wheel comprising of
twelve months) and 720 sons (actually means 360 days plus 360 nights) that are caused due
to regular movement of Agni physically represented by the Sun/Surya in the sky.

In this way, the ancient Vedic Rishis saw ऋत/Rta as the base or the starting point of
Vedic ideology and they believed that it covers every activity found in Nature including the
Praise-Songs/hymns composed by the Poets to please the Deities of their imaginations.
B. Democratic Dimension - Seven Adityas, the First Generation Vedic Gods:

As per the standard definition, a democratic system provides a social or political

equality for all. It means to say that in democracy, every individual has his/her say and is held
equally responsible for maintaining order. Similarly, the distinct roles played by the Seven
Adityas of Rigved hint at application of democratic principle in the Earliest Vedic Philosophy.

As ancient Rishis believed that that due to ऋत/Rta/Rita, the day-to-day operations of
the world was going on smoothly since a very long, then they asked a question to each other;
“who is managing the show of whole world?”

After a long intellectual debate and deliberation among themselves, these Rishis would
have come out with the concept of Divine Being who has to be immortal to oversee the affairs
of Universe since it came into existence. Then taking into consideration diversities of the tasks
or responsibilities of maintaining the order in the world, the ancestors of the pre-Rigvedic
Rishis would arrived at a point that One Divine Being is not enough for proper implementation
of ऋत/Rta, and hence decided to go with the requirement of Seven Gods.
Rv-2.27,1 and Rv-8.18,3 are the two verses taken from two different hymns of different
Rigvedic Mandalas [1] but specifically addressed to Adityas jointly provide seven names of
the first generation Gods i.e. Seven Adityas and they are, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Daksha,
Bhaga, Amsha and Savitar.
Probably figure Seven would have come from the Seven Rivers present in the region.

Following verses of the hymn of Earliest Mandala of Rigved, dedicated to Adityas

describe the important functions performed by them since the Universe came into existence.
Rv-2.27,3: ta ādityāsa uravo gabhīrā adabdhāso dipsanto bhūryakṣāḥ |
antaḥ paśyanti vṛjinota sādhu sarvaṃ rājabhyaḥ paramā cidanti ||
# These Gods, Adityas, vast, profound, and faithful, with many eyes, fain to deceive the wicked,
Looking within behold the good and evil near to the Kings is even the thing most distant.

Rv-2.27,4: dhārayanta ādityāso jaghat sthā devā viśvasya bhuvanasya gopāḥ |

dīrghādhiyo rakṣamāṇā asuryaṃ ṛtāvānaścayamānā ṛṇāni ||
# Upholding that which moves and that which moves not, Adityas, Gods, protectors of all being,
Provident, guarding well the world of spirits, true to eternal Law, the debt-exactors.
 From the description given in above verses, it is crystal clear that ancient Rishis treated
Seven Adityas as the Guardians of the World, upholder of eternal law (Rta/Rita/ ऋत), and
protectors of all being. As a part of their primary duties, they daily keep a close watch on the
all activities of the World with many eyes. Please bear in mind that since inception, in Vedic
Philosophy, All Seven Gods are considered to be immortal but invisible to human beings.

Rv-7.40,4 is the verse from Mandala-7 of Rigved informs us that out of Seven
Adityas, God Varuna is treated as the Team Leader/नेता, has cordial relationship with
remaining six Adityas but frequently described to be closely associated with Adityas like
Mitra and Aryaman who are denoted as the Kings and expected to finish the assigned tasks.

RV-7.40,4: ayaṃ hi netā varuṇa ṛtasya mitro rājāno aryamāpo dhuḥ |

suhavā devyaditiranarvā te no aṃho ati parṣannariṣṭān |
# This Varuna is guide of Law, he, Mitra, and Aryaman, the Kings, our work have finished.
Divine and foeless Aditi quickly listens. May these deliver us unharmed from trouble.

Some Poets of Mandala-7, 5, 8, and 1 have described Mitra-Varuna as the Joint

Managers to look after the Universal Responsibilities. Verses devoted to these Adityas
such as Rv-7.60,5; Rv-7.64,2; Rv-7.65,3; Rv-7.66,13; Rv-7.66,19; Rv-5.62,1; Rv-5.63,1; Rv-
5.63,7; Rv-5.65,2; Rv-5.66,1; Rv-5.67,4; Rv-1,2,8; Rv-1.23,5; Rv-8.25,4; Rv-8.31,13
explain the same. Selected verses taken from Mandala-7 hymn addressed to Mitra-Varuna
that also included Aryaman as one of the collectively responsible Gods are given below.

Rv-7.66,10: bahavaḥ sūracakṣaso.agnijihvā ṛtāvṛdhaḥ |

trīṇi ye yemurvidathāni dhītibhirviśvāni paribhūtibhiḥ ||
# Many are they who strengthen Law, Sun-eyed, with Agni for their tongue,
They who direct the three great gatherings with their thoughts, yea, all things with surpassing might.

Rv-7.66,11: vi ye dadhuḥ śaradaṃ māsamādaharyajñamaktuṃ cād ṛcam |

anāpyaṃ varuṇo mitro aryamā kṣatraṃ rājāna āśata ||
# They who have stablished year and month and then the day, night, sacrifice and holy verse,
Varuna, Mitra, Aryarnan, the Kings, have won dominion which none else may gain.
Rv-7.66,12: tad vo adya manāmahe sūktaiḥ sūra udite |
yadohate varuṇo mitro aryamā yūyaṃ ṛtasya rathyaḥ ||
# So at the rising of the Sun we think of you with hymns to-day,
Even as Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman deserve: ye are the charioteers of Law.

Rv-7.66,13: ṛtāvāna ṛtajātā ṛtāvṛdho ghorāso anṛtadviṣaḥ |

teṣāṃvaḥ sumne suchardiṣṭame naraḥ syāma ye ca sūrayaḥ ||

ऋ॒तावान ऋ॒तजाता ऋतावृधो घोरासो अनृतद्विषः ।

ते षाां वः सु म्ने सु च्छ र्दि ष्ट मे नरः स्याम ये च॑ सू रयः ॥

# True to Law, born in Law the strengtheners of Law, terrible, haters of the false,
In their felicity which gives the best defence may we men and our princes dwell.

It should be borne in mind that during the Early Vedic period, God Varuna was
designated as the Prime Deity, and supposed to be directly responsible for the protection of
life on Earth. Varuna was presumed to live in Heaven, and from there believed to monitor all
the activities of the Earth. As Rain falls from Sky, it was considered that Varuna was directly
responsible for providing Celestial Water in the form of Rain to the Earth, and its land based
water management through the various channels/storehouses such rivers, ponds, seas or oceans.
Additionally, Varuna was regarded as the implementer of ऋत/ Rta/the eternal law of the
world; upholder of Moral Values, and as well as responsible for personal and social behaviour
of everyone. Although He leads the team of Adityas, but the Poets made other Adityas like
Mitra and Aryaman as the active partners who shoulder the responsibilities with Varuna.

Rv-8.25,4: mahāntā mitrāvaruṇā samrājā devāvasurā | ṛtāvānāvṛtamā ghoṣato bṛhat ||

# Great Varuna and Mitra, Gods, Asuras and imperial Lords,
True to Eternal Law proclaim the high decree.

Rv-8.31,13: yathā no mitro aryamā varuṇaḥ santi ghopāḥ | sughā ṛtasyapanthāḥ ||

# Seeing that Mitra, Aryaman, and Varuna are guarding us,
The paths of Law are fair to tread.
Above references make it crystal clear that Adityas like Varuna, Mitra and Aryaman
are the joint custodians of the world who also observe and regulate ऋत/Rta/Cosmic Order.
C. Authoritative Dimension – “Indra”, the Earliest Warrior God or “Manyu”:

As per the Rigvedic literature, before the birth of Indra, the horrifying demon called
as Vritra/Ahi had taken all water available on Earth in his captivity. No God from the Earlier
Generation could stand in front of dreadful Ahi/Vritra, but all the Gods vanished from the
scene leaving all the living beings at the mercy of wicked Vritra/Ahi. This has been explained
by the Composer in the verse Rv-8.93,14 that belongs to Mandala-8 [1].

# Rv-8.93,14 : When in their terror all the Gods shrank from the Dragon's furious might,
Fear of the monster fell on them.

Verse Rv-8.89.5 dedicated to God Indra makes it clear that Indra was created by the
ancestors of the Rigvedic Priests/Rishis specifically to neutralize Vritra.

Rv-8.89,5: yajjāyatḥā apūrvya magḥavan vrtḥraḥatyāya |

tat prtḥḥivīmapratḥayastadastabḥnā uta dyām ||

Interpretation: Maghavan/ Indra was fashioned with the main purpose to smite Vritra
(personification of Drought) to save the world from the grip of the latter. As described in the
verse Rv-8.93,14 before arrival of Indra, none of the Earlier Gods/ Adityas could dare to
challenge Vritra as they were non-violent/non-aggressive and peace-loving Gods. But
immediately after birth, Indra took the control of the Earth and Heaven.

Two verses from the hymn Rv-2.12 hymn dedicated to Indra tell us that Indra was
born with the special power, and the true spirit to save the world and hence became protector
of the Gods as well who were frightened due to arrival of Vritra [1].

Rv-2.12,1: He who, just born, chief God of lofty spirit by power and might became the Gods' protector,
Before whose breath through greatness of his valour the two worlds trembled, He, O men, is Indra.

Rv-2.12,7: yasyāśvāsaḥ pradiśi yasya gāvo yasya grāmā yasya viśve rathāsaḥ |
yaḥ sūryaṃ ya uṣasaṃ jajāna yo apāṃ netā sa janāsa indraḥ||
# He under whose supreme control are horses, all chariots, and the villages, and cattle;
He who gave being to the Sun and Morning, who leads the waters, He, O men, is Indra.
 Poet through the verse Rv-2.12,7 points out that Indra, after becoming नेता /the New
Leader of the Vedic world, takes control of everything present on the Earth including Rathas,
Water, Surya, Dawn, Asvas, Cows, and the People who live in the Villages etc.
In this way, newly inducted Indra establishes his authority over all the things present
in the world whether the living or non-living and restores eternal order in the world.
As per the theory of leadership [4], authoritative leader does everything necessary
to get the tasks completed and objectives met. Please remember that the real intention of
creation of Indra is to kill Vritra and get water released from the latter’s captivity.

In reality, the description available in Rigved brings out the fact that Indra is an
authoritative and not an autocratic leader or dictator who definitely wants other Rigvedic
Deities like Adityas, Rudra, Maruts, Pushan, Vishnu, Brahmnaspati, Brihaspati etc. to do their
assigned jobs independently, and hence does not want to interfere in their day-to-day
functioning unless it is essential and thus wants to maintain cordial relationship with many.
This can be seen from the presence of several hymns in Rigved that are jointly addressed by
the Composers to Indra along with other Deities like Varuna, Soma, Agni, Vishnu, Vayu etc.

One of the Last Mandala Poets composed the verse Rv-10.48,11 in such a way that
as if Indra expresses his deep gratitude to the Old Gods like Adityas, Rudriyas and the
Vasus without whose active support and guidance Indra would not have become the Victor.

Rv-10.48,11: ādityānāṃ vasūnāṃ rudriyāṇāṃ devo devānāṃ namināmi dhāma |

te mā bhadrāya śavase tatakṣuraparājitamastṛtamaṣāḷam ||
# I, as a God, never violate the statutes of Gods, of Vasus, Rudriyas, Adityas.
These Gods have formed me for auspicious vigour, unconquered and invincible for ever.

But one-time subduing Vritra does not provide permanent solution to the Water
Scarcity faced by the Rigvedic People, and the mythical story of “Indra killing many
Vritras” gets repeated over and over again in all Ten Mandalas of Rigved. Therefore, by
default, it becomes the most important topic of the Rigvedic composition. The central theme
of Rigved is “the Struggle for Water”. Following verse from Mandala-4 explains the same.

Rv-4.17,19: Alone, when Indra Maghavan is lauded, he slayeth many never-resisted Vrtras.
Him in whose keeping is the well-loved singer never do Gods or mortals stay or hinder.
 Above verse indirectly informs us that Sapta-Sindhu region of Rigvedic Territory
was reeling under severe drought since many years and therefore, Old Rishis of that time
shaped Indra after holding debate and discussion among themselves for several days. This has
been cryptically explained by Mandala-4 Poet in the following verse [1].

# Rv-4.18,4: What strange act shall he do, he whom his Mother bore for a thousand months and
many autumns?
No peer hath he among those born already, nor among those who shall be born hereafter.

In other words, pre-Rigvedic Rishis held several brain storming sessions to conceive
a new but mentally aggressive god Indra and purposely equipped him with the most potent
weapon Vajra/thunderbolt fashioned by Tvastar (refer to verses Rv-1.32,2; Rv-1.52,7; Rv-
1.61,6; Rv-5,31,4; Rv-6.17,10; Rv-10.48,3) to take on an imaginary demon Vritra.
Following verse indicates that Ahi, an enemy of the Vedic People to whom Indra kills
in the very first attempt using Vajra/thunderbolt was the firstborn out of several dragons.

Rv-1.32,3 : Impetuous as a bull, he chose the Soma and in three sacred beakers drank the juices.
Maghavan grasped the thunder for his weapon, and smote to death this firstborn of the dragons.

In other words, killing of one Vritra or Ahi was not enough to solve the water paucity
and probabaly ancient Rishis counted one Ahi or Vritra for the occurrence of every year
drought which also implies that the people of Sapta-Sindhu locality experienced drought after
drought (many famines) at that time and that is why they suffered a lot due to paucity of water.

Indra, the true warrior and the most furious God/Manyu

Rv-6.18,2: He, Champion, Hero, Warrior, Lord of battles, impetuous, loudly roaring, great destroyer,
Who whirls the dust on high, alone, overthrower, hath made all races of mankind his subjects.

Rv-4.22,9: Ever by us perform thy most heroic, thine highest, best victorious deeds, O Victor.
For us make Vrtras easy to be conquered: destroy the weapon of our mortal foeman.
Above verses depict that by birth, Indra is believed to be very aggressive and inherently
possesses killing instinct or manyu feature. The Poets in some verses have used the term
Manyu to describe the God as – manyumindra in Rv-6.25,2; manyum indro in Rv-4.17,10;
Indro manyum manyumyo in Rv-7.18,16 and manyuṃ maghavāno in Rv-7.60,11.
D. Emotional Dimension – “Saraswati”, the Most Beloved River of Vedic People:

Emotional attachment is a part of human life and being multi-dimensional aspect, it

cannot be understood by cause and effect analysis. Different persons show affinity for different
things such as Parents, Friends, Relatives, Teachers, Gurus, Pets, Places, Plants, Objects etc.
The most outstanding feature of Rigved is that the several generations of Rigvedic
Poets through the composed Songs of Praise, frequently exhibited their Emotional
Attachment to a geographical feature commonly known as river Saraswati. This can be
understood from the following three verses specifically addressed to river Saraswati [1].

The Poet of the Earliest Mandala wants to stay on the Banks of river Saraswati
Rv-2.41,17: In thee, Sarasvati, divine, all generations have their stay.
Be, glad with Sunahotra's sons: O Goddess grant us progeny.

Comments: Through this verse not only the Poet has expressed his desire to continue his
association with river Saraswati but also pointed out the fact that since many generations, the
People of Priestly Community have been living on her banks and hence appealed her to give
him offspring so that there remains unbroken association of his family and the river. In other
words, said verse informs us that the Poet desperately wants progeny to maintain continuity in
the age-old relationship between river Saraswati and his family. It also implies that several
earlier generations of the Priests were born and brought up on her banks and hence like his
ancestors, the Poet also wishes to live in her company.

The Composer of the Last Mandala expects favour from river Saraswati
Rv-10.17,8: Sarasvati, who camest with the Fathers, with them rejoicing thee in our oblations,
Seated upon this sacred grass be joyful, and give us strengthening food that brings no sickness.

Rv-10.17,9: Thou, called on as Sarasvati by Fathers who come right forward to our solemn service,
Give food and wealth to present sacrificers, a portion, worth a thousand, of refreshment.

Comments: From the content of the Last Mandala Verses Rv-10.17,8; and Rv-10.17,9, it
can be said that both verses manifest active references as Poets physically conducted Yajna
on the bank of river Saraswati and then prayed to her to bestow them pious thoughts, better
health and wealth. On the occasion of a special Yajna, the composer of the verses Rv-10.17,8
and 9 purposely reminded close bonding his ancestors had with the river in the past and
requested her to accept his oblation. It means to say that although the new generation
Composers occasionally spent some time on the bank of river Saraswati, still they remained
committed to her and religiously followed the devotional path shown by their forefathers.

As a matter of fact; during the entire Rigvedic Period, whether the Poets belonged to
old lots (Mandala-2; 3; 4; 6; and 7 are termed as the Five Early Mandalas) or they came
from the relatively new generations (Mandala-5; 8; 9; 1; and 10 are treated as the Five Late
Mandalas); they had eternal love for river Saraswati though she was in bad shape at that
time. That is why some Poets used the word “Saraswantam” to exhibit their Identity.
The Poets of the Ten Mandalas of Rigved have referred to river Saraswati for more
than 70 times and they also devoted three hymns in the Two out of Five Early Mandalas.
Here the fundamental question is, “why did the Rigvedic People so obsess with river
Saraswati?”
To get the proper answer to afore-stated question, we need to take an intense look at
the Earliest Mandala verse Rv-2.41,16 [1].

Rv-2.41,16: ambitame nadītame devitame sarasvati |

apraśastā iva smasi praśastimamba nas kṛdhi ||
# Best Mother, best of Rivers, best of Goddesses, Sarasvati,
We are, as 'twere, of no repute and dear Mother, give thou us renown.

Content of the above verse manifests that as if the Composer has first carried out
comparative study and then glorified a feminine character river Saraswati as the best among
the three different classes i.e. Mother, River, and Goddess. Content also indicates that at that
time, river Saraswati was already well-known entity and therefore, the Poet prays the river
to make him famous like her.
The Composer must have born and brought up on the bank of river, and hence he called
Saraswati as his Mother. Probably in absence of his own mother, Poet found motherly figure
in river Saraswati as he cherishes his childhood memories or time spent on her banks.
After comparing physical conditions and the status of other rivers/channels of that
locality, the Singer came to the conclusion that Saraswati was the best river among the lot.
As far as the phrase Best Goddess is concerned, the verse Rv-2.1,11 of the same
Mandala informs us about Four Vedic Goddesses together and they are; Aditi, Ila, Bharati
and Saraswati.
 Since Aditi was an immortal but invisible divine being, Ila and Bharati were the mortal
characters who lived a long back, then Saraswati was the only Goddess who was physically
present in front of the eyes of the Poet. Hence he termed her as the Best Goddess of the class.
As described in the verse Rv-2.41,17; the Poet along with his descendent wanted to live
on the bank of river Saraswati, who also reminded the river that earlier his ancestors too
enjoyed her company. It implies that due to ancestral connection, the Poet had affiliation to
the river that resulted in the creation of a sense of belonging, sense of pride, and sense of
purpose in the life of the Generations of Rigvedic Poets.
In short, since ancient time, the generations of Vedic Community resided on the bank
of river Saraswati that developed strong ties and sentimental value for the river in them.
Additionally, since the time of pre-Rigvedic Rishis, river Saraswati provided distinct identity
as the Knowledge Creators to them. Therefore, they had unfading faith in the river.

Justification for “Mandala-2 as the Earliest Mandala of Rigved”

Mandala-2 verses; Rv-2.7.1 and 4 dedicated to Agni highlight Bharatagne/भारताग्ने

term; meaning thereby, a special Yajna was being conducted in the name of king Bharata.
In the verse Rv-2.36,2 addressed to Maruts, there is a reference of Bharata’s Sons
(भभरतस्य सूनवः /plural or more than one son) wherein the Poet has requested them to enjoy
Soma drink along with Maruts reflects involvement of Bharata and his sons in Mandala-2.
Also the verse Rv-3.53,24 depicts presence of “Sons of Bharata” (plural) in action.

Rv-3.53,24: These men, the sons of Bharata, O Indra, regard not severance or close connexion.
They urge their own steed as it were another's, and take him, swift as the bow's string, to battle.

Mandala-3 verse Rv-3.23,2 signals Devavata and Devasravasa as the Bharatas.

Rv-3,23,2: Both Bharatas, Devasravas, Devavata, have strongly rubbed to life effectual Agni.
O Agni, look thou forth with ample riches: be, every day, bearer of food to feed us.

Additionally, in the verse Rv-3.23.3; the Composer has linked “Agni of Yajna” with
Devavata hinting at Devavata was the leader of the Bharata tribe during Mandala-3.
Now from the information available on the Family Tree of Bharata Clan, it can be
said that during the composition of the Five Early Mandalas of Rigved; Mandala-wise
sequential Rulers of Bharata clan were, Mandala-2: Bharata; Mandala-3: Devavata;
Mandala-4: Srnjaya; Mandala-6: Divodasa; and Mandala-7: Sudasa.
E. Ritualistic Dimension –“Yajna”, a practice designed to pacify the Deities:

Yajna is the most important ritual devised by the pre-Rigvedic Rishis after the
creation of Indra (refer to verses Rv-8.89,5 and 6) [1]. In other words, it made entry into the
Earliest Vedic Philosophy after the arrival of several old Deities like Adityas, Rudra,
Brahmanaspati, Agni, Usha, Indra, Vishnu etc. The origin of Yajna could be traced to wild
land fire or Forest fire that occurs in nature. Some pre-Rigvedic Rishis would have closely
observed wildfire several times. As we know, wildfire causes destruction of living things
including vegetation/ plants, birds, animals and human-beings also. Pre-Rigvedic Rishis would
have thought when God Indra becomes angry with the living beings due to some undefined
reasons, then He directs Agni /fire to initiate action against the living things and to destroy
them as a part of punishment. Yajna/sacrifice is nothing but a small scale replication of wild
fire.

Rigvedic Yajna was an open-air religious ceremony of the Aryas. Based on the
information available in Rigved, God Agni/Fire was worshipped in two forms; one is defined
as Grihapati/the lord of the house, the term generally used for application of Agni in the
houses of the people and another form is Agni of Yajna that is a duplication of forest fire.

For more than thirty thousand years, man has been using simple Agni/fire for obtaining:
1- Heat, and 2- Light. In olden days, in every house, food was cooked using fire. Therefore, it
is quite obvious that since ancient time Man had great respect for simple Agni/fire, and hence
was worshipping the same in that form.

But the “Agni of Yajna” is different from the normal household Agni and has its origin
in the wildfires that occur naturally in dense forests. The Mandala-3 Poet in the verse Rv-3.9,5
has made it clear that Matarisvan (means wind) brought Agni of Yajna to them [1].

Rv-3.9,5: Him wandering at his own free will, Agni here hidden from our view,
Him Matarisvan brought to us from far away produced by friction, from the Gods.

Pre-Rigvedic Rishis believed that the wildfire and hence “Agni of Yajna” is also an
integral part of ऋत /Rta/Celestial Order.

“Agni of Yajna” is a gift given to “Bhrugu by Matarisvan”

”Rv-1.60,1: vahniṃ yaśasaṃ vidathasya ketuṃ suprāvyaṃ dūtaṃ sadyoartham |

 dvijanmānaṃ rayimiva praśastaṃ rātiṃ bharad bhṛghavemātariśvā ||
# As 'twere some goodly treasure Matarisvan brought, as a gift, the glorious Priest to Bhrgu,
Banner of sacrifice, the good Protector, child of two births, the swiftly moving envoy.

Interpretation: The Poet has described Agni as Dvi-janma; God having two births probably
means, one birth in the house of man by way of rubbing a wooden stick over another and is
popularly known as Grihapati and another birth occurs in the forests. The verse also explains
that Agni (of Yajna) is a gift given by Matarisvan (wind) to an ancient Bhrugu. In other
words, it is the ancient Rishi Bhrugu who got an idea of replicating wildfire into Yajna ritual.

In the verse Rv-3.6,10 “Agni of Yajna” is called ṛtāvarī ṛtajātasya satye means God
is born with the eternal truths and hence belongs to category of ऋत/Rta or Trikala-badhit
Satya or the law of Nature.

Rv-3.6,10: a hotā yasya rodasī cidurvī yajñaṃ-yajñamabhi vṛdhe ghṛṇītaḥ |

prācī adhvareva tasthatuḥ sumeke ṛtāvarī ṛtajātasya satye ||

Verse Rv-6.13,3 depicts birth of Agni of Yajna as Rtajata means as per the cosmic law.

Rv-6.13,3: sa satpatiḥ śavasā hanti vṛtramaghne vipro vi paṇerbhartivājam |

yaṃ tvaṃ praceta ṛtajāta rāyā sajoṣā naptrāpāṃ hinoṣi ||

# Agni! the hero slays with might his foeman; the singer bears away the Pani's booty-
Even he whom thou, Sage, born in Law, incitest by wealth, accordant with the Child of Waters.

General Procedure of Yajna

The verse Rv-10.88,8 intimates us that after making all arrangements including shaping
of Yajna-Kund/fire altar for Yajna rite, using already composed hymn/Sukta-Vakam or by
chanting Mantras, Vedic Gods are invited first at the site, then “Agni of Yajna” is kindled
and then actual Oblation is given by the Priests along with the recitation of Mantra.

Rv-10.88,8: First the Gods brought the hymnal into being; then they engendered Agni, then oblation.

He was their sacrifice that guards our bodies: him the heavens know, the earth, the waters know him.
 Story behind the development of Yajna rite

Information compiled from different verses of Rigved demonstrate that several Old
Rishis, Bharati and many Poets played active role in formulation of proper Yajna procedure.
 As per the verse Rv-2.34,12 Dasagvas (from Angirasa Clan) performed first Yajna.

 As per the verse Rv-1.96,2; ancient Ayu composed the first Song of Praise on behalf
of Manu (mythical ancestor (?) of the ancient Rishis and the Rigvedic Priests).

 As per the verse Rv-10.80,7; the Ribhus using their wisdom first time composed a
special prayer for Agni.

 Ribhus made available more quantity of Soma juice for Yajna (see Rv-4.33 to 37).
Therefore, Soma sacrifice must be credited to them.

 Ribhus mentally fashioned Ratha for Asvins and Hari/two tawny steeds for Indra
especially to bring them to the site of Yajna (see verses Rv-1,20,2 and 3). They also
made available more Asvas from Asvas for other Deities too (see verse Rv-1.161,7)

 As per the verse Rv-10.63,1; a special Yajna was conducted for Yayati who was the
son of king Nahusha. Probably Yayati could be the first Noble Person and a special
invitee who attended Yajna ritual prior to start of Rigvedic Compositions.

 The verse Rv-2.7,5 informs us that Bharata who was the leader of warrior tribe,
personally present at the time of Yajna and gifted animals like bulls, barren cows and
a pregnant cow to the Priests. This could be the earliest Dana-stuti Yajna performed
for a king.

Due to dedication of many ancient Rishis, Yajna, a religious activity came into existence.

Notes.

1. References of “Ayu” as the first composer of the Praise-Song are also found in the

verses of the Late Mandalas; Rv-9.10,6 and Rv-10.5,6.

2. Contributions made by the Ribhus, Ila, and Bharati for giving proper shape to Yajna

rite have been discussed in the next section.

F. Divine Dimensions – Designating the Mortals and the Living Beings as the Deities:

Contents of the most of the hymns of Ten Mandalas of Rigved reflect Personification
of the Deities of the imagination of the Rigvedic Poets such as Indra, Agni, Varuna, Adityas,
Mitra, Asvins, Soma, Savitar, Rudra, Maruts, Brahmanaspati, Brihaspati, Vishnu, Pushan,
Surya, Usha, Vayu, Bhaga etc. Many of them are Man-made but some are Natural Powers.

At the same time, in the ancient literature a few references actually manifest Deification
of some mortals and Living beings that include some human beings and a few animals as
well. In this section we are going to discuss about some human elements like three brothers
who are collectively called as the Ribhus, Goddess Ila and Goddess Bharati as well as two
most trustworthy animals of the Rigvedic Priests and they are; Cow and Asva.

Deification of any Living Being means the elevation of status of that character to a
deity whether the character is departed one or presently living with the people so as to express
the gratitude and admiration for the special contributions made by them.

Divinization of the Ribhus (three Brothers)

Following verse taken from the hymn addressed to the Ribhus makes it clear that they
were awarded the status of Gods for their very special contributions.

Rv-3.60,7: The mighty powers wherewith. ye formed the chalices, the thought by which ye drew the cow
from out the hide,
The intellect wherewith ye wrought the two Bay Steeds,-through these, O Rbhus, ye attained divinity.

As per the available information, the Ribhus were the three brothers who lived during
of pre-Rigvedic Era. In Rigved, Ribhu, Vaja, and Vibhavan are collectively known as the
Ribhus, who father’s name was Sudhanvan. In Ten Mandalas of Rigved there are 11 hymns
addressed to Ribhus that are given below.

Mandala-1: Rv-1.20; 110; 111; 161 (four hymns)

Mandala-3: Rv-3.60 (one hymn)
Mandala-4: Rv-4.33 to 37 (five hymns)
Mandala-7: Rv-7.48 (one hymn)
It means, both classes of the Poets very well knew about the acts of the Ribhus.
 Contributions made by the Ribhus during pre-Rigvedic time

It seems that due to their special efforts/treatments, their seriously ill and aged parents
could survive for some more time. Hence the Rigvedic Poets in their style have frequently but
proudly mentioned that these three brothers made their parents to feel young and energetic.
Similarly, probably using some special treatment they could make a sick cow who had
delivered a calf sometime before to regain the consciousness. In this way, they were able to
give a fresh lease of life to both, a cow and its calf (or a cow which was unable to feed its calf
due to some health issue would have started feeding its calf after receiving treatment from the
Ribhus). They also introduced Dhenu/Miltch Cow as the Divine Being in the Vedic world.
It is also said that the Ribhus introduced the novel but mythical concept of special
Asvas/Hari for Indra, created more Asvas for other Deities, and made Suratha for Asvins
using mental insight to bring the Gods urgently to Yajna site.
Additionally, due to their innovativeness, it became possible to extract more juice from
already used Soma stalks. Since Soma was one the most essential items for Yajna, then its
availability in a larger quantity made the Priests to conduct the ritual more number of times in
a day as the offering of Soma Juice was an integral part of Yajna activity.

From the above, it can be said that among the many ancient Rishis who were actively
involved in the development of Yajna ritual, the Ribhus would have been the well-known
Physicians/Vaidyas of pre-Rigvedic time.

That is why; the Ribhus are often remembered by the Rigvedic Priests as the Specially
Gifted Persons whose invaluable contributions aided the old Rishis belonging to the families
of the Bhrugus and Angirasas to give a desired shape to Yajna ritual. Their creative idea of
Asva drawn Ratha brought a sea change in the day-to-day life of the Vedic People as they
started believing that upon invitation, with the use of a special mode of conveyance, now the
Vedic Gods could arrive quickly at the site of Yajna.

Since the time of early stage of the development of Yajna ritual, pre-Rigvedic Rishis
got addicted to Yajna rite. The Ribhus would have lived at least two generations earlier or
about 50 years before the start of actual Rigvedic compositions. Due to their unparalleled
contributions in improvisation of Yajna ritual, in Rigved, the Ribhus are treated as the Gods
who believed to be living in Heaven and often invited to receive third pressing of Soma.
 Veneration of “Ila” and “Bharati”

The Poet of the Earliest Mandala has composed the hymn Rv-2.1 in such a way that
as if, God Agni has assigned the job to the Poet to introduce all the Deities known for their
specialities in a few words who have arrived at the site of Yajna to attend the event as the
special guests. In the verse-11 of the same hymn, the Composer has introduced four
Goddesses namely, Aditi, Bharati, Ila and Saraswati of Rigved with their special features.

Rv-2.1,11: tvamagne aditirdeva dāśuṣe tvaṃ hotrā bhāratī vardhaseghirā |

tvamiḷā ṣatahimāsi dakṣase tvaṃ vṛtrahā vasupate sarasvatī ||

“Ila”- the pre-Rigvedic Queen praised as the Goddess

In the above verse, the Poet has particularly mentioned the character Ila as Shata-
Himasi means Hundred Wintered or in a simple way it can be taken as a long lived entity.
Please note that, for all practical purposes, most of the Rigvedic Deities are treated as the
Immortal Characters. Based on this logic, Ila has to be a mortal character that enjoyed a
longer life-span but lived before the commencement of Rigvedic Composition. In the verse
Rv-10.95,18; Ila has been identified as the mother of Pururavasa.
In some Rigvedic Mandalas, we find Ilaspade/Ilayaspada term whose literal meaning
may be taken as Ila's foot or a place of Ila's resting. Ilaspade term is found in Five out of
Ten Rigvedic Mandalas and Mandala-wise its occurrences are [2] as given below.
Ilaspade/ इळसपदे : 1(2), 2(1), 3(2), 6(1), 10(5)

Mandala-3 Poet in the verse Rv-3.23,4 has linked Ilaspade term with the area wherein
three rivers Apaya, Drsadvati and Saraswati are found together.
Rv-3.23,4; ni tvā dadhe vara ā pṛthivyā iḷāyāspade sudinatve ahnām |
dṛṣadvatyāṃ mānuṣa āpayāyāṃ sarasvatyāṃ revadaghnedidīhi ||

# He set thee in the earth's most lovely station, in Ila's place, in days of fair bright weather.
On man, on Apaya, Agni! on the rivers Drsadvati, Sarasvati, shine richly

In all Five Mandalas in which the term, Ilaspade occurs, has one common feature, and
that is, presence of active reference of Yajnas being conducted on the bank of river Saraswati.
Therefore, it can be inferred that Ilaspade stands for present-day Haryana state of India
wherein Ila the ancient ruler who promoted Simple Agni worship in olden days lived. In all
probabilities, Ila the head of Royal Family was deified for the purpose of active support she
extended to the ancient Rishis to promotion of Pure Agni worship with the copious use of
Ghrita/Ghee (see verse Rv-7.16,8 wherein Ila is called as Grita-hasta).

“Bharati”- the pre-Rigvedic Character respected as the Goddess

In the verse Rv-2.1,11; the Poet has provided description about another pre-Rigvedic
character Bharati as hotrā bhāratī vardhaseghirā.
Potential meanings of the words used by the Singer for Bharati are given below [3].
Hotra- invocation at the time of Yajna/Sacrifice
Vardha- increasing
Gira-voice or speech that comes out of mouth

On the basis words used by the Poet to describe important quality of Bharati, it can be
said that it is Bharati who suggested to invite the Gods first at the site of Yajna by collective
but loudly singing the Poems of Praise. Hence continuous chanting of Mantras at the time of
Yajna including chorus may be attributed to Bharati.

Additionally, the Poet of the last but one Mandala in the verse Rv-1.22,10 has regarded
Bharati as “hotrāṃ yaviṣṭha bhāratīm”.

Rv-1.22,10: āgnā agna ihāvase hotrāṃ yaviṣṭha bhāratīm | varūtrīṃ dhiṣaṇāṃ vaha ||

Here term Yavistha means a very young or youthful. It is most likely that the Poet of
the hymn Rv-1.22 in the verse-10 has used the word Yavistha before the word Bharati to
portray her as a young and energetic person (many translators have linked the word Yavistha
to God Agni to describe newly fashioned Agni of Yajna as Youthful one). Unlike Ila,
probably Bharati died at the young age but her contribution of inviting the Deities to attend
Yajna by praising them was definitely remembered by the ancient Rishis and hence as a mark
of respect, they decided to designate her as the Goddess (Bharati could be the daughter of a
pre-Rigvedic Rishi, mother of king Bharata and one of the wives of Yayati).
 Honouring the “Cow” as Mother and Deity

In Rigved, Cow reflects sustenance and the progress of life. It is considered as a symbol
of faith or loyalty and abundance wealth. The ancient document refers to the Cow as the
Goddess. In Rigved, there are three hymns dedicated to Cow and they are Rv-6.28; Rv-10.19;
and Rv-10.169. It means to say that since pre-Rigvedic time, Cow enjoyed special status and
important place in the Vedic community. Following verses depict the Rigvedic Priests looked
upon the milk giving Cow (Dhenu) as a part of Rta. Grita/ghee used in Yajna ritual is made
from milk. Therefore, Rigvedic Priests always demand more Cows from the different Deities.

Rv-4.23,9: ṛtasya dṛḷhā dharuṇāni santi purūṇi candrā vapuṣe vapūṃṣi |

ṛtena dīrgham iṣaṇanta pṛkṣa ṛtena gāva ṛtam ā viveśuḥ ||
# Firm-seated are eternal Law's foundations in its fair form are many splendid beauties.
By holy Law long lasting food they bring us; by holy Law have cows come to our worship.

Rv-4.23,10: ṛtaṃ yemāna ṛtam id vanoty ṛtasya śuṣmas turayā u ghavyuḥ |

ṛtāya pṛthvī bahule ghabhīre ṛtāya dhenū parame duhāte ||
# Fixing eternal Law he, too, upholds it swift moves the might of Law and wins the booty.
To Law belong the vast deep Earth and Heaven: Milch-kine supreme, to Law their milk they render.

Elevation of “Asva/ True Horse” as the New God after its entry in Vedic World

In Mandala-1 of Rigved, there are two hymns (Rv-1.162 and Rv-1.163) devoted to
“Asva/the True Horse” and the contents of the 35 verses of these two hymns indicate that
these were composed after witnessing real time sacrifice of the “True Horse” by the Poet.

Announcement of “Asva/ the True Horse” as a newly inducted God:

# Slight us not Varuna, Aryaman, or Mitra, Rbhuksan, Indra, Ayu, or the Maruts,
When we declare amid the congregation the virtues of the strong Steed, God-descended.

On behalf of Priestly Community, the Poet sincerely requests Gods like Varuna, Mitra,
Aryaman, Indra the master of Ribhus, Ayu and Maruts not to get offended (or disregarded)
when he hereby declares current Swift runner/Vaji as the part of class of Gods / Deva-jatasya
or group of Divine Beings. In other words, content of this verse indicates that the Poet has
inducted Asva, a new entrant in the list of Gods/Deities, and hence he appeals to Old Gods
not to feel hurt (or the Poet says that he has no intention to show disrespect to the earlier Gods).
G. Mythological Dimensions – Origin of the “Asvas and Rathas” of the Deities:

In many ancient scriptures, the Composers have incorporated several stories and many
of them could be fictitious or pure myths or of historical significance or some of them may be
partly true. Rigved contains several mythological stories that get repeated over and over again
in the different Mandalas of the text as the Poets wanted their next generations should be aware
of the important ideas developed by their ancestors in the past. In reality, through the composed
poems, the Sage-poets tried to preserve these myths and narratives in the oral form.

Content of the verse Rv-1.185,2 indicates that mother Earth and father Heaven who
are termed as the Universal Parents of the Deities of Rigved are footless and hence immobile
but their children (Deities) have feet and can walk freely from one place to other. This was the
scenario of pre-Yajna period. It means, Earlier Deities used to go anywhere by walk.

In several hymns dedicated to Deities like Indra, Asvins, Usha Maruts, Pushan etc.
illustrate that the Rigvedic Gods use “Asva Drawn Rathas” to perform journey in the sky as
well as to come down on Earth to visit the sites of Yajna. Now the main question is “what is
the origin of an imaginary concept of “Asva Drawn Ratha” found in the Rigvedic Songs?”

Two consecutive verses from the hymn Rv-1.20 dedicated to Ribhus that belong to the
last but one Mandala of Rigved provide contextual clues for the true source of Hari the two
bay steeds of Indra and Ratha of Asvins [1, 2].

Rv-1.20,2: ya indrāya vacoyujā tatakṣurmanasā harī |

śamībhiryajñamāśata ||
# They who for Indra, with their mind, formed horses harnessed by a word,
Attained by works to sacrifice.

Rv-1.20,3: takṣan nāsatyābhyāṃ parijmānaṃ sukhaṃ ratham |

takṣan dhenuṃ sabardughām ||
# They for the two Nasatyas wrought a light car moving every way:
They formed a nectar-yielding cow.
 It means to say that fabled “Hari / हरी of Indra” and mythical “Ratha of Asvins” are
the mental models/manasā of the Ribhus (three brothers who lived during pre-Rigvedic time).
Please understand that a mental model is an imaginary concept based on belief or a mind
game of the people, and does not exist physically.

Table-2 provides information on the mythical references of the Asvas and Rathas
found in the different Rigvedic hymns that are addressed to Ribhus.

Table-2

Important Contributions of the Ribhus Reference Verse Number

Invention of Su-Ratha (Swift) for the easy Rv-4.33,8; Rv-1.20,3; Rv-1.111,1; Rv-1.161,3
movement of Asvins. and Rv-1.161,3

Design of Hari / Two Bay steeds for Indra Rv-3.60,2; Rv-4.33,10; Rv-4.35,5; and 4.37,4;
Rv-1,20,2;
Rv-1.111,1; Rv-1.161,3 ; Rv-1.161,3

Creation of “अश्वा॒दश्॑मतक्षत/ Asva from Asva”, Rv-1.161,7

means more Asvas to pull the Rathas of Other

Deities or to cater the needs of other Deities.

Please note that the Asvas and the Rathas mentioned in the hymns of Rigved for the
movements of Deities were shaped by the pre-Rigvedic Rishis through mental insight only.
As per the verse Rv-1.20,2 the main purpose of introduction of Asva drawn Ratha is to bring
the Deities quickly to the location of Yajna.

The Poets of the Mandala-3 and 4 (Two out of Five Early Mandalas of Rigved) have
also talked about these mythological features in details.

Rv-3,60,2: yābhiḥ śacībhiścamasānapiṃśata yayā dhiyā ghāmariṇīta carmaṇaḥ |

yena harī manasā niratakṣata tena devatvaṃ ṛbhavaḥ samānaśa ||

Comment: Presence of Hari Manasa/ हरी मनसा in the verse clearly implies that Hari /Two
tawny steeds of Indra are the mental product of the ancient Ribhus (three brothers).
 Verses from Mandala-4 hymns that are dedicated to Ribhus do communicate same
thing about Asvas of Indra.
Rv-4.33,10: ye harī medhayokthā madanta indrāya cakruḥ suyujā ye aśvā |
te rāyas poṣaṃ draviṇāny asme dhatta ṛbhavaḥ kṣemayanto na mitram ||

# They who made glad with sacrifice and praises, wrought the two Bays, his docile Steeds,
for Indra,
Rbhus, as those who wish a friend to prosper, bestow upon us gear and growth of riches.

Comment: Ribhus shaped Indra’s Hari/two bay steeds they became his Asvas. Use of
मे धयोक्था/ medhayokthā term in the above verse does manifest that the Ribhus have applied
an exceptional wisdom to shape Hari of Indra.

Rv-4.35,5: acyā harī dhanutarāv ataṣṭendravāhāv ṛbhavo vājaratnāḥ ||

Comment: Ribhus fashioned two bay steeds to convey Indra.
Verse Rv-4.34,9 depicts that Ribhus formed Two Asvas but there is no mention of
Indra in the verse.
In addition to Early Mandala references, a Mandala-1 Poet in the hymn Rv-1.111 has
mentioned the contribution of Ribhus in making Ratha (for Asvins) and Hari for Indra.

Rv-1.111,1: takṣan rathaṃ suvṛtaṃ vidamnāpasastakṣan harī indravāhā vṛṣaṇvasū

But Poet of the verse Rv-2,35,6 has credited birth of Asva to Apam Napat /Agni of
Yajna, described as aśvasyātra janimāsya (अश्वस्यात्र जद्वनमास्यच). In other words, origin of
Asva used by the Rigvedic Deities for pulling their quick moving Rathas is born from Agni of
Yajna and hence mythical Asva has nothing to do with a real animal like the True Horse.

Now we shall take a close look at the references of Asvins’ Ratha present in the hymns
dedicated to Ribhus [1].

Rv-4.36,1: anaśvo jāto anabhīśur ukthyo rathas tricakraḥ pari vartate rajaḥ |
mahat tad vo devyasya pravācanaṃ dyām ṛbhavaḥ pṛthivīṃ yac ca puṣyatha ||
# The car that was not made for horses or for reins, three-wheeled, worthy of lauds, rolls round the firmament.
That is the great announcement of your Deity, that, O ye Rbhus, ye sustain the earth and heaven.
 From the above discussion it is crystal clear that Hari of Indra and Ratha of Asvins
are the mental models or the mental creation of Ribhus who lived during the development
stage of Yajna ritual. Here a mental model represents an intuitive perception or a thought
process on whose basis a person visualises how something (that does not exists) will work.
Mental model of Ratha is most probably an adaptation of a cart pulled by bulls.

It is to be noted here that Ratha of Indra is not fashioned by the Ribhus but the
Bhrugus (see verse Rv-4.16,20).
Similar to the Rigvedic Deities like Indra, Asvins, Pushan, Varuna, Mitra, Savitar etc.
Asva of the Deities is the mythological animals and it is also immortal and invisible too, can
move quickly anywhere from Heaven to Earth. Hence it can be described as the Supernatural
Entity or Heavenly Asva whose birth tales are present in the Early and the Late Mandalas.

Sky-high Imagination of the Poets for “Infinite Distance Measurement”

The Poets of Two Late Mandalas using their imaginativeness, highlighted a myth of
measurement of infinite distance using rays of two Solar Gods; Savitar, Surya/the Sun [1].

Rv-5.81,3: Even he, the God whose going-forth and majesty the other Deities have followed with their might,
He who hath measured the terrestrial regions out by his great power, he is the Courser Savitar.

Rv-5.85,5: I will declare this mighty deed of magic, of glorious Varuna the Lord Immortal,
Who standing in the firmament hath meted the earth out with the Sun as with a measure.

Rv-8.25,18 : He who hath measured with his ray the boundaries of heaven and earth,
And with his majesty hath filled the two worlds full,

Comments: As per the Poet of the verse Rv-5.81,3; it is God Savitar who moves like courser
and uses his special power to map out terrestrial and celestial regions.

The Composer of the verse Rv-5,85,5 says that God Varuna stands in the mid-region
and measures out Earth (distance between two ends of mother Earth) with the help of Surya.

In the verse Rv-8.25,18, the Singer claims that using the rays of Surya, the duo Mitra-
Varuna are able to measure the limits or both ends of Earth and Heaven.
In this way, the Rigvedic Poets have employed their lofty imagination to measure the
infinite distance with the aid of rays of Solar Deities like Savitar and Surya which is
otherwise impossible to think of.
H. Rivalry Dimensions – “the Five Tribes standing against the Bharata king Sudasa”:

The Poets of Mandala-7 belonging to Vasistha clan have brought out a special story
of the “War of Ten Kings” in the three hymns of the Mandala and these are: Rv-7.18; Rv-
7.33; and Rv-7.83. As per the information available in these three hymns, the combined army
of the Ten Kings that included the “Five Tribes of Rigved” fought against the army of
Bharata and Trutsu on the bank of river Parushni.
In these three hymns, although the cause of enmity between the two parties is not clearly
given, hence we need to assume that Bharata king Sudasa probably wanted to capture some
kingdoms of the Five Tribes that were located in northern part of Rigvedic Territory.
Names of all Five Tribes of Rigved (Anu, Druhyu, Puru, Turvasa, and Yadu) are
found only in the Mandala-1 verse Rv-1.108,8 that happens to be the last but one Mandala.

# Rv-1.108,8 : If with, the Yadus, Turvasas, ye sojourn, with Druhyus, Anus, Purus, Indra-Agni!

It means to say that the Rigvedic Poets of different Mandalas have identified several
generations of the Five Tribes by the names of Original or Frontline Leaders of these Tribes,
i. e. Anu, Druhyu, Puru, Turvasa, and Yadu who lived during Early Rigvedic era. Same
thing holds true in case of Bharata Tribe as well since king Bharata was its independent but
first recognized Tribe leader.
Hence it can be said that the First Batch Leaders of the Five Tribes could have been
the contemporaries of king Bharata who was the patron of the Rigvedic Priests (the tradition
of Clan Culture is also noticed in case of the Old Vedic Rishis like Angirasa and Bhrugu
whose descendants are known as the Angirasas and the Bhrugus respectively).

Surprisingly, in Mandala-2 and 3 there are a few generic references of the Five Tribes,
but by name there is no direct reference of any of the Five Tribes. Hence here it is taken as,
during the period of composition of Mandala-2 and 3; the kings of Bharata clan had no
personal contact with the Leaders of the Five Tribes.
The Composers of Mandala-4, in some selected verses have mentioned names of the
three out of Five Tribes and they are Puru, Turvasa, and Yadu.

The Poets of Mandala-6 have covered All Five Tribes by name but these are
mentioned in different verses. The description available in the related verses do indicate
unfriendly behaviour of these Tribes with the Bharatas or out of compulsion, some of them
might have come in contact with the Bharata king Divodasa. Therefore, it can be said that
during the period of composition of Mandala-6, all Five Tribes were hostile with the Rigvedic
Priests. In other words, on some occasions, some of them were forced to participate in Yajna,
probably after their defeat at the hands of Bharata King Divodasa in the local battles.

In Mandala-7 hymns Rv-7.18; the Poet has given Four out of names of the Five Tribes
in different verses; Anu, Druhyu, Puru, Turvasa. Additionally, in the verse-7 same Poet has
mentioned names of other tribe leaders like Pakthas, Bhalanas, Alinas, Visanis, and Sivas.

Brief Description about the “War of Ten Kings”

After collecting information provided by the Poets of Vasistha clan in the three war
hymns, Rv-7.18; Rv-7.33; Rv-7.83 and rearranging the same, a better picture of the “Dasha-
Rajana or the War of Ten Kings” is emerged that is given below.
Based on the information traced in the verses Rv-7.33,6; 4; and 5 in the order indicated,
the war story needs to begin with: a long back, in an early battle, king Sudasa led Bharatas
were cornered by some partners of the Ten Kings at the unknown location, hence Bharatas
were at the receiving end or they might have lost the battle earlier. Then Vasistha was made
the Royal Priest of Bharatas, means there was a change of guard. After taking over the charge,
Vasistha conducted special Yajnas so as to request Indra to help Bharatas in the
forthcoming War. Before the start of a major war, upon request of Vasishta, Trutsus decided
to join the forces of king Sudasa in the war and that changed the equation [1].
In the hymn Rv-7.18 the Composer has mentioned that after continuous praise of God
Indra, the latter came forward to assist king Sudasa and made the flood water of river
Parushni to recede so that Bharatas could cross the river without any difficulty. Next thing
was, when the leaders of the Five Tribes and Pakthas, Bhalanas, Alinas, Visanis, and Sivas
jointly attacked Sudasa, in no time Sudasa and Trutsu acted swiftly and defeated all of them
together. Thus the joint forces of Sudasa and Trutsu compelled the Ten Kings to concede the
defeat.
Additionally, on the bank of river Yamuna; combined army of Trutsu and Sudasa
defeated Bheda and his close friends (Rv-7.18). In this way, as per the version of the
Composers of these three hymns, under the guidance of Indra and Varuna (Rv-7,83) with the
active support received from the white robed and braided hair Trutsus, with ease, king Sudasa
was able to neutralise his Ten Enemies on the bank of river Parushni who had come together
to fight against the Bharatas.

Probable Reasons for United Opposition of the Ten Kings to the Bharatas

Based on the information provided in the War highlighting hymns; two possible
reasons for the dispute are discussed below.

i. Bharatas wanted to capture the North-East area of Rigvedic Territory:

As discussed earlier, the War of Ten Kings was fought on the bank of river Parushni
(present-day river Ravi that flows in Punjab states of India and Pakistan). Additionally, hymn
Rv-7.18 also informs us that Bheda and his friends were defeated on the bank of river Yamuna
(the river flows in Haryana and Uttar Pradesh states of India).

Also in Mandala-7, there are two hymns exclusively dedicated to river Saraswati
(presently, the river is known as Ghaggar in India that runs in Haryana and Rajsthan states
of the country and in Pakistan it is called as Hakra). Contents of the hymns devoted to river
Saraswati do indicate that the Poet physically visited the up-stream region of the river and
personally saw that the Purus reside on the banks of the river Saraswati when they become
Grassy means during rainy season only.

Based on the references of three rivers in Mandala-7 hymns and their geographical
locations, it can be said that after defeating the Five Tribes and Bheda in the two different
wars, the Bharatas captured the North-East part of the Rigvedic Territory and therefore,
the Rigvedic Priests could move freely to conduct Yajna in that region (please refer to verses
Rv-7.18,22 to 25 that depict Dana-stuti Yajna conducted for king Sudasa, the son of
Divodasa) and could visit Puru’s country to highlight the precarious state of river Saraswati.

Following Mandala-7 verse indirectly supports above mentioned points.

Rv-7.50,4: The steep declivities, the valleys, and the heights, the channels full of water, and
the waterless,
May those who swell with water, gracious Goddesses, never afflict us with the
Sipada disease, may all the rivers keep us free from Simida.
 Poet of the verse Rv-7.50,4 has pointed out the fact that while wandering in the North-
East region that was annexed by king Sudasa, he came across several rivers having varied
depths and widths and out of them, some carried water (Yamuna, Parushni?) in them and some
went waterless (Saraswati?). The Composer has also termed the water carrying rivers as the
Goddesses but requested them to safeguard the Priests from the water-borne diseases.

It means to say that in the up-stream region of river Saraswati and around other rivers
of that locality, even though water was available in some rivers, due to presence of polluted
water in some of them all was not well, and hence human life was in danger.

ii. Ten Kings followed different faith:

From the Rigvedic Priests’s point of views, Mandala-7 Poets in the two verses [1] have
hinted at probable reason for setting of a War between the armies of Sudasa and the Ten Kings.

Rv-7.18,16: ardhaṃ vīrasya śṛtapāmanindraṃ parā śardhantaṃ nunude abhi kṣām |

indro manyuṃ manyumyo mimāya bheje patho vartanimpatyamānaḥ ||
# The hero's side who drank the dressed oblation, Indra's denier, far over earth he scattered.
Indra brought down the fierce destroyer's fury. He gave them various roads, the path's Controller.

RV-7.83,7: daśa rājānaḥ samitā ayajyavaḥ sudāsamindrāvaruṇā na yuyudhuḥ |

satyā nṛṇāmadmasadāmupastutirdevā eṣāmabhavan devahūtiṣu ||
# Ten Kings who worshipped not, O Indra-Varuna, confederate, in war prevailed not over Sudas.
True was the boast of heroes sitting at the feast: so at their invocations Gods were on their side.

Use of the words अद्वनन्द्रं (Indra Denier--- Griffith [1]) and अयज्यवः in the above two verses
makes it clear that none of the Ten kings had faith in Indra, the Supreme God of Rigvedic
Priests and had no interest in performing Yajna in the names of the Rigvedic Gods like Indra,
Varuna. In other words, the Ten Kings who opposed the Bharata king Sudasa did not
believe in Vedic Philosophy shaped by the ancestors of the Rigvedic Priests. As per the
information given in the verse Rv-3.59,8; the Five Tribes of Rigved believed God Mitra.

In Sum, the reasons given in the above paragraphs make it clear that since several
generations, there was hostility among the Bharatas/Priests and the Leaders of Five Tribes.
I. Mysterious Dimension- Vertical Split in the Priestly Community:

Mandala-7 happens to be the last among the Five Early Mandalas of Rigved wherein
we find the story of the “War of Ten Kings”. In the order of Rigvedic composition, next
Mandala is Mandala-5. As discussed in earlier section, Ten Kings that included the Five
Tribes did not follow Yajna practice. But following verses taken from Mandala-5 actually
provide a different wordy picture that contradicts the background of War Scenario [1].

End of enmity between “the Five Tribes and the Rigvedic Priests”

Rv-5.32,11: ekaṃ nu tvā satpatim pāñcajanyaṃ jātaṃ śṛṇomi yaśasaṃ janeṣu |

tam me jaghṛbhra āśaso naviṣṭhaṃ doṣā vastor havamānāsa indram || \
# I hear that thou wast born sole Lord of heroes of the Five Races, famed among the people.
As such my wishes have most lately grasped him, invoking Indra both at eve and morning

Comments: In the hymn devoted to Indra, the Poet now describes that God Indra has become
the sole Lord of the Five Brave Peoples / pāncajanyam jātam which indirectly means the
leaders of Five Tribes have now accepted Indra as their Supreme God, and started
worshipping Him in the Morning and Evening.

Rv-5.35,2: yad indra te catasro yac chūra santi tisrah mṛ |

yad vā panca ks itīnāmṛ avas tat su na ā bhara ||
# Indra, whatever aids be thine, four be they, or, O Hero, three,
Or those of the Five Tribes of men, bring quickly all that help to us.

Comments: In the another verse dedicated to Indra, Mandala-5 Poet says that out of the Five
Tribes, number of the representatives present at the time of Yajna may be three or four types,
but Indra should not mind it, and provide necessary help to all of them, and us as well.

Rv-5.86,2: yā pṛtanāsu duṣṭarā yā vājeṣu śravāyyā |

yā pañca carṣaṇīr abhṝndrāghnī tā havāmahe ||
# The Twain invincible in war, worthy to be renowned in frays,
Lords of the Fivefold People, these, Indra and Agni, we invoke.
Comments: In the hymn addressed to Indra-Agni, the Singer praises them as a pair of the
Gods who are invincible in war, and now the Lords of the Five People.
 The bitterness between the ancient Rishis and the ruling class would have begun when
king Nahusha who ruled his kingdom from a town located on the bank of river Saraswati
strongly opposed the old Rishis when they fashioned a new god Indra to neutralize the effect
of Vritra (real drought). But the references of Mandala-5 discussed above make it clear that
now there is no rivalry between the Priestly Community and the Current Leaders of Five Tribes.

The transformation of the Members of the Five Tribes from Enmity to Devotee of the
Vedic Gods can be understood from the Mandala-8 verse Rv-8.10,5 dedicated to Asvins.
Please remember that in the order of composition of the Five Late Mandalas of Rigved,
Mandala-5 is followed by Mandala-8, meaning thereby the Poets of Mandala-8 were fully
aware of the events occurred in the past, hence they knew change in the opinions of Five Tribes.

Rv-8.10,5: Whether ye, Lords of ample wealth, now linger in the east or west,
With Druhyu, or with Anu, Yadu, Turvasa, I call you hither; come to me.

Comments: In the hymn addressed to Asvins, Poet tells the twin Gods that whether they stay
in the East (with Puru as this tribe name is missing in the verse) or in the West with Druhyu
or Anu or Yadu and Turvasa, they shall immediately come to the place of Composer as he is
the true devotee of them. Please note that in the first 30 hymns of Mandala-8, river Sindhu
has been referred to about five times, manifesting that before the start of Mandala-8, the
Priests got relocated to west of river Sindhu and hence were in close contact with the Leaders
of the Four out of Five Tribes, and they were- Anu, Druhyu, Turvasa and Yadu.

Eternal Love for “Indra” led to Split in the Priestly Community

As discussed earlier, since inception of Rigved, the members of Priestly community

were the die-hard fans of Indra and Yajna. This has been reiterated by the Mandala-8 Poet in
the verse taken from the very first hymn addressed to Indra.

Rv-8.1,5: mahe cana tvāmadrivaḥ parā śulkāya deyām |

na sahasrāyanāyutāya vajrivo na śatāya śatāmagha ||
# O Caster of the Stone, I would not sell thee for a mighty price,
Not for a thousand, Thunderer! Nor ten thousand, nor a hundred, Lord of countless wealth!
Comments: In the afore-stated verse the Poet has made it crystal clear that he does not want
to sell Vajra bearer Indra at any cost, neither for hundred, nor for thousand nor for ten
thousand. It means, he has identified Indra as the most Invaluable God.

As it is known from the contents of the hymns addressed to God Indra, the Composers
of All Six Family Mandalas had endless faith in God Indra, and they never wanted to do
away with their beloved God. But when the Priests got relocated to west of river Sindhu during
the period of composition of Mandala-5, the availability of sufficient water in that region
would have brought substantial change in perspective of some, as it was realised by them that
Indra had no role in providing ample water in that region. This must have divided the Priestly
Community into two groups as the Poets of some families kept glorifying Indra for
contributing nothing. It is to be noted here that out of All Ten Mandalas of Rigved, Mandala-
8 is the only Mandala in which we find the very first hymn dedicated to God Indra [1, 2].

Table-3 provides wordy picture of the feelings expressed by the Mandala-8 Poets on
Marvellous God Indra, His deeds, and the rise and fall in His relationship with Other Gods.

Table-3
Verse Number Description about Indra, his Great Acts and his Loneliness or friendlessness
Rv-8.15,3; 11 Indra alone has killed many Vritras.
Rv-8.16,8 Indra is victorious even when alone.
Rv-8.21,13 By birth Indra is Brother less or Rival less and Friend less.
Rv-8.24,15 No one mightier than Indra has ever born.
Rv-8.36,4 Indra is the creator of Heaven and Earth. (How is it possible?)
Rv-8.62,2 Indra- companionless, unequal, and sole one.
Rv-8.70,5 Indra is bigger than hundred Heavens, hundred Earths and thousand Suns.
Rv-8.76,1 to 9 Indra takes the help of Maruts to destroy Vritra and other enemies.
Rv-8.96,7 Except Maruts all other old Gods desert Indra.
Rv-8.96,19 Indra, the aggressive Hero, the only Vritra slayer is alone now.
Rv-8.97,9 Neither Gods nor Mortals want to pay attention to Indra.
Rv-8.100,3 “Who has seen Indra?” “If He does not exist, then whom shall we worship?” (The
most relevant questions asked by the Poet that raises doubt about Indra’s presence).
Rv-8.100,5 Indra is resting on his back alone & his old friends started heckling Him.
Rv-8.100,7 Indra’s bolt struck the vital body parts of Vritra, hence the latter is not seen there.
Rv-8.52,7 Indra is considered as the Turiya/Fourth Aditya (why?).
 From the information placed in Table-3, it can be easily inferred that the Poets
belonging to Kanva and Angirasa clans (since the Poets from these two families are said to
have composed most of the hymns of Mandala-8) had ever lasting faith in Indra. Therefore,
they did not like anyone targeting Indra. It seems that when some members from the Rigvedic
Community raised strong voice against unwarranted glorification of Indra at the time of Yajna
rite, but the hard-core Priests did not budge from their earlier stand and got engaged with the
opponents in a verbal fight.
The contents of some verses do manifest that during the period of Mandala-8, Indra
lost most of his close friends. It means to say that those unidentified persons took strong
objection to God Indra alone but had no problem with other Deities. That is why some Poets
say that now Indra alone is capable to kill Vritra, and needs no company. Only the Singer of
the hymn Rv-8.76 has stated that Indra took the help of Maruts to kill the enemies.

The verse Rv-8.97,9 informs us that now both Gods and Mortals (Men) do not look
at Indra at all. The verse Rv-8.100,3 presents the worst scenario wherein the Composer has
pointed out that some persons did question the Poet about very existence of Indra. Taking a
clue from this point, the Poet in a self-addressed question has further added that “If Indra does
not exist, then to whom shall we worship?”

In the verse Rv-8.100,5 the Poet has mentioned that when Indra was taking rest
(hibernation?), then some old Gods who were His friends earlier, jeered at Him. It means that
once Indra was the Supreme God of all but now has become the subject of making fun.
The verse Rv-8.100,7; indicates that character Vritra, the sworn enemy of Indra
because of whom he took birth in the world is no more there, means Drought/famine is absent
in that locality now. Here the Poet assumes that, probably Indra has struck the vital part of
Vritra's Body by his Vajra/Bolt, and that is why Vritra has disappeared from the scene
(means no Drought to west of river Sindhu).

But the Poet in the verse Rv-8.96,15 has made it clear that with the help of Brihaspati,
the Rigvedic Priests could defend Indra and won the oral war with ease.

Hymn Rv-8.96 is one of the most mystical but brain teasing hymns of Rigved wherein
the Poet has cryptically described several small events/stories that are not easy to understand.
In the verse Rv-8.96,9 the Composer has enigmatically identified the opponents of Indra as
anāyudhāso asurā adevā or Weapon-less Asuras who had no faith in God Indra (adeva).
Those Asuras or persons are none other than a section of the Rigvedic Priests, most likely
from the family of Bhrugu as at the time of the War of Ten Kings, the Bhrugus are described
to be friendly with the Druhyus (refer to the verse Rv-7.18,6).
The Poet through the verse Rv-8.96,16 cryptically tells us that the situation very similar
to present-one did occur at the time of birth of Indra [1].

Rv-8.96,16: Then, at thy birth, thou wast the foeman, Indra, of those the seven who never
had met a rival.
The hidden Pair, the Heaven and Earth, thou foundest, and to the mighty worlds
thou gavest pleasure.

Comments: When Indra was fashioned by the ancient Rishis, at that time some persons of the
Vedic Community (most likely people from the ruling class) saw him as the real rival to
Sapta/Seven (Adityas) who were rival-less till then. But the Opponents of Indra did not pay
attention to the fact that by killing Vritra, new God Indra has brought back the hidden pair
means Heaven and Earth to the forefront and this made every creature happy as he re-activated
life in the world.

Note: In the verse Rv-8.96,16; the Poet has mentioned that earlier to arrival of Indra in the Vedic world,
“Seven had no competitor”. Here a fresh question arises; “other than Seven Adityas that were
fashioned a long before Indra, who could be the seven characters or the Divine Beings in the mind of
the Poet?” It means to say that a newly inducted God Indra was seen by some members of the Vedic
Society of that era as the threat to Seven Adityas. Similar feature is noticed in the hymn Rv-4.18 that
gives detail account of the birth of Indra. Poet of the said hymn in the verse Rv-4.18,11 hints at the
dispute in the Vedic Community when he mentions that after birth of Indra, his mother tells him “Old
Gods have deserted You, my son Indra”. It indirectly means when Indra was shaped, at that time, a
section of the society (most likely the Ruling Class headed by king Nahusha) strongly opposed his
induction as the Supreme and true Warrior God.

The Poet in the verses Rv-8.96,13 to 15 has cryptically described the story as “a black
drop (drapso) / a seed of discord grew in size, became ten thousand times means number of
the opponents got increased or multiplied like anything, then sank in river Amshumati as a
black cloud sinks in the water means the group of opponents of Indra disappeared
somewhere. God Indra could win the verbal war against the Adeva/Non-believers with the aid
of Brihaspati”.

Rv-8.96,13: ava drapso aṃśumatīmatiṣṭhadiyānaḥ kṛṣṇo daśabhiḥ sahasraiḥ |

āvat tamindraḥ śacyā dhamantamapa snehitīrnṛmaṇā adhatta ||
Rv-8.96,14: drapsamapaśyaṃ viṣuṇe carantamupahvare nadyo aṃśumatyāḥ |
nabho na kṛṣṇamavatasthivāṃsamiṣyāmi vo vṛṣaṇo yudhyatājau ||
Rv-8.96,15: adha drapso aṃśumatyā upasthe.adhārayat tanvaṃ titviṣāṇaḥ |
viśo adevīrabhyācarantīrbṛhaspatinā yujendraḥ sasāhe ||

On the basis of presence of various geographical features in Mandal-8 and the reason
for separation, it can be stated the split in the Rigvedic Community would have occurred in
the western part of Rigvedic Country as there was no paucity of water in that area.

From the above discussion, it is crystal clear that although the hardliner Priests won the
“War of the Words” against their opponents using the best possible word-power but could not
prevent the vertical split in the Community as they were for Indra but failed to convince the
people belonging to other group who were against Indra. However, they were successful in
retaining God Indra as the Supreme God in the Vedic Philosophy.

In short, in Mandal-8, there is conclusive evidence of breaking up of the Priestly

Community into two opposite factions because of undue glorification of God Indra.

From the contents of the verses of Mandala-8 hymn Rv-8.96, it can be concluded that
Vedic Society had experienced split twice, first at the time of birth of Indra when the People
of Royal Clan refused to accept newly born Indra as the replacement of God Varuna who
was the Prime Deity or undisputed leader since a long time; and second time, division
occurred during the composition of Mandala-8 when some members of Priestly Community
revolted against the hardliner Priests for lauding of Indra in Yajna for contributing nothing as
there was no Vritra effect (paucity of water or drought like situation that existed in the eastern
part of Rigvedic Territory; adjacent to river Saraswati)) on the west side of river Sindhu.

In other words, “if there is no Indra, then there can be no Yajna in Rigved”.
J. Numerical Dimension -Application of “Decimal System” described in Mandala-2:

a. Proper introduction to Rigvedic Decimal System:

Grtsamada, the lead Composer of Mandala-2, at the start of Rigvedic Composition in

the verse Rv-2.1,8 actually provided a clue for his awareness of Decimal System [1].

Rv-2.1,8: tvamaghne dama ā viśpatiṃ viśastvāṃ rājānaṃ suvidatraṃ ṛñjate |

tvaṃ viśvāni svanīka patyase tvaṃ sahasrāṇi śatā daśa prati ||
# To thee, the people's Lord within the house, the folk press forward to their King most graciously inclined.
Lord of the lovely look, all things belong to thee: ten, hundred, yea, a thousand are outweighed by thee.

Presence of the three distinct numerical terms; Sahastra, Shata, and Dasha in the
original Sanskrit verse but found in decreasing order of the values, does manifest that the
Singer had the “Sense of Decimal System” at the outset of Rigved itself.

In the verse from another hymn from the same Mandala but addressed to Indra given
below exhibits use of three separate terms namely; Shata, Dasha, and Eka in decreasing order
by the Poet probably to substantiate his understanding of the “Decimal System”.
Rv-2.13,9: śataṃ vā yasya daśa sākamādya ekasya śruṣṭau yad dhacodamāvitha |
arajjau dasyūn samunab dabhītaye suprāvyoabhavaḥ ||
# Thou boundest up the Dasa's hundred friends and ten, when, at one's hearing, thou helpest thy worshipper.
Thou for Dabhiti boundest Dasyus not with cords; Thou wast a mighty help. Worthy of lauds art thou.

Based on the above two references, it can be firmly said that well before the
commencement of Rigvedic Composition, the members of the Priestly Community had the
proper knowledge of the Decimal System/ Base-10 and that must have come to them from
their ancestors.

b. Surprise Collection of the “Five Even Numbers” in a Single Verse:

Even though nowhere any Rigvedic Poet has made clear distinction between the Odd
and Even Numbers (present-day terms) used by him in the compositions, but the only
appearance of the “Five Alternate Numbers” of one type i.e., Even Numbers in the verse Rv-
2.18,4 makes us to believe that the Composer of Mandala-2 had prior idea about the same.

Rv-2.18,4: ā dvābhyāṃ haribhyāmindra yāhyā caturbhirā ṣaḍbhirhūyamānaḥ|

āṣṭābhirdaśabhiḥ somapeyamayaṃ sutaḥsumakha mā mṛdhas kaḥ ||

# Indra, come hitherward with two Bay Coursers, come thou with four, with six when invocated.
Come thou with eight, with ten, to drink the Soma. Here is the juice, brave Warrior: do not scorn it.

From the above verse it is evident that out of the First Ten Numbers belonging to the
Number Scale, the Singer has properly identified the “Five Even Numbers” in the correct
order, and they are Dva/Two, Chatur/Four, Shad/Six, Ashta/Eight, and Dasha/Ten.

c. Recitation of the “Ten Times Table” in the Two Consecutive Verses:

About 30 years ago, in most of the Primary Schools of the Indian Regional
Languages, daily at the start of the school, the students of the 3rd or 4th standards, in one voice
used to recite the tables of 1 to 30 numbers. This everyday recitation of the number tables used
to help even a student who is poor in maths to carry out multiplications with ease. Surprisingly,
the Poet of the hymn Rv-2,18 in the two consecutive verses has hinted at the recitation of the
“Ten Times Table” but excluded the starting number Dasha/ten for unknown reason.

Rv-2.18,5: ā viṃśatyā triṃśatā yāhyarvāṃ ā catvāriṃśatā haribhiryajānaḥ |

ā pañcāśatā surathebhirindrā ṣaṣṭyā saptatyā somapeyam ||

# O Indra, come thou hither having harnessed thy car with twenty, thirty, forty horses.
Come thou with fifty well trained coursers, Indra, sixty or seventy, to drink the Soma.

Rv-2.18,6: āśītyā navatyā yāhyarvāṃ ā śatena haribhiruhyamānaḥ |

ayaṃ hi te śunahotreṣu soma indra tvāyā pariṣikto madāya ||

# Come to us hitherward, O Indra, carried by eighty, ninety, or hundred horses.

This Soma juice among the Sunahotras hath been poured out, in love, to glad thee, Indra.
d. Use of Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers by the Mandala-2 Poet in the Composition:

Generally speaking, a Cardinal number tells us about the “Quantity” or “How Many”
things or entities are present, for example: 1, 2, 3 (can also be expressed in words as-One, Two,
Three etc.). In other words, the Cardinal numbers are used to count a set of objects and inform
us about the quantitative aspects. An Ordinal Number is used to define order, position, and
rank of something, for example: first, second, third, fourth, etc. In other words, an Ordinal
number is used to describe the order of the things. For ease of remembrance, we can use
following alphabets;

C = cardinal number- -counting (signals Quantity)

O = ordinal number - -ordering (sounds Quality)

Now coming to the point of the use of Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers by the Poet of
Mandala-2, in the earlier parts (Part-a, b and c); we have seen some examples of the Cardinal
Numbers used by the Singer in the Poems, and the following verse from Mandala-2
communicates us about the use of Ordinal Numbers by the Poet in the composition.

Rv-2.18,2: sāsmā araṃ prathamaṃ sa dvitīyamuto tṛtīyaṃ manuṣaḥ sa hotā |

anyasyā gharbhamanya ū jananta so anyebhiḥ sacate jenyo vṛṣā ||

# This is prepared for him the first, the second, and the third time: he is man's Priest and Herald.
Others get offspring of another parent he goeth, as a noble Bull, with others.

Information given in the above verse brings out the fact that the Singer very well knew
when and where to use the Ordinal numbers.
Based on information available on the use of numbers in all Ten Mandalas of Rigved,
it can be said that Rigvedic Poets were taught by the ancestors and hence had proper awareness
of the difference between the Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers and their applications as well.

Note: It would be interesting to know whether the knowledgeable persons of “Other Bronze Age
Civilizations” could make the distinction between the Cardinal and Ordinal numbers (present-day features)
as noticed in Rigved and then used them in the documents/inscriptions of that time to differentiate
between “Numerical Quantity and Quality”.
K. Realistic Dimensions- Late Acceptance of “Surya as the only Visible Aditya”:

It is strange but fact that, even though Savitar and Surya are called as the Solar Deities
of Rigved, still the Composers of the Five Early Mandalas (Mandala-2, 3, 4, 6, and 7) have
paid special attention to God Savitar but often ignored God Surya.

In other words, the Poets of these Five Early Family Mandalas have glorified God
Savitar in some of their compositions by addressing special hymns to him only and those
hymns are: Rv-2.38; Rv-4.53; Rv-4.54; Rv-6.71; Rv-7.38; and Rv-7.45.

From the above information, it is evident that with the exception of the Family Poets
of Mandala-3, the Composers of Other Four Family Mandalas have lauded God Savitar
independently in their Special Poems (but in the verse Rv-3.62,10 Savitar is praised highly).

Additionally, some Composers of the Five Late Mandalas (Mandala-5, 8, 9, 1, and

10) have dedicated some independent hymns to God Savitar and those are: Rv-5.81; Rv-5.82;
Rv-1.35; Rv-10.139; Rv-10.149.

Interestingly, God Surya is independently lauded only by the Poets of the Last Two
Mandalas as the hymns devoted to the God are found in Mandala-1 and 10 and those are: Rv-
1.50; Rv-1.115; Rv-10.37; Rv-10.158; Rv-10.170; Rv-10.189.

In addition to above, in some hymns of the Late Mandalas, along with other Deities,
the Singers have lauded Surya in some dedicated verses, and those hymns are;

Hymns addressed to Surya and Other Deities

Rv-5.40 : Indra, Surya, Atri
Rv-1.191: Water, Grass and Surya/the Sun
Rv-10.88 : Surya and Vaishvanara Agni

As a matter of fact, the use of a very special adjective; Aditya (Rv-1.50,13; Rv-1.191,9;
Rv-8.101,11) for God Surya is found in a very few hymns of the Late Mandalas only.

Mandala-4 Composer in the hymns Rv-4.13 and Rv-4.14 addressed to God Agni has
placed Savitar and Surya along with Agni. This is because, although Agni, Savitar, and
Surya are projected as the three separate Gods in Rigved, but they share common attributes
like giving Heat and Light to all the things present in the world. It is also believed that Savitar
and Surya are the celestial forms of Land based Agni [1].
 Surya, as the form of Agni

Through the verse Rv-8.7,36 the Singer informs us that Agni was born first to spread
the light everywhere, then Surya arrived in the world [1].

Rv-8.7,36: Agni was born the first of all, like Surya lovely with his light:
With lustre these have spread abroad.

Additionally, one of the Last Mandala Poets in the hymn addressed to Agni Vaisvanara
has made it clear that basic functions of Agni and Surya are the same [1].

Rv-10.88,6: Head of the world is Agni in the night-time; then, as the Sun, at morn springs up and rises.
Then to his task goes the prompt Priest foreknowing the wondrous power of Gods who must be honoured.

Rv-10.88,11: What time the Gods, whose due is worship, set him as Surya, Son of Aditi, in heaven,
When the Pair, ever wandering, sprang to being, all creatures that existed looked upon them.

Rv-10.88,14: We call upon the Sage with holy verses, Agni Vaisvanara the ever-beaming,
Who hath surpassed both heaven and earth in greatness: lie is a God below, a God above us.

The verse Rv-10.156,4 tells us that, it is God Surya who represents Agni in the Sky
and has been placed there to give light to all living beings.

Rv-10.156,4: Agni, thou hast made the Sun, Eternal Star, to mount the sky,
Bestowing light on living men.

Surya as “Aditya”
Now the fundamental question is “why did the Poets of the Five Early Mandalas not
consider Surya as Aditya or the main Vedic God?”
Although in any hymn of Rigved, one cannot find exact answer to afore-stated question,
but the Last Mandala Poet the hymn Rv-10.72 [1] dedicated to the Gods had given probable
reason for omission of Surya from the category of Adityas in the Five Early Mandalas or
non-inclusion of God Surya in the list of Main Gods of Rigved. Rv-10.72,7 and 8 are the two
consecutive verses wherein we find clues for non-consideration of Surya as Aditya earlier.
Rv-10.72,7: When, O ye Gods, like Yatis, ye caused all existing things to grow,
Then ye brought Surya forward who was lying hidden in the sea.

Rv-10.72,8: Eight are the Sons of Aditi who from her body sprang to life.
With seven she went to meet the Gods she cast Martanda far away.

It is to be noted here that Seven Adityas are the First Generation Vedic Gods who
are treated as the immortal and invisible Divine Beings. But as described in the verses Rv-
10.72,7 and 8; Surya who is also named as Martanda (literally means –a mortal egg) is a
mortal entity as he daily arrives (born) in the East and sets (dies) in the West. This could be
only possible reason for non-inclusion of Surya as one of the Adityas in the Six Family
Mandalas.

The verse Rv-8.101,11 provides the earliest evidence that manifests willingness of the
Rigvedic Priests to induct Surya in the list of Adityas [1].

Rv-8.101,11: Verily, Surya, thou art great; truly, Aditya, thou art great.
As thou art great indeed, thy greatness is admired: yea, verily, thou, God, art great.

Now we shall take a close look at the two successive verses of the hymn Rv-8.101.

Rv-8.101,5: To Aryaman and Mitra sing a reverent song, O pious one,

A pleasant hymn that shall protect to Varuna: sing forth a laud unto the Kings.

Rv-8.101,6: The true, Red Treasure they have sent, one only Son born of the Three.
They, the Immortal Ones, never deceived, survey the families of mortal men.

In the verse Rv-8.101,5; the Poet has praised three Adityas- Varuna, Mitra and
Aryaman together as the kings. But in Rv-8.101,6, the Composer has cryptically mentioned
“only Son born of the Three”. Here the term three stands for the three Adityas lauded in the
earlier verse Rv-8.101,5 and in the next verse “only Son born of the Three” who is also a Red
Treasure/Arunam is nothing but Surya/ the Sun who is generally designated as the Eye of
Varuna. But here Surya is depicted as the true representative of the three Adityas (as if only
son of three Adityas) and on behalf of three Immortals he keeps watch on the Mortals.
 “Surya”, the True Performer and the Real Multi-tasker

The Poet of the hymn Rv-1.164 has taken special interest in bringing out real
contributions of God Surya in running the live show of the world but he has presented various
functions of God Surya in the form of small puzzles. In fact, in the verses 4, 8, 9, 10, 18, 28,
31, 32, 33 of hymn 1.164, “Goddess Aditi is defined as Cow” and “Surya is called as Calf”
In the following paragraphs, we shall discuss various key roles played by Surya.

Surya take the World Forward [1]

Rv-1.164,2: Seven to the one-wheeled chariot yoke the Courser; bearing seven names the
single Courser draws it.
Three-naved the wheel is, sound and un-decaying, whereon are resting all these
worlds of being.

Comments: The Poet in the verse-2 has cryptically described how the world moves forward
in a year (progress of a Kaal-chakra/wheel of time with Ritu-chakra).
The key terms used by the Poet in the verse-2 are re-interpreted as follows.

All Seven: Seven Adityas (who rule the world as per the eternal law/Rta)

Single wheeled Ratha: Yearly motion of the World (that includes Heaven and Earth)

Single Asva: Surya/the Sun (Asva stands for Power, Source of Energy of the World).

Three Naves: three main seasons experienced in India/Summer, Rainy, and Winter.

In other words, it is due to Surya, Yearly Movement of the World is possible.

Surya as the “Rain-maker and the Life Sustainer”

There are a few verses in the hymn Rv-1.164 wherein the Poet has spoken on the rain
and on the basis of the contents of verses, for discussion, these verses are arranged in the order
as: 29; 47; 42; 49; 52; 7 and 51.

29: He also snorts, by whom encompassed round the Cow laws as she clings unto the shedder of the rain.

She with her shrilling cries hath humbled mortal man, and, turned to lightning, hath stripped off her
covering robe.
47: Dark the descent: the birds are golden-coloured; up to the heaven they fly robed in the waters.

Again descend they from the seat of Order, and all the earth is moistened with their fatness.

42: From her descend in streams the seas of water; thereby the world's four regions have their being,

Thence flows the imperishable flood and thence the universe hath life.

49: That breast of thine exhaustless, spring of pleasure, wherewith thou feedest all things that are choicest,

Wealth-giver, treasure finder, free bestower,-bring that, Sarasvati, that we may drain it.

52: The Bird Celestial, vast with noble pinion, the lovely germ of plants, the germ of waters,

Him who delighteth us with rain in season, Sarasvan I invoke that he may help us.\

General Discussion on the above five verses

The verse-29 depicts condition prior to the actual rain (or during raining) as the
lightning occurs due to presence of Rain-clouds in the sky. The Poet has presented wordy
picture as if a Cow (rain-cloud) is giving a loud call/hum before showering its milk (water)
on a mortal person/man.

In the verse-47, the Composer has described Golden colour Rain-cloud as the heavenly
Bird (Suparna) having darker shade (laden with water), moistening the Earth through the
down-pour.

Verse-42 explains that when water from the rain-cloud descends in the form of rain on
the Earth, it floods four regions of the World (Three Earths- Plain Land, Mountains, and
Oceans plus Mid-space that is part of Heaven), and thus brings the Universe in the alive state.

In the verse-49, the Composer conveys that river Saraswati is now in full swing (due
to heavy rains in the adjoining area, she is flowing to her capacity/ her breasts are full now),
and hence ready to feed anyone which will lead to creation of more wealth.

In the Verse-52, the Poet has recalled the rain-cloud as the Great or Divine Bird
(Divyam Suparna), the child of Waters and Plants who has infinite capacity for carrying water
that would make everybody happy. The Poet has termed Rain-cloud as Sarasvantam (feeder
of Saraswati?).

Remaining two verse i. e. 7 and 51 have been discussed separately.

Surya as the “Rain Cloud Shaper”

Rv-1.164,7: Let him who knoweth presently declare it, this lovely Bird's securely founded station.
Forth from his head the Cows draw milk, and, wearing his vesture, with their foot have drunk the water.

Comments: The Composer in the verse-7 tells the fact that let the knowledgeable person or
the wise man declare that He (Surya/the Sun) is behind this act. The Cows (Ga) derive milk
from him practically means; rain-clouds get water from his head means his thoughts. The
Cows/clouds have drunk the water from His Feet, means rain-clouds are formed due to
vaporization of ocean water that occurs when the rays of Sun (heat) fall on the earth.

Continuation of Life-cycle due to Rain Water

Rv-1.164,51: Uniform, with the passing days, this water mounts and falls again.
The tempest-clouds give life to earth, and fires re-animate the heaven.

Comments: The verse-51 hints at natural rain-cycle. Due to heat of the Sun, water from
ocean first goes up in the sky in the form of vapour, then turns into clouds that carry water from
one place to another, and then water from the rain-clouds falls once again on the Earth in the
form of rain-drops (Parjanya) which ultimately causes progress of life to the Earth.

The contents of the verse-7 and 51 prove beyond doubt that the Poet of the hymn Rv-
1.164 is fully aware of the true reason behind the Rain-fall in the Rigvedic Territory. He also
understands there is no substance in the well-known Rigvedic Myth of Vritra/Ahi takes water
of the whole world in his captivity, creating drought like conditions and then causing hardship
to the People who reside on the bank of river Saraswati, and then Indra takes birth to kill
Vritra, generally believed by the generations of the Poets that mythical God Indra after
slaying Vritra/Ahi has rescued the rain-clouds, making the rains possible everywhere.
 God Surya as the fashioner of “Day/Night, the Seasons, and the Year”

Another important feature of the hymn Rv-1.164 is an appearance of the “Division of

Infinite Time” into different countable units. In all probabilities, since ancient time, the
ancestors of Priestly Community would be well-versed with the concept of time as in some
hymns of the Five Early Mandalas, we find use of “Hundred Winters/Himah” and
“Hundred Autumns/Sharadah” phrases in the compositions. But the Poet of the hymn Rv-
1.164 has first time talked about the same with clarity. Probably the Lead Composers of
Mandala-2 to 8 focused their attention mainly on Indra-Vritra clash, and their descendants
continued the age old tradition. But some Poets of Mandala-1, and 10, have composed the
“Songs of Praise” on the topics that were not touched upon by the Earlier Composers.
Pertaining verses have been placed below followed by the discussion on the subject [1].

11: Formed with twelve spokes, by length of time, unweakened, rolls round the heaven this wheel of during

Order.

Herein established, joined in pairs together, seven hundred Sons and twenty stand, O Agni.

12: They call him in the farther half of heaven the Sire five-footed, of twelve forms, wealthy in watery store.

These others say that he, God with far-seeing eyes, is mounted on the lower seven-wheeled, six-spoked car.

13: Upon this five-spoked wheel revolving ever all living creatures rest and are dependent.

Its axle, heavy-laden, is not heated: the nave from ancient time remains unbroken.

14: The wheel revolves, unwasting, with its felly: ten draw it, yoked to the far-stretching car-pole.

The Sun's eye moves encompassed by the region: on him dependent rest all living creatures.

44: Three with long tresses show in ordered season. One of them sheareth when the year is ended.

One with his powers the universe regardeth: Of one, the sweep is seen, but his figure.

48: Twelve are the fellies, and the wheel is single; three are the naves. What man hath understood it?

Therein are set together spokes three hundred and sixty, which in nowise can be loosened.
 Discussion on the above verses

In the above six verses, the Poet has used a Wordy Model of “Moving Ratha having
a Spoked Wheel or Kaal Chakra” so as to describe Yearly time-scale. It also manifests that
the Rigvedic People were fully aware about the role of Surya (see verse-12-wherein the Poet
has used the phrase “as god with far-seeing Eye”, and in the verse-14 he has specifically
mentioned the same as Sun's Eye). This signifies the role of Surya as the Time-keeper”
means real shaper of the day/night, seasons, and the year or the facilitator of the Ritu-chakra.

Verse-48 informs us that a year consists of 360 days (including nights as well) in total
or 360 days and 360 nights when treated separately and then added together that becomes 720
(seven hundred Sons and twenty) as mentioned in verse-11.

The Verses- 11, 12, and 48 also intimate us that there are twelve months in a year.

In the verses 11, and 12; there are indirect references of presence Five Seasons in a
year. This can happen only when there is no rain during the Rainy season. It means, due to
Vritra effect (real Drought) Varsha ritu goes missing, and hence only Five Seasons (of two
months each means ten months plus two months drought) are experienced.

Three naves phrase found in the verse-48 may be taken as Three Main Seasons of the
year namely, Rainy, Winter, and Summer generally experienced in the Indian Sub-
continent.

When the Composer in the verse-2 says that a Ratha has a Single Wheel, and is drawn
by a single Asva, means in his poetic style, he wants to tell us that, in reality, the Yearly
changes that occur in the World (moving Ratha) are caused by Surya (single Asva). It
means to say that, among the Several Rigvedic Characters (including Deities of their
imagination), the Poet clearly visualizes, the Sun (Surya) as the “Only Entity Responsible
for the Rotation of Time”. In other words, through this description the Poet of the hymn has
highlighted the fact that the Cyclic or Periodical Occurrence of the various Seasons in a
Year in the World is only due to God Sun/Surya. This holds true even today as well.

Summing up the discussion on contents of relevant verses of hymn Rv-1.164 that deal
with Rain, Time and Seasonal aspects; information provided by the Poet does manifest that
in reality, since beginning of the world, God Surya has been playing the most vital roles as the
“Rain Maker” and the “Time Keeper”. In true sense, the Poet of the hymn Rv-1.164 has
realised that god Surya/ the Sun is the only Prime Mover of the World.
L. Social Dimension- Performing Marriage of an abandoned Girl:

Hymn Rv-10.85 is one of the most discussed hymns of Rigved in which the Poet has
narrated a story of wedding ceremony of the bride Suryaa/ सूयाभ who is the daughter of God
Surya/the Sun to the bridegroom Soma or Moon. Even in the verses of Early Mandalas of
Rigved, “Suryaa” is described as the daughter of the God Sun/Surya. It is very strange but
fact that, out of the total 47 verses of the said hymn, God Surya/Sun appears only twice; first
in the verse Rv-10.85,1 along with other physical elements of the world known to the Poet.
And in the verse Rv-10.85,18 Surya/Sun has been indirectly mentioned as the one who moves
around and watches everything present in the world as that of Soma/Moon.
Surprisingly, there is no mention of “mother of Suryaa/ सूयाभ ” in the whole hymn.
The Two late Verses Rv-10.85,40 and 41 [1] of the hymn provide clues about Suryaa’s
upbringing from her childhood to marriageable age.

Rv-10.85,40: Soma obtained her first of all; next the Gandharva was her lord.
Agni was thy third husband: now one born of woman is thy fourth.

Rv-10.85,41: Soma to the Gandharva, and to Agni the Gandharva gave:

And Agni hath bestowed on me riches and sons and this my spouse.

Here the word Soma stands for juice and not the Moon. It means to say that, being the
daughter of God Surya/Sun, since childhood, in absence of her mother, she grows up with
drinking Soma (as her mother was not present to feed her). In case of human being, instead of
Soma, milk of cow would be applicable.
Subsequently, Gandharva/a teacher trains her in different fields such as dance, music etc.
Finally, after becoming a grown up girl, she learns how to cook using fire/Agni. Please
note that Agni is called as Griha-pati in many Hymns of Rigved.

Therefore, in true sense, in absence of her parents, first Soma juice (cow’s milk-for
daughter of human), then Gandharva, and finally Agni become Suryaa’s Care Takers or the
Guardians and not the real husbands/Pati as interpreted by many experts. But the fourth one
mentioned in the verse has to be her real husband, a dependable character entering her life, but
only after her marriage to him.
It means, “Suryaa” actually marries only to Moon/Soma and not to Four Different Entities.

Here the question is “why does Suryaa choose Soma over any other God?”
 Probable answer is, Moon/Soma is an independent but well established character since
old-time (see verses 1 to 5 of the hymn Rv-10.85) who is like her father comes and goes every
day. It means, she finds some similar features in Soma as that of her father “Surya/Sun” (refer
to verses Rv-10.85,18 and 19). That is why she decides to marry Soma/Moon.

Key Points of Suryaa’s Marriage described in the hymn Rv-10.85 are as follows.

1. In absence of the parents of Suryaa/ सूयाभ , God Savitar becomes her foster father and does
Kanya-daan in presence of Agni (in Hindu Marriages, this ritual is still performed in front
of a fire /Agni-Sakshi) and hands over Suryaa to her spouse, the Moon.
2. In the verse Rv-10.85,39 the Poet requests Agni to give hundred autumns lifespan means
a very long life to Groom. Sharadah Shatam/hundred years phrase symbolizes an ideal
lifespan that is applicable to a human being only. This is due to the fact that since pre-Rigvedic
era, the ancestors of the Rigvedic Priests have defined the Imaginary Vedic Deities as the
Immortal Characters. Hence an Ideal Life-span of hundred years is not applicable to any
Imaginary or Real Rigvedic Deity.
3. The verse Rv-10.85,42 tells us about the completeness of the family life. A Family that
includes sons, grandsons of an old couple who live happily together.
4. Verse Rv-10.85,46 conveys us when a newly married girl first time goes to her husband’s
house to start a new life with spouse, there she finds that in his joint family, there are many
family members living together under one roof such as Father-in-law; Mother–in-law;
Brothers-in-law, and Sisters-in-law. It means, unlike her earlier place of living, this new house
is full of close relatives, and hence her first priority must be to know each of them, and mentally
be ready to live with all of them.
5. Verse Rv-10.85,44 informs us in the family, there are four and two footed animals too.
6. To interpret the hymn in a better way, there is a need to re-arrange some verses so as to
streamline the flow of information provided by the Poet in them.

In brief, the hymn depicts life story of a girl child whose parents have abandoned her
(most probably it is a story of a girl born through illicit relationship) immediately after birth as
her father, God Surya/the Sun plays no role in bringing up Suryaa and also goes missing in
the complete marriage function. But for a social cause, other divine characters like Savitar
come forward, and take the leading position to fulfil the social responsibility.
M. Moral and Ethical dimensions- Prohibition to Incestuous Alliances:

Ethical or Moral dimension is decided by the way the senior members or the leaders of
the society guide other persons on how to develop, maintain or even keep safe distance in social
relationship among the family members, relatives, neighbour and friends.
In this section, we are going to discuss on two examples found in Rigved.

1. An Example of daily Romance of “God Surya/Sun with Goddess Usha/Dawn”:

The two successive verses belonging to hymn Rv-10.3 dedicated to Agni jointly retell the
mythical story of God Surya having love affair with Goddess Usha, which is actually based
on a natural phenomenon, as a daily routine God Surya follows Goddess Usha/Dawn.
Both original verses with Griffith Translation [1] are given below.

Rv-10.03,2: kṛṣṇāṃ yadenīmabhi varpasā bhūjjanayan yoṣāmbṛhataḥ piturjām |

ūrdhvaṃ bhānuṃ sūryasya stabhāyandivo vasubhiraratirvi bhāti ||

# Having o'ercome the glimmering Black with beauty, and bringing forth the dame the Great Sire's Daughter,
Holding aloft the radiant light of Surya, as messenger of heaven he shines with treasures.

Rv-10.03,3: bhadro bhadrayā sacamāna āghāt svasāraṃ jāro abhyetipaścāt |

supraketairdyubhiraghnirvitiṣṭhan ruśadbhirvarṇairabhi rāmamasthāt ||
# Attendant on the Blessed Dame the Blessed hath come: the Lover followeth his Sister.
Agni, far-spreading with conspicuous lustre, hath compassed Night with whitelyshining garments.

After every Night, Surya gets into action, and comes after Usha who is believed to be
his Sister. But the Poet has presented the act of Nature as if Surya/the Sun is a lover of Usha,
and therefore, he daily chases her.
Please note that in the several verses of the Rigvedic Texts, Usha has been described
as the “Daughter of Heaven”, and in a few verses Surya is called as Aditya, means Son of
Aditi.
But as per other myth, he is also termed as the Son of Heaven and Earth. It means to
say that, in relation, Surya/the Sun is brother of Usha.
Since the references about the story of their love affair are also found in some of the
verses of the Five Early Mandalas, hence it can be firmly said that the story would have been
existing in the minds of ancestors of the Rigvedic Priests since pre-Rigvedic time. Following
verses from the Mandala-3 (one of the Early Mandalas) would make this point more clear [1].
Rv-3.30,12: Surya transgresses not the ordered limits set daily by the Lord of Tawny Coursers.
When to the goal he comes, his journey ended, his Steeds he loses: this is Indra's doing.

Rv-3.44,2: “In love thou maddest Usas glow, in love thou maddest Surya shine”.
Thou, Indra, knowing, thinking, Lord of Tawny Steeds, above all glories waxiest great.

Indra takes action against Usha and Surya/the Sun

Among the several myths found in Rigved, “Indra's act of removal of Wheel of Ratha
of Surya”, and “his crushing of Ratha of Goddess Usha” are the very special stories as both
characters are the Rigvedic Deities who arrive daily in the world and not the Enemies of
Rigvedic Priests. Verses wherein Indra’s action have been mentioned are given below.

Action against Surya- Rv-4.28,2; Rv-4.30,4;

Action against Usha: Rv-4.30,8; Rv-4.30,9; Rv-4.30,10; Rv-4.30,11; Rv-10,73,6;

Rv-10.138,5:

Since the references of both stories are mostly found in Mandala-4 (One of the Early
Mandalas) and in Mandala-10 (the Last Mandala), it is crystal clear that both myths were
making rounds in the minds of Vedic People since pre-Rigvedic time. It seems that the
Rigvedic Poets through the composed Poems enjoyed making comments on the Two Deities.

Rv-1.115,2: Like as a young man followeth a maiden, so doth the Sun, the Dawn, refulgent Goddess:
Where pious men extend their generations, before the Auspicious One for happy fortune.

The verses given above though in mythical sense tell us about on-going love affair of
God Surya with Goddess Usha. In the Mandala-3 verses Rv-3.30,12; Rv-3.44,2 the Singer
has pointed out that God Indra is aware of their relationship who has already warned Surya
about the same.
Since Rigvedic Composers have projected Indra as the Supreme Deity of the world,
then it becomes the primary responsibility of God Indra to initiate corrective action against a
character if he/she is found violating the ancient laws.
 2. A Case of “Yama and Yami” mentioned in the hymn Rv-10.10:

Hymn Rv-10.10 is a dialogue hymn, as an on-going dialogue that occurs between the
twin brother and sister through which the Composers has attempted to address the question of
“Marriage within the Family Members” i.e. Brother and Sister physical relationship at that
time.

As per the Rigvedic Text Yama and Yami are the twin children of Vivasvana, and
hence they happen to be brother (Yama) and sister (Yami). We shall purposely begin our
discussion with verse-7 as it clearly hints at Yami giving an open initiation to her brother Yama
to have sexual relationship with her. The Poet has presented the verses 8 to 14 as the on-going
dialogue between brother and sister and every time Yama tries to convince her that there is no
possibility for any brother to have physical intimacy with his own sister in any form. It means,
through this hymn, the Poet does not recommend sexual interaction within the members of the
same Family [1].

Rv-10.10.7: yamasya mā yamyaṃ kāma āghan samāne yonau sahaśeyyāya |

jāyeva patye tanvaṃ riricyāṃ vi cid vṛheva rathyeva cakrā ||

# I, Yami, am possessed by love of Yama that I may rest on the same couch beside him.
I as a wife would yield me to my husband. Like car-wheels let us speed to meet each other.

The verse Rv-10.10,7 informs us about Yami looks at her brother Yama as her
husband. Hence she tells him that she loves him, and wants to have physical relationship as a
wife has with her husband.

In the verse-8, Yama gives a reply to Yami's proposal, as the spies of Gods are
regularly watching both of them, the twins should not discuss the matter at all. He further tells
her that it would be better for her to get involved with someone of her liking.

Verse-9 conveys that Yami still insists Yama to have physical contacts with her and
quotes an example as that of Heaven and Earth, though both are Brother and Sister in relation,
but have given birth to many children (Heaven and Earth are considered as the Universal
Parents of the Rigvedic Deities – please refer to the verses Rv-7.53,1 and 2).
 Starting from the verses 10 to 14, in an every alternate verse, Yama counters his sister's
point in a proper way, first says that probably in near future, after some generations, the people
would not imagine about having such unethical act, as they would decide to follow some norms
and find their partners outside their families. Yama also says that as he is not at all interested
in such relationship, and she needs look for a suitable life partner for her.

It means to say that, though Yami keeps insisting to have physical intimacy, and her
brother Yama keeps refusing the same and also argues with his sister that it would really be a
sinful activity if he goes by her desire. Hence he categorically states that she must choose a
right man as her companion if she wishes to have pleasure like human-beings/mortals.

From the content of the Hymn Rv-10.10; it is evident that Brother-Sister sexual
relationship is not at all recommended by the Poet of the said hymn.

Above story becomes another example of the strong opposition of the Rigvedic Priests
to a marriage between brother and sister; the two opposite gender persons who belong to
same family and are the blood relatives.

In short, the examples of Yama and Yami, as well as Surya and Usha definitely
convey that, since pre-Rigvedic time, the incestuous relationship was not preferred at least in
the Vedic Community. It is quite possible, during that period, in other communities of the
Rigvedic Society or in other tribes belonging to different areas surrounding the Rigvedic
Territory, the marriages between the Members of the same Family or blood relatives would
have been performed due one or other reasons. Probably in many communities of that period,
incestuous union was not a taboo.

Although closeness of the two opposite genders belonging to same family did not
become a social order or was unacceptable in general, still in some special cases, out of
compulsion wedding between the two members of the same family would have been permitted.

Note: During the period of ancient kingdoms of countries like Egypt, Greek and Peru Incestuous
relationship was quite common in some Royal Families who ruled these countries.
N. Practical Dimension- Permission for “Niyoga” relationship to achieve “Successor”:

Hymn Rv-10.86 deals with a special situation arises due to incapability of a king to
produce a male child due to impotency. Of course, the king then engages his old time friend to
get successor for his kingdom from his wife through Niyoga/ द्वनयोग relationship. But for some
time, the king has to go through a bad phase of his life when his own people ignore him.
The very first verse Rv-10.86,1 reflects the mood of the subjects [1].

Rv-10.86,1: Men have abstained from pouring juice they count not Indra as a God.
Where at the votary's store my friend Vrsakapi hath drunk his fill. Supreme is Indra over all.

The Composer in the verse Rv-10.86,1 conveys us that the people stopped pouring
Soma juice to Indra. It literally means the subjects started neglecting presence of the
King/Indra in a social gathering, as despite married for many years, the king failed to produce
progeny. It indirectly means the people stopped paying attention to an impotent King.

The Poem is composed in such a way that as if God Indra, his wife Indrani are the
affected party, and hence King/Indra first takes his wife into confidence and then both jointly
decide to solve their Family Issue in the best possible way. It is very interesting to know more
about their plan and how the Divine Beings or the First Couple of Rigvedic Tribe finds a
practical solution to their Problem.
As per the plot, considering the fact that Indra/king is unable to make Indrani/Queen
pregnant due to a sexual problem, then the King invites his close friend Vrisha-kapi who lives
far away from the king’s palace and requests him to have a physical relationship with his wife/
Queen so that his wife would give birth to a male child and hence his kingdom would get a
proper successor or a legal heir. Initially, a bit hesitant Vrisha-kapi, with the passing of time,
becomes an expert in handling a woman in bed and makes the Queen happy and finally meets
the expectation of King and Queen.
In the last verse of the hymn, Rv-10.86,23; the Poet has revealed the truth or the real
result of the actions taken earlier to achieve the target set by the king.

In this way, through Niyaga/द्वनयोग relationship, an impotent king could achieve

successor for his kingdom, a practical solution to an unexpected problem encountered in his
life that also becomes a face saving formula for him and his wife.
O. Female-centric Dimensions- Changing Roles of Women during Vedic Period:

Poets belonging to Five Different Families who are said to have composed Five Early
Mandalas of Rigved (Mandala-2, 3, 4, 6, and 7), in their “Songs of Praise” either paid major
attention to “Indra-Vritra/Ahi clash” or in some hymns they brought out differences between
the Leaders of Five Tribes and the Five Kings of Bharat clan. Therefore, we do not come
across any special or active reference on a woman in the Poems composed by them.
But in the Five Late Mandalas (Mandala-5, 8. 9. 1 and 10), there are some verses /
hymns that illustrate some special features of women hood of that time and one by one, we
shall discuss stories of womenfolk highlighted by the Poets of the Late Mandalas of Rigved.

1. Woman shows more Faith in worship of God than Man

Three successive verses from Mandala-5 hymn tell us about a new thing.

Rv-5.61,6: Yea, many a woman is more firm and better than the man who turns,
Away from Gods, and offers not.
Rv-5.61,7: She who discerns the weak and worn, the man who thirsts and is in want
She sets her mind upon the Gods.
Rv-5.61,8: And yet full many a one, un-praised, mean niggard, is entitled man,
Only in were gild is he such.

Comments: Through above three composed verses, the Poet has put his finger on a relevant
question, “out of a married man and his wife/woman, who is more religious?” The Poet, based
on his experience, has replied the question in his style wherein he said that as far as worshipping
of Gods is concerned, woman makes a better devotee as she is more dedicated person. As per
the Poet, it is woman who pays attention to the needs of her husband including preparing food,
giving water, his other wants (physical), and still finds time to focus her mind on God. Whereas,
the Poet finds man as a niggard (PaNi), ungenerous (wants more in return) and has superficial
interest in God and hence keeps himself away from worship.

It means to say that in addition to fulfilling her responsibilities as a wife or doing

necessary household chores, married woman makes herself available for praying to God that
too without expecting anything in return.

Note: Probably an example of comparison of distinct behaviour of husband and wife or a married couple
mentioned in the verses Rv-5.61,6 to 8 that belongs to “other than Priestly Family”.
 2. Family Matters- Quarrelsome Wives of a Husband

It is very interesting to know that the Last Mandala Rigvedic Poets have made a
family drama as a subject that has been described in three separate compositions. In the
following paragraphs we shall discuss same thing in brief.

A Man having more than one Wife- Three Different Stories:

a. Quarrel among the Many Wives - Verse Rv-10.124,7:

In the second line of the verse Rv-10.124,7; here the Poet has quoted an example of a
regular quarrel among the women-folk or frequent fights among the many wives of a man,
wherein each one tries to impress upon others that she is the most-liked/favourite wife of her
husband.

b. Rivalry between the Two Wives - Hymn Rv-10.145:

In the said hymn, the Poet tells us the story, how one wife of a man tries to become
stronger and superior to other woman. In the Poet's words, she wants to drive away her rival
wife/co-wife from her husband's house so that, she will get full attention from her husband, and
hence become victorious. It means, one wife wants to dominate the other one.

c. Competition among the Many Wives - Hymn Rv-10.159:

This is another example of Jealousy among the many wives of a Man. As per the content
of the hymn, a woman wants to defeat all other opponent wives or somehow wants to get rid
of them, so that, only her children would have right to rule. It means, being the bold and dashing
woman, she wants to dictate her terms to others and take control of her husband and family.

In short, when it comes to exhibit supremacy or status within the family, the women of
that era were not far behind and used various tricks to dominate their competitors.

Moral of the three Stories is-

“Might is right” or
“The Empty household Vessels make the most Noise”
 3. Determined Wife gets back “Her Married Life” on right track

Rigvedic Poet in the hymn Rv-10.102 has narrated a novel story of a married couple
wherein husband has no interest in having sexual relationship with his wife.
The hymn revolves around the two characters /persons; Mudgala is the name of husband,
and Mudgalani is his wife and despite living together for several years, they do not have
satisfactory physical relationship with each other.
General Outline of the story as it appears in the hymn is given in brief below.

Mudgala is a person who does not show interest in his wife Mudgalani since many years
either she could not produce offspring or she is very much younger to him. Then Mudgalani
(on somebody's advice?) decides to take Mudgala on a very long trip in a Ratha drawn by a
bull (Vrishabha). The Poet in the hymn actually talks about a cart race, means as if the couple
is participating in a competition, but after taking penetrative look at the content of the hymn,
it can be easily understood that they are actually going to compete with each other.

The reins of the cart are in the hands of Mudgalani, means she is in the driver's seat. During
the race, Mudgalani tries to attract the attention of her husband by wearing a garment that goes
in air while riding Ratha. It means that, at that time, she is very much excited and has already
made up her mind to go to any extent for their physical contact.
The Poet has presented a story in the form of a “cart running in a race that is occupied
by the two persons/ Mudgala and Mudgalani” which means that both husband and wife are
first brought on the same platform to get privacy, and after sometime they move closer to each
other, and finally at some point of time they get turned on to go for copulation.
But the intense look at the verses of the said hymn provides some clues in the form of
symbolism used by the Poet in the composition as he has used some words with different but
hidden intention. Probable interpretations of some terms (translated) are given below.
 Bull/Vrishabha – Mudgala (as he lacks “Sex Drive” possibly due to his old age).
 Yukta/Yoke-- physical union or locking of a couple with each other.
 Race/Ja – Sexual act or intercourse (journey) privately performed by a married
couple.
 Ratha- A body of Husband/Mudgala (or wife/Mudgalani at some places).
 Keshi- a woman having very long hair (a young lady/ Mudgalani)
 The verse Rv-10.102,6 hints at both husband and wife have come close to each other to
have privacy and then physical intimacy.
The verse-11 of the hymn depicts that Mudgalani who was earlier being totally neglected
by her husband, but now due to her proactive nature, brought him under control, means she
forced him to play his natural role of a Married Man in their life. In other words, by taking
initiative, Mudgalani has become successful in making Mudgala sexually active (lack of
desire for sex had affected their relationship) and now she is so confident that by playing the
lead role in the family life, she would be able to fulfil all her desires in future.

The Poet has used character Indra as an arranger, or facilitator who brings both Mudgala
and Mudgalani at one place. In reality, Indra acts as a catalyst only, and then provides an
appropriate opportunity to come together, work together, stay together to regain the confidence
in married life. It means to say that Indra makes them to meet first and then mate.
Moral of the hymn is, “If a married woman is a determined person, then she can
easily make her husband to dance to her tune”.

4. Situation based decision on the Marriage of a Girl/Woman

i. A Grown-up Girl can choose her Life-partner:

The verse Rv-10.27,12 tells us that a good looking girl of Rigvedic time has right to select
her companion among the friends. It means to say that at least during the Last Mandala Period,
the members of Rigvedic Community were open minded as the grown up girls and boys
mingled with each other, that automatically gave a girl an opportunity to find her spouse among
her friend circle or the boys known to her.

ii. Arrange Marriage- only solution to the problem of a Blind Girl:

In the verse Rv-10.27,11; Poet has made it clear as blind girl cannot choose her life
partner, hence her father should arrange her marriage but he needs to tell about her blindness
to the prospective bridegroom before fixing a wedding.

iii A Widow can marry to her brother-in-law:

In the verse Rv-10.40,2 the Composer has presented an unusual or uncommon marriage
between a widow and her brother-in-law probably to safeguard the interest of the family.
P. Poetic dimensions –Creation of Metres, new Words and Tools for the Praise-songs:

Language is a medium of communication. Since old time, man has been using signs,
gestures and different sounds created through mouth to express his thoughts and actions.
Ancient People when lived in groups in the different parts of world first developed variety of
the spoken words to communicate with the persons of their tribes. Afterwards, man developed
structured speech to convey his feelings in a specific format.

Poetic language differs from the ordinary language as most of the Poets try to express
their ideas obliquely and not in a straightforward manner. It simply means a Poet applies a
creative approach to present his/her views on a chosen subject using several special tools
commonly known as Poetic Devices.
Strictly speaking, Rigved is the literature composed in the Poetic form and hence
demands active participation from every reader. In reality, Archaic Sanskrit Language of
Rigved instigates the reader to explore many possible meanings hidden in the words of verses
and compels him/her to think beyond the literal or plain meaning of the words/terms used.

In the Composed Poems, Rigvedic Poets have given enough information about the
basic Plot / background of the story, the description about the Important Characters involved
in the acts like Indra, (who is supported by other Deities such as Agni, Vishnu, Bruhaspati,
Varuna, Mitra, Pushan, Rudra, Asvins, Maruts Parjanya etc.) and the real Villain Vritra/Ahi,
the setting of mythical War between them. Everything has been verbally illustrated in an
ancient Sanskrit language (use of imagery/symbolic language / metaphors / similes to portray
the central idea) by the several Singers who composed Ten Mandalas consisting of 1028
Suktas/Hymns over a very long period, and also maintained continuity in explaining the on-
going mythical conflicts but in distinct Poetic Styles.

However, the Lofty Imaginations of the Rigvedic Poets to describe various characters
whether Factual or fictional, their Minute Observations of the Natural Activities, and their
Personal Experiences gained through the interactions with other people have been interwoven
in the old text in such a way that, we do not get straightforward meanings of the Rigvedic
verses, but need to search for the same from the hints provided by the Composers, and in many
ways interpretation of the verses is very similar to solving puzzles. Due to the complex nature
of the compositions, it becomes a very difficult task to identify and separate the hidden features
from one another. Hence, there is a need to know the content of the Rigvedic verses not only
by reading between the lines, but also between the words. One such example is given below.

Vipas and Sutudri request the Poet not to humiliate both using improper words

Rv-3.33,8: Never forget this word of thine, O singer, which future generations shall re-echo.
In hymns, O bard, show us thy loving kindness. Humble us not mid men. To thee be honour!

Comments: The Poet has composed above verse in such a way that as if Vipas and Sutudri;
the two rivers are requesting him not to use abusive language about them, as the Poets of
future generation would learn this and continue the same trend.
In other words, the Poet has stated that no Singer should use derogatory words in the
“Poems of Praise” despite passing through a difficult situation. In adverse condition as well,
the Poet (bard) needs to keep his head cool and show the respect through the chosen words.

Although the Poet has composed the said verse in the name of two rivers, but
cryptically he has informed all the future Composers not to use foul language for any character
whether it is a Deity or a Demon.

That is why like many Gods, the Poets of many Mandalas have called their enemies as
“Asuras”. Only in some verses of Mandala-10, we find that All Gods became Gods and All
Demons called as Asuras/devils.

As the interpretation of the Rigvedic Hymns/Verses differ from person to person, then
it becomes increasingly difficult to bring all Vedic scholars on a common platform as each one
has his/her own opinion about the same feature. Therefore, it becomes necessary to ask self-
addressed questions to understand the line of thinking of a particular person.

1. How does a person look at the content of the verse?

2. What does a person want to make out of it?

The language used by the Rigvedic Poets is different from the language spoken by the
common people lived in the Rigvedic territory. Hence an ordinary person cannot understand
the Poems of Praise as they are composed in the Poetic Language which is different from the
spoken language (literal language) of everyday life.
 Literal language (also applicable to speech/Vak of Vedic time) is the language that
conveys exact and direct meaning of the words, whereas, Poetic Language takes a kind of
roundabout path to its meaning, in many cases communicates indirectly and hence harder to
understand than the former. Therefore, intention of any Poet cannot be understood from the
exact meanings of the texts (words) used in Poetic or Figurative Language but one has to take
into account the contexts as well.

History of the creation of Basic Poetic Structure for the Praise-Songs

Some hymns of the Last Two Mandalas provide information on the origin of
metres/chandaas used by the Poets since inception. Verse Rv-1.164,24 tells us about the use
of seven metres/chandaas for the composition of Rigvedic Praise-songs since beginning.

Rv-1.164,24: gāyatréṇa práti mimīte arkám arkéṇa sā́ ma traíṣṭubhena vākám

vākéna vākáṃ dvipádā cátuṣpadā akṣáreṇa mimate saptá vā́ ṇīḥ
# With Gayatri he measures out the praise-song, Sama with praise-song, triplet with the Tristup.
The triplet with the two or four-foot measure, and with the syllable they form seven metres.

Comments: There are total seven metres or voices/ saptá vā́ ṇīḥ comprising of different
numbers of syllable/Akshara and out of which Gayatri, Tristubh are the most commonly used
to compose the Praise-songs. The composed verse may contain two or four feet/pada

In the two consecutive verses of the hymn Rv-10.130, the Poet has conveyed names of
the seven metres used since inception of Rigved. The composed hymn actually tells us the
basics of the creation and use of the different types of Praise Songs since old time. Hence the
hymn should be titled as “The history of Creation of different Metres for Poems of Praise”.

Rv-10.130,4: agnergāyatryabhavat sayughvoṣṇihayā savitā saṃ babhūva |

anuṣṭubhā soma ukthairmahasvān bṛhaspaterbṛhatī vācamāvat ||

Rv-10.130,5: virāṇ mitrāvaruṇayorabhiśrīrindrasya triṣṭub ihabhāgho ahnaḥ |

viśvān devāñ jaghatyā viveśa tenacākḷipra ṛṣayo manuṣyāḥ ||

Metrical information found in the Hymn Rv-10.130 is given below.

Verse-4: Gayatri, Usniha, Anustubha, Brihati
Verse-5: Viraj, Tristubha, Jagati

But the Poet has linked these seven metres to seven types of the Gods, and they are:
1. Gayatri-Agni;
2. Usniha-Savitar;
3. Anustubha-Soma;
3. Brihati-Brihaspati;
4. Viraj-Mitra+Varuna;
6. Tristubha-Indra;
7. Jagati-All Gods/Visvedeva

Through the verse Rv-10.130,6 the Poet has brought out the fact that during the ancient
period, these metres were created by the Men like Rishis (ṛṣayo manuṣyā) when Yajna ritual
was being shaped. In the verse-7, the Composer has revealed that the Praise-Songs and the
Chandas/metres (saha-stomāḥ saha-chandaas) came into existence along with Yajna rite
due to Seven God like Rishis who were authorised to finalize the ritual procedure. Now we
shall take a fresh look at the verse Rv-10.130,1 given below [1].

Rv-10.130,1: The sacrifice drawn out with threads on every side, stretched by a hundred
sacred ministers and one,
This do these Fathers weave who hitherward are come: they sit beside the warp
and cry, Weave forth, weave back.

Above verse cryptically tells us about the shaping up of Early Yajna rite. As per the
verse-1, the several Ancestors/Fathers/ Rishis have woven the things forth and back as if they
were arranging or weaving threads to form a warp or cloth. It practically means, when one
Rishi comes up with a new idea/proposal, then others suggest some correction or modification
to it. Then the earlier Rishi goes back to basics, modifies the same which is approved by all. It
implies that the ancient Rishis amicably sorted out their differences of fashioning of Yajna
ritual by holding “Shastrarth or Intellectual Debate or Constructive Discussion” among them.
Same approach holds true for Chandas or Metres too.

In other words, the Poet of hymn Rv-10.130 has briefly narrated the true story behind
the standardization of Seven Metres used for the composition of Poems of Praise. He also
made it clear that these Metres were formed amid fashioning of proper Yajna procedure.
Please note that the designing of metres was a collective work of many Rishis who were also
involved in shaping up of Yajna and hence it is not credited to a single Rishi.
It also manifests that during the pre-Rigvedic time, in Vedic Philosophy, earlier to
formulation of Yajna, there was no practice of composition of lengthy songs of praise.
When many Poets began composing Poems to praise the Deities in competition, that
time they would have created new vocabulary to impress upon each other. Example of the
word play of the Priests to laud Indra on the occasion of Yajna with the use of situation based
coined new terms/titles is given below.

Indra, the character often glorified with the New Titles/Degrees

It is to be borne in mind that Indra was created after appearance of several Vritras
(real droughts) in the Sapta-Sindhu region. It means to say that, the ancient Rishis who shaped
Indra and the Rigvedic Poets who composed several Songs of Praise possessed inherent skill
and understanding needed to create of the new words or Vocabulary to be used in the Poetry.
Some of the basic attributes that make Indra as the True Warrior or the most Furious
/Manyu and the most generous God are described with suitable word power as under.

Shatakratu : having hundred powers

Sakra : powerful
Vrushabha/Vrushan : “mighty” or “as aggressive as bull”
Vajrabrit : “bearing the Vajra/thunderbolt” (depicts Fire-power)
Vajrivat or Vajrin : “armed with the Vajra/thunderbolt”
Vritrahan : Vritra-slayer
Purandara : Destroyer of the forts/colonies of enemy
Ajara: Non-aging character
Purva : Very old/ancient
Maghavan : the generous, liberal, bountiful, bestower of Gifts
Sachipati : Lord of Mighty
Vajradaksina : Holding the Vajra /thunderbolt in his right hand
Satyasya : Son of truth.
Apsujit : Winner of waters
Soma-pa and Soma-pavan : Soma Drinker (enhances Strength and stamina).
 From the above terms, it is crystal clear that depending on the situations, the Composers
have coined different adjectives to decorate Indra with the new Titles/Degrees, very similar to
a present-day popular phrase “Dress for the Occasion”.
In fact, by composing Praise-Songs on varied topics, the Rigvedic Poets of the Late
Mandalas (especially Mandala-1, 8, 9 and 10) have demonstrated that they possessed
innovativeness, fresh knowledge, and high degree of Poetic Skills to meet the chalanges posed
by their co-workers. Three verses selected from Mandala-8 speak about the capability of a
Mandala-8 Poet.

Verses Rv-8.95,7 to 9

Rv-8.95,7: एतो नद्ववन्द्रं सतवाम शुद्धं शुद्धेन साम्ना | शुद्धैरुक्थैवाभव्र्ध्ांसं शुद्ध आशीवाभन ममत्तु ||
eto nvindraṃ stavāma śuddhaṃ śuddhena sāmnā |
śuddhairukthairvāvṛdhvāṃsaṃ śuddha āśīrvān mamattu ||

Rv-8.95,8: इन्द्र शुद्धो न आ गद्वह शुद्धः शुद्धाद्वभरूद्वतद्वभः | शुद्धो रद्वयं द्वन धारय शुद्धो ममद्धद्ध सोम्यः ||
indra śuddho na ā ghahi śuddhaḥ śuddhābhirūtibhiḥ |
śuddho rayiṃ ni dhāraya śuddho mamaddhi somyaḥ ||

Rv-8.95,9: इन्द्र शुद्धो द्वह नो रद्वयं शुद्धो रत्नाद्वन दाशुषे | शुद्धो वत्राभद्वि द्वजघ्नसे शुद्धो वाजं द्वसषासद्वस ||
indra śuddho hi no rayiṃ śuddho ratnāni dāśuṣe |
śuddho vṛtrāṇi jighnase śuddho vājaṃ siṣāsasi ||

Above three verses taken from the hymn dedicated to Indra exhibit that the Poet has
often used word शुद्ध/Shudda/ śuddha and its derivatives that creates repetition of the same
sound many times in each verse. The use of many similar sound producing words in the lines
of Poem is commonly known as Alliteration. In some verses of both classes of Mandalas,
some Poets have done sound repetition using words like Vrisha, Vrishna and Vrishabha to
produce Alliteration effect.

Since inception of Rigved, the Rigvedic Composers have used the syllables/sounds in
a proper order to create and maintain the rhythmic patterns (voices are organized to form
melody and harmony) as they followed instructions given by their ancestors a long back.
In sum, symbolical use of the archaic language, selection of different Metres, coining
new vocabulary and employing various Poetic devices to express their knowledge and
imagination, the Rigvedic Poets have shown their mastery in the field of Ancient Poetry.
Q. Hidden Dimensions- Animal and Human Sacrifice in Yajna:

In Ten Mandalas of Rigved, there are a very few references that explicitly tell us about
the Animal sacrifice. Two hymns of Mandala-1; i. e. Rv-1.162 and Rv-1.163 dedicated to
“Asva/the True Horse” definitely give detail account of the Real Horse sacrifice. As per the
information provided by the Poet of these hymns, the said animal was a new entrant in the
Vedic World, and probably brought by a Horse Rider from the western side of the Rigvedic
Territory, through Khyber Pass.

In the verse Rv-10.61,21 presence of अश्वघ्न / Asvaghna word, does manifest that it is
name of a person who has killed the Horse. Verses Rv-5.29.8 and Rv-6.17,11 do indicate
sacrifice of buffaloes in the name of the Gods like Indra and Agni. It is generally believed
that Ten Apris Hymns were composed with the purpose to sing during such sacrificial rituals.

Following verse from the Last Mandala addressed to Agni indicate several animals
like horse, Bulls, Oxen rams etc. were sacrificed during the very Big Yajna rite.

Rv-10.91,14: yasminnaśvāsa ṛṣabhāsa ukṣaṇo vaśā meṣāavasṛṣṭāsa āhutāḥ |

kīlālape somapṛṣṭhāya vedhasehṛdā matiṃ janaye cārumaghnaye ||

# He in whom horses, bulls, oxen, and barren cows, and rams, when duly set apart, are offered up,
To Agni, Soma-sprinkled, drinker of sweet juice, Disposer, with my heart I bring a fair hymn forth.

Presence of the term आहुताः /Ahutah in the first line of the verse does imply that the
animals were offered in Yajna. In the next verse of same hymn (Rv-10.91,15), the Poet has
talked about pouring/offering of Soma, Ghrita in the mouth of Agni.

Please note that at the time of special Yajna, many Noble and Rich People of that time
used to give domesticated animals as the gifts to the Rigvedic Priests and these Yajnas are
generally known as the “Dana-Stuti Yajnas”. In Mandala-8, we find maximum numbers of
Dana-Stuti Yajnas as there was no water scarcity to the west of river Sindhu meaning thereby
the People who lived to west side of river Sindhu were wealthy or better placed than the
residents of Eastern part of Rigvedic Territory (area adjacent to river Saraswati).

After sacrificing the animal in Yajna, as a custom, a part of its flesh, after cooking
separately would be served to the people who belonged to warrior class or those persons who
were the regular flesh eaters. One such incidence is reported in the verse Rv-1.164,43.
Rv-1.164,43: I saw from far away the smoke of fuel with spires that rose on high over that beneath it.
The Mighty Men have dressed the spotted bullock. These were the customs in the day’s aforetime,

Use of word Vira/Mighty Men/Heroes in the original Sanskrit verse signals the same.

Note: Hymns Rv-1.162 and Rv-1.163 provide proper information on sacrifice of the “True Horse”.

Example of the Earliest Human Sacrifice

Please take intense look at the following verses that tell something new about Dadhyac.
Rv-1.84,13: With bones of Dadhyac for his arms, Indra, resistless in attack,
Struck nine-and-ninety Vrtras dead.

Rv-1.116,12: That mighty deed of yours, for gain, O Heroes, as thunder heraldeth the rain, I publish,
When, by the horse's head, Atharvan's offspring Dadhyac made known to you the Soma's sweetness.
Rv-1.117,22:Ye brought the horse's head, Asvins, and gave it unto Dadhyac the offspring of Atharvan.
True, he revealed to you, O WonderWorkers, sweet Soma, Tvastar's secret, as your girdle.
Rv-1.119,9: To you in praise of sweetness sang the honey-bee: Ausija calleth you in Soma's rapturous joy.
Ye drew unto yourselves the spirit of Dadhyac, and then the horse's head uttered his words to you.

Poet in the verse Rv-1.84,13 has informed that the ancient Rishi Dadhyac who was the
son of Atharvan (Bhrugu Clan Rishi who lived during the pre-Rigvedic period) offered his
Bones/Asthi to shape the potent weapon (Vajra) of Indra. In other three verses (Rv- Rv-
1.116,12, Rv-1.117,22 and Rv-1.119,9), the Composer has requested twin Gods Asvins to
revive Dadhayc (Dadhichi) by joining Head of Asva to his body. It indirectly means, the
head of Rishis Dadhayc was missing. Here the main question is, how and when did it happen?

As it is well-known thing that during the sacrifice of any animal, first the head of that
animal is severed from the body using a sharp blade. Missing Head of Dadhayc surely makes
us to say that it could be the example of the Earliest Human Sacrifice.

Additionally, verse Rv-10.163,3 implies that the Poet of Mandala-10 knew the names
of the internal organs of human body that are otherwise invisible.

Hence it can be said that as Yajna is derived from the wildfires that occur in the forests,
both Animal and Human sacrifice definitely existed in Rigvedic era but the human sacrifice
would have been permitted only on some special occasions.
R. Villainous Dimensions- the Dasas and the Dasyus; Permanent Enemies of the Aryas:

All most all Vedic Scholars and Historians are of the opinions that the Dasas and the
Dasyus are the two distinct human tribes who used to trouble the Rigvedic Priests regularly.
Their simultaneous or separate presence in many verses/hymns of Rigved that were composed
on the either directions of river Sindhu over a very long period makes it difficult to accept the
established views. The key points discussed below would definitely raise doubts about the
beliefs of present-day Vedic Scholars.

 Ten Mandalas of Rigved are composed in different parts of Vedic Territory which is
manifested by presence of several rivers in the texts including river Ganga of the Far-
east zone to river Rasa of the Extreme North-west corner. It means to say that the
generations of the Priests moved freely from one region to other without much
difficulty. Also no Poet of Rigved has anywhere mentioned that the Dasas or the
Dasyus obstructed their journey while moving from one place to other.

 During the period of Five Early Mandalas, the five kings of Bharata clan (a warrior
tribe) who lived with the Priests did not eliminate the Dasas and the Dasyus.

 In reality, king Sudasa of Mandala-7 defeated the army of Ten Kings on the bank of
river Parushni, but could not replicate the same story against the Dasas and Dasyus.

 Pakthas who are termed as the enemy of the Bharata king Sudasa in Mandala-7,
later on described as the friends of the new generations of the Priests in Mandala-8;
one of the Late Mandalas of Rigved (see verses Rv-8,22,10 and Rv-8.49,10), who
also took part in Yajna rite. Whereas, the Dasas and the Dasyus are always depicted
as the hostile characters throughout the Rigvedic period. It means, unlike Pakthas,
the Dasas and the Dasyus did not change their behaviour despite interacting with the
Rigvedic Priests on numerous occasions but continued enmity since beginning.

 If we go by the opinion of Vedic Experts and consider the Dasas and the Dasyus as the
human beings, then obviously, they would have spoken some languages among the
members of their communities. Surprisingly, till date, no linguist has listed out the loan
words that have come to archaic Sanskrit from the languages of these two tribes. On
the contrary, some linguistic scholars have identified number of words that have been
borrowed by the Rigvedic Poets from the ancient languages such as Munda,
 Dravidian, Old Persian and the unknown language of the residents of Bactria
Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC).

Hence it is essential to find out the truth behind the Dasas and the Dasyus from the
information provided by the different Poets in the Rigvedic Verses/Hymns.

Contextual Clues provided by the Poets about the character “Dasa”:

1. Krshna-Yoni/Dwelling in darkness means pits or stone caves (Rv-2.20.7),

2. Vṛṣa-Sipra/Dasa has very Strong Jaws needed to crush the bones (Rv-7.99,4),
3. Stri-Dasa/Female Dasa in lead position (Rv-5.30,9),
4. Dāsīrviśaḥ sūryeṇa sahyāḥ/ with arrival of Surya, Dasa goes missing indirectly
means Dasa mainly acts in night/nocternal (see verses Rv-2.11,4 and Rv-10.148,2).

Contextual Clues given by the Poets about the character “Dasyu”:

1. Anasa/Noseless character (Rv-5.29,10),

2. Krshna-twacha/black colour outer layer (Rv-9.41,3),
3. Distant Dwelling/ resides far away from the place of visit (Rv-1.63,4),
4. Ayasa-Pura/lives in metal strong colonies or rocky mountain (Rv-2.20,8).

As far as the Dasas are concerned, the verse Rv-5.30,9; from Mandala-5 brings out
very special thing about the Dasas. It informs us that Stri-Dasa/Female Dasa plays the leading
role in attacking Yajna site. This uncommon feature takes Dasa very close to a wild animal as
no Woman from any ancient tribe could come forward to lead the group of Men openly.

The Poet of verse Rv-5.29,10 (Late Mandala) intimates us the Dasyu is Anasa, means
Noseless. Rv-1.33,7 is the another verse belonging to Mandala-1 does point out high flying
nature of the Dasyus, whereas, the verse Rv-1.63,4 exhibits distant dwelling of Dasyu. Verse
Rv-9.41,3 conveys that Dasyu has Krshna-twacha/Black Outer Layer of Skin.
From the contextual clues mentioned above, the Rigvedic term “Dasa” is an animal that
looks very similar to a “Dasa/Domesticated Dog”, who lives in a group, dwells in
darkness/caves, has bull-jaw (strong jaw or facial look very similar to a Bull), and in whose
community a female (Stri Dasa) plays a leading role. Based on the aforementioned features, a
nocturnal wild animal “Hyena” which acts as a scavenger is the best suited candidate for the
Rigvedic term “Dasa” who is treated as the enemy of the Priests involved in Yajna/sacrifice.
 Similarly, from the contextual clues available in the Rigvedic literature, it can be said that
a Rigvedic Character Dasyu who is Nose-less/Anasa, has black colour skin/outer layer,
dwells in a mountain cliff (a fort of metal), daily covers a long distance during day time (a
distant dweller), does not follow a set of rules (a-vrata), only knows eating without doing any
Karma or actual work (a-karma) is nothing but a Vulture in reality, who used to attack Yajna
site just to eat the remains of the animal being sacrificed during Yajna ceremony. The Vultures
are described as the “Nature's sanitation workers who always look for a job and work hard
to finish it fast without any hesitation”.

Please take a close look at the following Mandala-8 verses [1].

# Rv-8.14,14 : The Dasyus, when they fain would climb by magic arts and mount to heaven,
Thou, Indra, castest down to earth.

Here the basic question is, why does the Singer engage Indra to bring down the
(mount to heaven could mean go up in the flying state) Dasyus from the sky?

Rv-8.70,11: anyavratam amānus ṣam ayajvānam adevayum |

ava svah ṇ sakhā dudhuvīta parvatah ṣsughnāya dasyum parvatah||
# The man (?) who brings no sacrifice, inhuman (?), godless, infidel,
He let his friend the mountain cast to rapid death, the mountain cast the Dasyu down.

Here, use of the word “Amanusam” needs to be seen as “non-human character” only
and not as “inhuman” (barbaric or cruel or harsh) as described by Griffith. However,
presence of Parvata/Mountain word twice in the second line of the verse indirectly hints at
the Dasyus are some way connected to the Mountain/high rise hilly region.

It seems that the Rigvedic Poets purposely gave these secret designations to wild animal
Hyena and high flying bird Vulture just to hide their real identities. Probably Priests wanted
to conceal their timid nature as they used to boast in front of others that Yajna/worship of the
Deities would solve all the problems of the society. But in practice, while performing Yajnas,
the Dasas/Hyenas and Dasyus/Vultures used to attack the sites, start eating animal flesh
meant for sacrifice or the animal remains and the Priests could do nothing to them. As the
generations of Poets wanted to keep these incidences as the closely guarded family secret,
they deliberately used different terms so that things would remain among themselves.
S. Historical Dimensions- Generations of the Poets clearly know the Past Events:

Rigvedic Poets have intermixed several mythical stories with a few real tales in the
composed Songs of Praise. Therefore, every Rigved Lover has to search for the evidence
related to the factual things present in the Ten Mandalas of Rigved. As references connected
to a particular topic are not available at one place, hence in the beginning, every serious reader
needs go through various hymns of Rigved and first collect the bits and pieces of information
scattered in the different verses, and then compile and place the things in proper order.

One of the outstanding features of Rigved is the Poets of the Late Mandalas too very
well knew the past history of their ancestors, place of origin, stories of fashioning of Indra and
Yajna. Rv-1.139,4 is the verse that belongs to the Last but-one Mandala conveys same thing.

Rv-1.139,9: Dadhyac, of old Anigiras, Priyamedha these, and Kanva, Atri, Manu knew
my birth, yea, those of ancient days and Manu knew.
Their long line stretcheth to the Gods, our birth-connexions are with them.
To these, for their high station, I bow down with song, to Indra, Agni, bow with song.

Above verse actually belongs to the hymn addresses to Visvedeva, but dedicated to
Indra-Agni wherein the Composer has clearly pointed out the past history, that is, right from
Manu (mythical ancestor of the Priestly Community), Dadhyac (ancient Bhrigu clan Rishi),
old Angirasa (first Angirasa/ancestor of that clan) to recent Poets like Kanva (Mandala-8),
Atri (Mandala-5) know the true stories behind the birth of Indra as well as Agni of Yajna.

Similarly, in the hymns dedicated to the Ribhus, different Poets have talked about the
mythical concept of origin of Hari/two tawny steeds/Asvas of Indra and Ratha of Asvins,
making available of more quantity of Soma juice for libation.

Mandala-3: Rv-3.60
Mandala-4: Rv-4.33 to 37
Mandala-7: Rv-7.48
Mandala-1: Rv-1.20; 110; 111; 161
Please note that out of the 11 hymns given above that are addressed to the Ribhus
(three Brothers who lived during pre-Rigvedic time), four are from Mandala-1; the second
to the Last Mandala of Rigved. It means to say that similar to the story of origin of Indra
and Agni of Yajna mentioned in the verse Rv-1.139,9; the Mandala-1 Poets were also aware
of the contributions made by the Ribhus in shaping Yajna during pre-Rigvedic time.
 Additionally, the Late Mandala verses Rv-1.96,2; Rv-9.10,6; Rv-10.5,6 describe that
it was Rishi Ayu lived during pre-Rigvedic period and pioneered the composition of the
earliest Song of Praise in the name of Gods [1].

Rv-1.96,2: sa pūrvayā nividā kavyatāyorimāḥ prajā ajanayan manūnām |

vivasvatā cakṣasā dyāmapaśca devā agnindhārayan draviṇodām ||

# At Ayu's ancient call he by his wisdom gave all this progeny of men their being,
And, by refulgent light, heaven and the waters. The Gods possessed the wealth, bestowing Agni.

Rv-9.10,6: apa dvārā matīnām pratnā ṛṇvanti kāravaḥ |

vṛṣṇo harasa āyavaḥ ||

# The singing-men of ancient time open the doors of sacred songs,-

Men, for the mighty to accept.

Rv-10.5,6: sapta maryādāḥ kavayastatakṣustāsāmekāmidabhyaṃhuro ghāt |

āyorha skambha upamasya nīḷe pathāṃvisarghe dharuṇeṣu tasthau ||

# Seven are the pathways which the wise have fashioned; to one of these may come the troubled mortal.
He standeth in the dwelling of the Highest, a Pillar, on sure ground where paths are parted.

In verse Rv-1.96,2; the Singer informs us that Ayu was the earliest Poet but no
Mandala of Rigved gives proper evidence of any poem composed by ancient Ayu. Although
Griffith in his translated verses Rv-9.10,6; Rv-10.5,6 missed out the reference of Ayu, but
original Sanskrit Verses do indicate presence of the said term in them (see the bold and
underlined words āyavaḥ and āyorha in both verses).

In addition to above, a special mention of sapta maryādāḥ kavaya/ सप्त मयाभदाः कवय
phrase in the Rv-10.5,6 makes it crystal clear that a long ago, the ancient Rishis set the limit
and standardized the Seven Metres/Chandas (सप्त मयाभदाः ) or Seven pathways for the
Composition of Praise-Songs. Same thing has also been retold in the late hymn Rv-10.130 in
which the Poet has given detail account or the story behind fashioning of Seven Metres.

Keeping above pre-Rigvedic events linked to the Priestly Families of Rigved, the
Ribhus, the earliest Poet Ayu found in the Late Mandalas at the back of our mind now we
shall proceed to discuss about some historical references traced in the hymns of Rigved.
 I. Pre-Rigvedic Royal Characters “Ila, Pururavasa, Nahusha, Yayati”

At first glance, some may term the discussion on the aforestated characters as the
uncalled for as none of them has any role or presence during the entire Rigvedic period. Still
several composers have shown them in the “Flashback” and depicted them as the human
beings who belong to one ancient Royal Family and lived during pre-Rigvedic period. In the
second to Last Mandala hymn Rv-1.31; aforementioned names of the four characters that do
not have any active role in the composition of All Ten Mandalas, but are shown to be present
in the form of the “Figures of the Past”. In all probabilities, as the four members of the Royal
family who lived in the past with whom the ancestors of the Rigvedic Priests once shared their
philosophy, place of residence, and the culture/language, hence were known to the Poets.

Ila and Pururavasa: Mother and Son

Among the all four pre-Rigvedic characters mentioned above, “Ila” is the most
respected character of the past as the character’s presence is found in many Mandalas of
Rigved. The Poets of all Ten Apri Suktas/Apris Hymns have given special status to Ila as
the Goddess, and placed her in the special verses along with other sister goddesses, mostly
included two, but occasionally three sisters together, namely Bharati, Saraswati, Aditi/Mahi.

As discussed earlier, in the eleventh verse of very first hymn of the Earliest Composed
Mandala, Rv-2.1,11; the Poet has specifically highlighted “Ila” as “iḷā ṣatahimāsi” or
“hundred wintered Ila”, clearly signifies “Ila” as a long lived person, since Hundred Winter
or Hundred Autumn phrase is found in several Rigvedic hymns which manifests an Ideal
Lifespan of “Human being” (this holds true even today as well).

But the most striking feature of this pre-Rigvedic character “Ila” is her close association
with God Agni. Mandala-3 Composer in the verse Rv-3.24,2 has linked Ila with the offerings
to Agni and the Poet of Rv-3.29,3 has compared birth of Agni with birth of Ila’s Son/putra.

In Mandala-5 also, we find āgna ilayā phrase (Rv-5.4,4) that connects Ila with Agni.

Mandala-7 verse Rv-7.16,8 depict her as Gritahasta Ila or (Ila who offers ghee
liberally) and in the verse Rv-7.44,2 the Poet has called her as Devi/Goddess (ilām devīm).

It means, many Rigvedic Composers had very high regards for “Ila”.
 In addition to above, there is very special reference about the great character Ila that
specifically defines the location or area where the very influential pre-Rigvedic character
would have lived earlier, and that is “Ilaspade”. The term Ilaspade is found in many Mandalas,
and the Mandala-wise frequency of the same is as under [1, 2].

Ilaspade: 1(2), 2(1), 3(2), 6(1), 10(5)

The verse Rv-3.23,4 from Mandala-3 gives an idea about the location of Ilaspade,
wherein Visvamitra the Lead Composer of Mandala-3 has defined that area having three
rivers namely Saraswati, Drsadvati, Apaya in it. He has also termed it as Vara Prithvya,
means the best place on Earth to live. From the available information, present-day Haryana
state becomes the most suited candidate for Rigvedic locality called as “Ilaspade”.

Rv-3.23,4: ni tvā dadhe vara ā pṛthivyā iḷāyās pade sudinatve ahnām |

dṛṣadvatyāṃ mānuṣa āpayāyāṃ sarasvatyāṃ revadaghnedidīhi ||

The verse Rv-1.128,1 belongs to hymn dedicated to Agni tells us pre-Rigvedic story
of the birth of Pure Agni Worship in Ila-spade (present-day Haryana state of India) region
[1].

Rv-1.128,1: ayaṃ jāyata manuṣo dharīmaṇi hotā yajiṣṭha uśijāmanuvratamagniḥ svamanu

vratam viśvaśruṣṭiḥ sakhīyate rayiriva śravasyate |
adabdho hotā ni ṣadadiḷas pade parivīta iḷas pade ||

# By Manu's law was born this Agni, Priest most skilled, born for the holy work of those who yearn
therefore, yea, born for his own holy work.

Note: In the verse Rv-1.128,7 of the hymn Rv-1.128; there is mention of mānuṣāṇām-iḷā phrase which
indicates that the tribe leader Ila who lived in ancient period, was associated with Pure Agni worship.
The verse Rv-7.16,8 describes Ghrita/Ghee addition to Simple Agni worship was due to Ila (probably
after her death, her place of residence is called as Ila-spade). After her death, Simple Agni Worship
was upgraded to Yajna rite when the Old Rishis included sacrificial part after observing wild-fires.
 Now coming to character Pururavasa, Rv-10.95,18 is the verse from Mandala-10
indicates Pururavasa is the son of Ila.

As discussed earlier, in the verse Rv-3.29,3 from hymn Rv-3.29 addressed to Agni,
Visvamitra has tried to compare the creation of Agni/fire on the ground with the birth of Ila's
Son (ilāyās putro) or vice versa.

Actually, Pururavasa is more famous for his love affair with Urvashi, an Apsara or a
celestial character clubbed with the former as a partner in the mythical story depicted in the
hymn Rv-10.95.

Nahusha and Yayati: Father and Son

Nahusa is another character from the Royal Family who has left his permanent shadow
on the whole Rigvedic Composition, probably due to his clash with the pre-Rigvedic Rishis
(discussed in detail in the later paragraphs). Mandala-wise data on Rigvedic term Nahusa is as
given below [1, 2].

Nahusa/Nahusa: 1(1), 5(1), 6(4), 7(2), 8(3), 9(2), 10(2)

From the above, it is crystal clear that Nahusha term is absent in Mandala-2, 3, and 4;
the First Three Consecutive Mandalas of Rigved, and the said term is present in remaining
seven Mandalas. Since Nahusa term is present in the hymn Rv-1.31, then in all probabilities,
He would have been the descendent of Ila, and Pururavasa, but lived before the start of the
Rigvedic Composition. Although Nahusa has no direct role during Rigvedic period, probably
his action prior to Rigvedic era would have caused heartburns to the Ancestors of Rigvedic
Priests, when He firmly rejected Indra, the character shaped up by the Sages of his time, when
Nahusa’s country (Sapta-Sindhu region) was reeling under severe Drought/Vritra.

The term Yayati is also present in the hymn Rv-1.31. Additionally, the verse Rv-
10.63,1 clearly identifies Yayati as the son of Nahusha.

The most striking feature of the royal character Yayati is, in two verses (Rv-1.31,17;
and Rv-10.63,1), where his name appears, both Composers have presented him as a friendly
person. But same thing is not true about his father Nahusha, who has regularly been treated as
a Third Person in the text as if the Composers wanted to keep safe distance from him. Hence
it can be said that the generations of Rigvedic Priests did not find Nahusa as a warm character.
 It is said that the perception of the persons make the difference in the interpretation of
Rigvedic verses. Same thing is found about the use of the terms Nahusa, and Yayati. The
Rigvedic term Nahusa can be a name of a person, but it actually means Neighbour. Similarly,
the word Yayati is also a name of a person, but it can also mean Wanderer or Mover. Hence,
the difference of perception of an individual automatically gets reflected into his/her translation
as well. Verse Rv-6.46,7 establishes link between king Nahusa and the Five Tribes of Rigved.

Rv-6.46,7: yadindra nāhuṣīṣvānojo nṛmṇaṃ ca kṛṣṭiṣu |

yad vāpañca kṣitīnāṃ dyumnamā bhara satrā viśvāni pauṃsyā ||

# All strength and valour that is found, Indra, in tribes of Nahusas, and all the splendid fame that

the Five Tribes enjoy

Bring, yea, all manly powers at once.

Comments: Meanings of two important archaic Sanskrit words are as under.

Krishti ---means region or territory-- [3]
Kshiti ----means Tribes or People -- [3]

Considering Nahusa as the name of a Person lived in the past, then same verse may be
re-interpreted as follows.

“Nahusa’s kingdom is now occupied by the Five People who possess strength and
valour. Indra bring all of them to us, means at the place of worship”.

In other words, the Five Tribes were the descendants of Nahusha, the latter must be
the great warrior himself, as the Poet hints at his descendants do carry the traits of the earlier
king. The Singer also points out that, they were permanently settled in the five different
countries carved out of the Nahusa’s territory. As described by the Poet, they all are the brave
people. As they would not come to attend Yajna on their own, the Poet requests God Indra to
help the Priests in bringing them to the place of worship, then Yajna performers can expect
some gifts from those Five Kings. Please recall our earlier discussion, in the verse Rv-1.108,8;
we find the original names of the Five Tribes as Anu, Druhyu, Puru, Turvasa and Yadu.
As mentioned in the verse Rv-7.83,7; the Ten Kings did not believe in Indra and Yajna. But
after their defeat in the War of Ten Kings, they accepted Indra and Yajna as told by Priests.
 Once the Five Tribes are linked to the old-time character Nahusa, then their
relationship opens up the new channels in the form of Tribes of Nahusa or Nahusa's People
for the discussion about the other references found in the various Rigvedic Mandalas.

Following verse is from the Last Mandala hymn, devoted to Indra, wherein we find
the terms Nahusa (term appears twice in original Sanskrit verse), Turvasa and Yadu [1].

Rv-10.49,6: ahaṃ saptahā nahuṣo nahuṣṭaraḥ prāśrāva yaṃ śavasāturvaśaṃ yadum |

ahaṃ nyanyaṃ sahasā sahas karaṃ navavrādhato navatiṃ ca vakṣayam ||

# Stronger am I than Nahusa, I who slew the seven: I glorified with might Yadu and Turvasa.
I brought another low, with strength I bent his strength: I let the mighty nine-and-ninety wax in power.

Comments: In the above verse, the Poet has compared valour and strength of Indra with the
ancient king Nahusa/ Nahusha, but then claims that now God Indra is stronger than Nahusa
and hence he could kill seven at a time. Additionally, on behalf of Indra, Poet states that due
to blessings of Indra, both Yadu and Turvasa have become very powerful and earned name
and fame. It indirectly means Turvasa and Yadu now attend Yajna and also praise Indra.

Note: The Poet has presented Nahusa in the flashback and, Yadu and Turvasa, the Two of Five Tribes as the
leaders having faith in Indra. In legends, king Nahusha replaces God Indra after the latter leaves his throne.

Above Discussion makes it clear that all the Generations of the Rigvedic Poets were
fully aware of the past history of the members of ancient Royal Family right from Queen Ila
to Yayati and the complete history of the Five Tribes of Rigved including their origin.

II. Reviewing the Mandala-6 hymn Rv-6.61 from the Historical Perspective:

When studied minutely, hymn Rv-6.61 reveals a long series of events that took place
in the past on the banks of river Saraswati starting with her origin to pathetic condition of the
river at the time when this hymn was composed. Point-wise explanation purposely divided into
different subjects, making suitable changes in sequence of some verses is as given below.
a. Journey of river Saraswati from Mountain to Plains:
 Verse-2 depicts Mountain origin of the river:

This is based on the description present in the said verse wherein the Poet says that
Saraswati has very strong waves/current and that is why, starting from the mountain
(Girinam), she could easily overcome all the obstacles came on her path.
  Verse-13 hints at entry of river Saraswati in Plains:

Use of special phrase ratha iva bṛhatī in the verse-13 makes it clear that now her bed
has become wider like Ratha which manifests that presently she is flowing in the Plains.

Above two references hint at river Saraswati is originated on a mountain as a small stream
and upon reaching the plains of Vedic region she gets transformed into relatively a big river.

b. Past Events summarise spread of the Vedic People beyond river Saraswati:

 Verse-3 talks about spread of Vedic Culture after killing the foes like Brisaya:

In this verse, the Composer tells us a very old story of the annihilation of the trouble creators
like Brisaya who had no faith in the old Vedic Gods (Rta, Adityas?) but had influenced
(mayinah) other people to oppose Early Vedic Philosophy. Poet further states that after
destroying the bad elements like Brisaya from that area as he used to inject poison regularly
(means he used to instigate the people not to believe in ancient Vedic Gods), in addition to
river Saraswati, Vedic People of old time extended their dominion and then settled on the
banks of other rivers of that region.

Note: From the above explanation, it can be said that the Old Rishis or the people who created the
Earliest Vedic Philosophy (Rta, Adityas) were originally lived only on the bank of river Saraswati and
after defeating their opponents like Brisaya they could expand their colonies on the banks of rivers of the
adjoining areas (most likely Parushni, Sutudri, Vipas etc.).

 Verse-9 reveals westward expansion of the kingdom of “Aryas”:

In the verse-9, the Composer highlights an old incidence that took place a long ago that
highlights the growth of regime of the Aryas beyond seven sisters’ area. In a very special
way, the Poet has described this particular aspect giving example of daily movement of God
Surya from east to west direction. This might have happened during the period of king
Nahusha who ruled from a town situated on the bank of river Saraswati. As discussed earlier;
Mandala Ten Poet in the verse Rv-10.49,6; has denoted Nahusa as the very powerful ruler.
 In this way, two different verses inform us about the two phase territorial expansion of the
Early Vedic Doctrine (Rta, Adityas, Simple Agni worship etc.) that was conceived on the
bank of river Saraswati. Verse-3 exhibits augmentation of the land adjacent to river
Saraswati, whereas verse-9 indicates stretching of kingdom beyond the Sapta-Sindhu region.

c. Social and Cultural Developments that took place on the bank of river Saraswati:

 Verse-1 brings out social concern of Divodasa:

In the verse-1, the Poet narrates ancient story of Divodasa who was the son of
Vadhryasva and also glorified the former as a great devotee of Saraswati and then earned
name and fame due to her. King Divodasa facilitated repayment of the debts (rna) of poor and
needy people by donating a part of his wealth to the needy persons, and hence became great
donor (Dashushe/ दाशुषे). In this way, Divodasa could control the activities of the niggards
(Panis; possibly very similar to present-day money lenders) in that area.
In the Five Late Mandalas of Rigved; some verses belonging to different hymns
actually reveal many important but untold ancient stories that are very much part of the Early
Phase of Vedic Philosophy such as the purpose of creation of New God Indra after
appearance of Vritra in the Sapta-Sindhu region, Origin of Yajna and its procedural
development with the composition and singing of new Poems of Praise; Soma and Animal
Sacrifice, the names of the members of Ancient Royal Family that was once headed by Ila
and then led by her descendants like Pururavasa, Nahusha, Yayati, the Five Tribes etc.

 Verse-12 intimates us about the raising of the “Five Tribes” together:

In the verse-12, the Composer has used Pancha-jata vardhyanti; a very special phrase
probably to convey us that the first generation of the “Five Tribes” (Anu, Druhyu, Puru,
Turvasa and Yadu) were born and brought together on the bank of river Saraswati. In other
words, as the children belonging to a Famous Royal Family, all five spent their childhood or
the early years of their life in a place located on her bank.

Note: Divodasa mentioned in the verse Rv-6.61,1 is different from king Divodasa, the
Mandala-6 tribe leader of Bharata clan who was the son of Srnjaya and not Vadhryasva.
d. Report on the factuality of current state of river Saraswati:
Through verse-14 the Poet has sent indirect signal that the present condition of river
Saraswati was very bad. In the said verse the Composer has warned his beloved river that if
she does not give her milk (water) to the people who worship her regularly, then they would
be left with no option but to go to distant places, means they would leave her banks due to
non-availability of water in her bed.
In all probabilities, this was the real condition of river Saraswati when the Poet
composed the verse-14 which happens to be the last verse of the hymn.

III. Re-examination of Mandala-7 verse dedicated to river Saraswati:

Rv-7.95 and Rv-7.96 are the two hymns addressed to river Saraswati by the Poets of
Vasistha clan. But we shall discuss about the verse Rv-7.95,2 that exhibits the state of river
Saraswati at the time of ancient king Nahusha/Nahusa believed to be the historical reference.

Verse Rv-7.95,2 reports condition of Saraswati at the time of king “Nahusha”

The Composer of the verse specifically talks about the fabulous state of river Saraswati
when king Nahusha ruled from a town situated on her bank. In the verse the Poet has clearly
stated that during Nahusha’s regime the river used to complete her course from mountain to
ocean. It means to say that at the time Nahusha, there was ample water in the river probably
due to adequate rainfall throughout the year. This verse contradicts verse Rv-6.61.14 content.

Summing up the discussion on “the historical dimensions presented by the Poets

on the members of ancient Royal Family and the verses devoted to river Saraswati”,
scrutiny of the verses related to these characters definitely provides better insight on the Past
History of Four Members of Noble Family and their relationship with the Old Rishis as well
as the Five Tribes and the generations of Rigvedic Poets. Contextual clues present in the hymn
Rv-6.61 manifest that the Earliest Vedic Philosophy/Rta has its origin on the bank of river
Saraswati and from there these ancient thoughts/beliefs got spread to other parts of the North-
west region of the Indian Sub-continent when the ruling class brought more area under their
control. Now every reader must try to get proper answer to a probing question given below.
“How did the new generation Poets, especially those involved in the composition of the
Five Late Mandalas know the past history of the Vedic People/Aryas and their culture?”
T. Cosmological Dimension- Origin of the Universe and Evolution of Life on the Earth:

In the Modern context, Cosmology is considered as a branch of physical science that

deals with the origin of Universe and its various components plus evolution of life on the Earth.
This scientific discipline mainly analyses the Observations made on the Celestial Activities
using advance Telescope, verification of some observations using very special experimental
devices and some are also validated with the use of Mathematical Models or vice versa [4].
In this section, we shall focus our attention on how the Mandala-10 Rigvedic Poets
have visualized the origin of Universe and progress of Life on Earth as they explained their
understanding in the three Praise-Songs. It is generally termed as the Religious Cosmology.

Cosmological and Life Evolutional Aspects described in Mandala-10 Hymns

Mandala-10 is a very special Mandala, as the Poets of this Mandala have touched upon
several new topics that are not noticed in the Nine Earlier Composed Mandalas. Table-4
gives information on the cosmological features found in the three hymns pertaining to the
subjects under discussion.

Table-4

Section Hymn Title of the Hymn Remarks

Number
A Rv-10.190 Creation/Bhavavrittam Creation as per Rta
B Rv-10.129 Nasadiya Sukta/ Creation Hymn Origin of the World
C Rv-10.121 Kah / Who? Prajapati, the Originator

Here we are going to take a penetrative look at the hymns mentioned in the Table-4
to understand the Insight of the Rigvedic Poets in perceiving the events related to “Creation
of the World, and the Life on the Earth” that occurred in the past.

As a matter of fact, above mentioned three “Songs of Praise” actually hint at intuitive
understanding of Universe or Mother Nature of the Poets who composed these poems. Please
keep in mind that these types of Poems are not found in the 1 to 9 Mandalas of Rigved. One
by one, in brief, we shall discuss about the specialities of four hymns mentioned in the Table-
4.
a. Creation of the World as per “ऋत/Rta/Universal Order”:

As discussed elsewhere, Rta/Rita is considered as the starting point of the Vedic

Philosophy. Surprisingly, Hymn Rv-10.190 begins with the word Rta/ऋत that happens to be
the core of the Early Vedic Philosophy. It comprises of only three verses that illustrate
formation of some worldly things in brief. In other words, in the said hymn, the Poet has
stressed the point, every creation follows Rta/eternal order.

Rv-10.190,1: ऋत च सत्यं चाभीद्धात तपसो.अध्यजायत | ततोरात्र्यजायत ततः समुद्रो अिभवः ||

ṛtaṃ ca satyaṃ cābhīddhāt tapaso.adhyajāyata |
tatorātryajāyata tataḥ samudro arṇavaḥ ||

#. From Fervour kindled to its height Eternal Law and Truth were born:
Thence was the Night produced, and thence the billowy flood of sea arose.

Rv-10.190,2: समुद्रादिभवादद्वध संवत्सरो अजायत | अहोरात्राद्विद्ववदधद द्ववश्वस्य द्वमषतो वशी ||

samudrādarṇavādadhi saṃvatsaro ajāyata |
ahorātrāṇividadhad viśvasya miṣato vaśī ||

# From that same billowy flood of sea the Year was afterwards produced,
Ordained of the days nights, Lord over all who close the eye.

Rv-10.190,3: सूयाभचन्द्रमसौ धाता यथापूवभमकल्पयत | द्वदवं चप्रधद्वथवी ं चान्तररक्षमथो सवः ||

sūryācandramasau dhātā yathāpūrvamakalpayat |

divaṃ capṛthivīṃ cāntarikṣamatho svaḥ ||

# Dhatar, the great Creator, then formed in due order Sun and Moon.
He formed in order Heaven and Earth, the regions of the air, and light.

In short, contents of the three verses of the hymn Rv-10.190 do imply that from the
natural heat/Tapas in the beginning the Eternal Order and Truth came into existence. Then
due to churning action of the sea fluid/flood, all other things that are present in the world such
as Days, Nights, Sea, the Sun, Moon, Heaven, Earth, Air, Light etc. are born. Please note that
Tapas and flood of sea jointly represent the unknown hot fluidic state of matter but the source
of both is not described and hence unknown. As per the Poet of the hymn, prior existence of
the Natural Law or Order is the essential step for any creation activity and without which no
new thing can be created or no progress in the world can be made.
b. “Beginning of the process of creation of Universe” as given in the Hymn Rv-10.129:

The hymn Rv-10.129 (commonly known as Nasadiya Sukta) is one of the most
celebrated and enigmatic hymns of Rigved, consists of seven verses in total. Out of the seven
verses, first five verses present how the Poet envisages the very idea about a “start of the
process of Creation of Universe”, and hence they belong to one group. In the last two verses,
by questioning himself, the Poet has tried to probe his mind about the uncertainty of “Start to
End of the Process of Creation”. Verse-wise interpretation in brief is given below.

Verse-1

In the beginning, there was neither “Asat/Non-existence” nor “Sat/Existence” in the

highest Heaven (Vyoma). The Poet in the verse-1 has mentioned that in the beginning both
states were absent, then we can safely assume that the “Absolute Nothingness” was the earliest
state of the Universe.

Verse-2
At that time, there were no comparative parameters like Death or Immortality as
well as Night or Day. Tat-Ekam means “That One” was the only Formless state and Endless
being still lived in absence of breath (Vata) with the self-support. It means to say that at that
time, “One” was in the process of evolution, or in the nucleation stage but yet to develop into
proper shape. It may be taken as good as the “Non-Existence”.

Verse-3
As the Darkness encompassed the Darkness, means outer layer of Darkness had formed
solid envelope around the core (something Dark), hence impossible to visualise what was going
on there. Due to complete darkness, the Infinite Ocean / waters (Salilam/a fluidic state?) was
also not at all shining, literally means no signature of physical presence of anything was
visible. Then, after sometime in the complete Darkness, Ekam/First One/Being (already
present being, a Self-sustainer (Svadha) belonging to the class of Non-Existence) using
internal heat (Tapas) or a self-driven, did put itself into action.

Verse-4

At the outset, it is the Desire formed in the mind of the First Being to go for a Creation
of a new thing. The Desire then led to creation of the earliest semen in the First Being. The
Sages or Rishis using their wisdom and intuition have found out the actual bonding or relation
between the Existence and Non-Existence (means both are interrelated).
 This means to say that, the “Desire for a new Creation” was the main driving force
behind the Primal Creation Activity.

Verse-5
A thin line was drawn in the middle (ra̱śmire̍ṣāma̱dhaḥ) to demarcate the two features
from each other. In other words, in the beginning the First Being/Ekam (Non-Existence) had
purposely divided itself into two parts. A feature placed above was an Impulse or an Urge
(feminine force?) and not the Lust, and the underneath one was the Strength or Push
(masculine force?) necessary for the Creative Formation through germination.

In this way, a process of creation of a new “Existence” began from the “Non-Existence
Ekam” in the complete Darkness. It means, “Existence” has its roots in “Non-Existence”.

Discussion on last two verses; 6 and 7

The last two verses are composed in such a way that as if the Poet asks questions to
himself through which he tries to probe his mind about the on-going process of Creation. Please
note that, in the first Five Verses, the Poet has defined initial stage of the Creation i.e. the
physical appearance of the first “Existence” from earlier “Non-Existence in the Darkness.

Verse-6

The Poet states that there is a close bond or blood relation between the “Asat / Non-
Existence Ekam” (an Early Phase) and “Sat or Existence (Product of Interaction). It means,
by birth both are connected to each other.

Verse-7

The Poet asks a set of questions to himself and they are;

1. When and where did the Earliest Creation Process originate?

2. Who is that one, caused initiation of the process?
Probably the Creator who looks from the highest heaven may or may not know the answers.

The most intriguing part of the verse-7 is the interpretation of the phrase “veda yadi va
ne veda ". Most Translators have framed the separate questions as “Does He Know?” and/or
“Does He not know?”

But after viewing the verse-7 in totality, two questions can be reframed into a single one as;

“Does He know that, He does not know beginning and end of the Creation?”
 It seems that the Poet has serious doubt over the capability of the freshly shaped
“Sat/Existence”, as the Composer has left his questions in an un-answered state. It means to
say that, “One/Existence” (He?) has no information about the beginning of the Creation
process as in reality, “He” himself is the first product of Process of Creation. Also “He”
does not know when the process will get terminated.

It also manifests that the Character “He” is different from the All Knowing Vedic Gods
including Adityas, but happens to be the “First Being” only, and not the “Supreme Being”
as believed by some experts.

Search for the “Ultimate Reality” has just begun.

c. “Kah? Or Who” is the Real Creator? Hiraṇya-garbha Sūkta/hymn Rv-10.121:

Here, we shall be focusing our attention on the Hymn Rv-10.121 addressed to

Kah/Who? The hymn is also known as Hiraṇya-garbha Sūkta. हिरण्यगर्भ literally means
Golden Egg or Golden Womb, the “Universal Womb” wherein the Creation of Universe is
believed to have begun. Verse-wise important features of All Ten Verses of the hymn Rv-
10.121 are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.

Verse-1

Golden Egg came into existence first from which the Only Lord of Creation was born.
He positioned and supported Heaven and Earth in the World.

It means that when the Lord of Creation took birth from the Golden womb, His
immediate action was to create and fix the Heaven and Earth in the proper places (also see
the verse Rv-10.121,9).

Verse-2

It was He who gave Self Creation Force (Atmada/reproductory Power), and inherent
Strength (Balada) to All Beings of the World. Even the Gods (that are created subsequently)
respect and worship Him. Immortality and Death are His two (independent) shadows. It means,
the origin and end of everything found in the world is in His hand.
 Verse-3

He is the only authority on the Life/Breathing (PraNa) and the Twinkling/Movements

of Eye (Nimisha/Vision) are the two most critical senses of the World. This aspects has made
Him the Greatest (Mahitva) among the lot. He is the Lord of Dvipade/Two Footed, and
Chatushpade/Four Footed creatures. It means, all moving animals are due to Him.

Verse-4

Due to His greatness (Mahitva), the snow on the mountains (Himavanta) and
continuous flow of water (Rasa) in Ocean are maintained. His arms (Baahu) have formed the
Regions /Directions (Pradisha). It means, He is all seasons and all regions/directions God.

Verse-5

He made Heaven to rise higher and higher (Ugra), and Earth firm/stationary. He
propped realm of light (Svah) and Heaven (Naka) to maintain their respective positions in the
Universe. He also made the mid-air regions (Vimanah) to float in the sky.

It means, He is directly responsible for fixing and maintaining status quo on the
locations of the different organs of the Universe (allocation of different work to different
characters created by Him).

Verse-6

Heaven and Earth the two important elements of the Universe keep cheering for Him
for His constant efforts in supporting, and illuminating both of them with the Sun/Surya.

It means, Heaven and Earth express their gratitude to Him for propping up and lighting up.

Verse-7

When and where from did the waters (Apa) or energy fluid come covering and
converting whole Universe (Visvam) as a womb bearing germ in it, that caused birth of
Agni/Fire?

Then One Mighty Lord/God (Asura eka) having life got evolved.

It means, before the birth of the first Great God, Agni/Fire was born first from the
Golden Womb/Egg.

Note: For better understanding, this verse should be seen immediately after the verse-1.
 Verse-8

It is He, through His insight, having closely observed earlier process of creation (energy
fluid), and then using same principle He gave birth to Yajna/Sacrifice. He is the God of all
Gods, and hence incomparable.

It means, Yajna a dedicated activity is needed to create a new thing in the world, is also
the making of the senior most God.

Verse-9

He is the creator of the Earth, and Heaven. He is the strict governor of the laws of
truthfulness (Satya-Dharma). He should not harm (Himsa) us. He carries forward the creative
waters/energy fluid (actually stands for- propagator of the process of Creation).

It means, the God is the creator of everything seen around us. Creation or evolution is
the continuous process, and while creating new things in future, He should not harm or destroy
the human beings.

Verse-10

O Prajapati, other than you, no one has given birth/existence to the things that are
found in the world. We have invited you for this Yajna with some objectives. Please fulfil our
desire as we invoke you.

It means, the Poet in the last verse of the hymn has finally disclosed the name of the
Lord to whom he has praised in the earlier nine verses. His name is Prajapati. In the last part
of the verse the Poet expects that God Prajapati should arrive at the Yajna rite and fulfil the
Poet’s requirements.

To summarise the discussion on the hymns Rv-10.190; Rv-10.129; and Rv-10.121;

the three Composers have visualised start of the Process of Creation of Universe from the
hot fluidic state. As per the Poet of the hymn Rv-10.190, Eternal Law/Rta and Satya are first
born from heat/Tapas and other things took shape subsequently. In the hymn Rv-10.129; the
Composer has stated that Existence was formed from Non-existence in the total darkness.
Poet of the Rv-10.121 has credited everything present in the World to a Single God Prajapati
who is born from Hiranya-garbha/Golden Womb but after the birth of Agni/Fire. Absence of
the names of Adityas, Indra and several Rigvedic Gods in the hymn manifests supremacy of
God Prajapati over other Gods who has been declared as the God of all other Gods.
U. Vague or Hazy Dimensions- Confusion due to “Multiple Originators of Vedic Deities”:

In this section we shall be discussing about some of the familiar Rigvedic Characters
that are described in some hymns/verses to have shaped by more than one Creator. In other
words, there exists variation in the stories of origin of Heaven and Earth, Indra Agni etc.

Ancestors of Rigvedic Poets believed that Heaven (Father) and Earth (Mother) are the
Universal Parents of the Rigvedic Deities. Hymns specifically addressed to Heaven and Earth
like Rv-1.185,4, Rv-1.159; Rv-1.160; Rv-4.56; Rv-6.70; Rv-7,53; mention that Heaven and
Earth are the great Parents of the Rigvedic Gods. But no Poet of the Five Early Mandalas,
has given proper information on how Heaven and Earth came into existence [1].

The Poet of Mandala-4 in the hymn dedicated to Heaven and Earth has said that he
has no knowledge about the real craftsman who shaped Heaven and Earth in the past.

Rv-4.56,3: Sure in the worlds he was a skilful Craftsman, he who produced these Twain
the Earth and Heaven.
Wise, with his power he brought both realms, together spacious and deep, well-
fashioned, unsupported.

Surprisingly, one of the Mandala-8 Composers in the verse Rv-8.36,4 has depicted
Indra as the originator of “Heaven and Earth”. Even though it is contradictory to the
established Rigvedic Doctrine, but it implies that there was an on-going intellectual debate
among the Priests on the issue of the shaper of both Deities [1].
Rv-8.36,4: Creator of the heaven, creator of the earth, O Satakratu, drink Soma to make thee glad.

Probably, the hardliner Poet while arguing with the opponents of Indra, would have
strongly rebutted the charges of the rival Priests as the latter had questioned the very existence
of Indra in the world. In some verses of Mandala-8, the Poets have hinted at isolation (or
side-lined) of Indra as well as questioning of the very existence of God Indra by the rivals.

But through the verses Rv-10.81,2 to 4; [1] the Mandala-10 Composer has first-time
introduced a new character Visvakarman as the producer of the Earth and Heaven [1].
Rv-10.81,2: What was the place whereon he took his station? What was it that supported him? How was it?
Whence Visvakarman, seeing all, producing the earth, with mighty power disclosed the heavens.
Rv-10.81,3: He who hath eyes on all sides round about him, a mouth on all sides, arms and feet on all sides,
He, the Sole God, producing earth and heaven, weldeth them, with his arms as wings, together.

Rv-10.81,4: What was the tree, what wood in sooth produced it, from which they fashioned out the earth
and heaven?
Ye thoughtful men inquire within your spirit whereon he stood when he established all things.

Additionally, in the verse Rv-10.82,1 also the Poet has indirectly spoken about
fashioning of Heaven and Earth [1].

Rv-10.82,1:The Father of the eye, the Wise in spirit, created both these worlds submerged in fatness.
Then when the eastern ends were firmly fastened, the heavens and the earth were far extended.

In this way, by introducing Visvakaraman as the fresh Divine Being, a Mandala-10

Poet through the composed verses of hymn Rv-10.81 has answered the question raised by the
Composer of Mandala-4 (see verse Rv-4.56,3) and declared that He is the producer of both
Heaven and Earth, the Universal Parents of the Gods. Again in the verse Rv-10.81,3 the new
God Visvakaraman has been portrayed as the Sole God who created both Heaven and Earth.

Now we shall take a close look at the Rv-10.90,14 that belong to a famous hymn
popularly known as the Purusha-Sukta wherein Purusha’s body parts are purposely offered
in Yajna to create the components of Universe including Earth, Heaven, Gods, living beings
and different types of People who are involved in performing Yajna ritual.

Rv-10.90,14: Forth from his navel came mid-air the sky was fashioned from his head
Earth from his feet, and from his ear the regions. Thus they formed the worlds.

Above verse depicts that Heaven is formed from the head of Purusha and Earth from
his feet.

Now we would take re-look at the verse Rv-10.121,9 that belongs to well-known
Hiranya-Garbha hymn [1].

Rv-10.121,9: Nor may he harm us who is earth's Begetter, nor he whose laws are sure, the heavens' Creator,
He who brought forth the great and lucid waters. What God shall we adore with our oblation?

Poet of the above verse has defined Prajapati, the Lord of All Creature as the creator
of Earth and Heaven.
 In addition to above, following verses addressed to Tvastar describe that God Tvastar
who is the earliest born, can take all forms as and when desired and hence He can be seen as
the Creator of all living and Non-living things including the Vedic Deities [1].

Rv-1.13,10: Tvastar I call, the earliest born, the wearer of all forms at will:
May he be ours and ours alone?

Rv-3.55,19: Tvastar the God, the omniform. Creator, begets and feeds mankind in various manner.
His, verily, are all these living creatures. Great is the Gods' supreme dominion.

In other words, above verses do project Tvastar as one more candidate for the post of
“Creator of several Rigvedic Deities” including Indra, Heaven and Earth.

In short, as per the verses belonging to different hymns of Rigved; Visvakarman,

Purusha, Prajapati and Tvastar are the creators of Heaven and Earth but in several verses,
the latter Deities are commonly called as the Universal Parents of the Rigvedic Gods [1].

Moreover, the search for the creators of other Gods led to revisit to Purusha-Sukta
hymn wherein the verse Rv-10.90,13 communicates us altogether different story [1].

Rv-10.90,13: The Moon was gendered from his mind, and from his eye the Sun had birth;
Indra and Agni from his mouth were born, and Vayu from his breath.

In the above verse, the Poet has described that from Purusha’s mind- Moon was born;
from His eye- the Sun/Surya; from His mouth -Indra and Agni; and from His breath- Vayu
took birth.

The most striking observation here is, when it is said that Agni is created from
Purusha's mouth, but after Purusha’s sacrifice, then there is no question of involvement of
fire in the on-going sacrifice since beginning. Also when the Poet informs us that Surya is
born from an Eye of Purusha, then the question of natural heat does not arise. In absence of
Sun, even the names of the three seasons mentioned in the verse Rv-10.90,6 have no relevance
at all. Hence it can be said that there is no real Yajna, but a symbolic or mythical one. Hence
Purusha-Sukta can be taken as an artistic presentation of the Origin of Universe.
 General Comments
As per the information provided in the verses Rv-10.90.14, and 13; as the sacrifice
ritual moved forward, one after another various components seen in the present-day world
started arriving from the Yajna (symbolic). These included regions like Heaven, Earth, Mid-
space, and directions. Additionally, other natural elements like Moon, Surya/Sun, Indra and
Agni are also formed after sacrificing some organs of Purusha.

Additionally, through the verses Rv-10.90.10 to 12; Poet informs us that living beings
like cows, asva, goats, sheep and the four classes of human beings are formed after sacrificing
the different parts of Purusha in Universal Yajna.

Similar to afore-mentioned verses that belong to Purusha-Sukta hymn, in the verses

Rv-10.82,3; Rv-10.82,4 of the hymn dedicated to Visvakarman, we find clear mention of the
creation of all things that exist in the world are due to Visvakarman [1].

Rv-10.82,3: Father who made us, he who, as Disposer, knoweth all races and all things existing,
Even he alone, the Deities' name-giver, him other beings seek for information.

Rv-10.82,4: To him in sacrifice they offered treasures,-Rsis of old, in numerous troops, as singers,
Who, in the distant, near, and lower region, made ready all these things that have existence.

In addition to Purusha, Visvakarman, and Tvastar; in the verses Rv-10.121,7 and 3;

taken from the hymn dedicated to Prajapati, the said God is also presented as the Lord of all
beings including Gods and Living beings[1].

Rv-10.121,7: What time the mighty waters came, containing the universal germ, producing Agni,
Thence sprang the Gods' one spirit into being. What God shall we adore with our oblation?

Rv-10.121,3: Who by his grandeur hath become Sole Ruler of all the moving world that
breathes and slumbers;
He who is Lord of men and Lord of cattle. What God shall we adore with our oblation?

Based on the above information, it can be said that a few Mandala-10 Poets as if
participated in the competition held on the occasion of a Special Yajna and then composed
different poems on a given topic using distinct styles, freshly introduced new characters, with
new vocabulary. Therefore, it is difficult to decide, among the characters like Visvakarman,
Prajapati, and Purusha who is the real Creator of Universe, Deities, and Living Beings.
V. Unique Dimension- Induction of a new concept; “the Oneness of God”:

It is generally agreed and accepted by all Vedic Scholars that the ancient Vedic Tribes
or the Aryas of Rigved were the believers of many Gods as Seven Adityas became the earliest
Gods of their Ideology. Hence it won’t be a wrong thing if we call them as the firm believers
of Polytheism.

Still, a few Rigvedic Poets showed courage and boldness to broach the subject and then
briefly discussed on “One God”. In this section, we shall focus our attention on the same.

In a few verses of Rigved, some Composers have deliberately given more stress on the
number “One” just to highlight selected characters that struck to their minds as a bigger or the
most important than others. Some such examples worthy of attention wherein number “One”
has been used as a special purpose vehicle are explained below.

1. Indra as “Eka Ishe”: In the hymn Rv-3.51 the Poet has glorified Indra as “Eka Ishe” / the
Sole Lord of the Vedic World due to his fighting spirit/killing instinct/Manyu nature.

Rv-3.51,4: nṛṇāmu tvā nṛtamaṃ ghīrbhirukthairabhi pra vīramarcatā sabādhaḥ | s

aṃ sahase purumāyo jihīte namo asya pradiva eka īśe ||

.# Thee, valorous, most heroic of the heroes, shall the priests glorify with songs and praises.
Full of all wondrous power he goes to conquest: worship is his, sole Lord from day’s aforetime.

Here the Poet while worshipping Indra recalls his heroic deeds and lauds the God as
the Sole Lord indicating that all other Rigvedic Gods carry less or negligible importance.

2. दे वानामसुरत्वमेकम/ devānāmasuratvamekam Concept: The hymn Rv-3.55 is addressed to

Visvedevas, and the Composer has employed दे वानामसुरत्वमेकम/ devānāmasuratvamekam
phrase as a long compound term in the second line of all twenty two verses of the hymn to
laud God mentioned in that particular verse as the “Only One Lord among the several Gods”.
Please note that application of the phrase दे वानामसुरत्वमेकम/ devānāmasuratvamekam is not
restricted only to one type of God (for example: Varuna, one of the Adityas or one of the two
Asvins or one among the several Maruts) or any single God but based on the content of the
hymn, it can be said that it was mainly done to highlight every God under discussion as the
Great One who also represents the “Supreme Being” as describe below [1].

Rv-3.55,1 to 22: mahad devānāmasuratvamekam (last words of the second line)

# Great is the Gods' supreme and sole dominion.

3. “Single Origin of three Rigvedic Deities”-a reference from Mandala-8: The Poet of the
verse Rv-8.58,2 has first time openly talked on the “One God Origin philosophy”.

Rv-8.58,2: eka evāgnirbahudhā samiddha ekaḥ sūryo viśvamanu prabhūtaḥ |

ekaivoṣāḥ sarvamidaṃ vi bhātyekaṃ vā idaṃvi babhūva sarvam ||

# Kindled in many a spot, still One is Agni; Surya is One though high over all he shineth.
Illumining this All, still One is Usas. That which is One hath into All developed.

In the beginning of above verse, the Composer has independently identified the Deities
like Agni, Surya, and Usha as “One” but has called each one, capable to cover whole world.
Then he took his thoughts to a new height and claimed that all three Deities have been
originated from “One”.

Please note that all three Deities described in the above verse are the real one that are
physically seen every day, and not the imaginary Gods or Goddesses like Indra, Adityas,
Vishnu, Aditi, Mahi etc.

4. “One Ultimate God called by different names”-a reference from Mandala-1:

Mandala-1 is the Second to Last Mandala of Rigved, and the Poet of the hymn Rv-
1.164 has openly taken different stand on the issue of Vedic Gods than the several Poets of the
Other Mandalas. As a knowledge champion, he has used practical approach in deciding the
Supreme God.
First in the verse-6 of the hymn Rv-1.164 he has asked a question to himself and other
wise persons on the subject of the physical existence of One Supreme God.
Rv-1.164,6: acikitvāñcikituṣaścidatra kavīn pṛchāmi vidmane na vidvān |
vi yastastambha ṣaḷ imā rajāṃsyajasya rūpe kimapi svidekam ||
# I ask, unknowing, those who know, the sages, as one all ignorant for sake of knowledge,
What was that One who in the Unborn's image hath stablished and fixed firm these worlds' six regions.

Then in the verse-46 of the same hymn, the Composer has spoken up his mind about
his perception of the Real God.

Rv-1.164,46: indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān |

ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ ||

# They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman.
To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.

In the aforementioned verse, the Singer has clearly stated that “God is One and the
Rishis/ Sages call him by different names such as Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni etc.”. But he did
not hesitate in identifying “That One” as “Suparna Garutman which is nothing but God
Surya who is physically seen by one and all, and like a high flying bird/suparna daily moves
in the mid-space from east to west direction.
Strictly speaking, the Poets of the Two Late Mandalas i. e. Mandala-8 and 1 must
have raised the point of “One God” after the division of the Priestly Community on the issue
of Indra as the latter had no role of in making the rivers of the western region to flow regularly.

Although Rigved is mostly understood by the researchers of every walk of life as the
text that is based on polytheism, but content of the two separate hymns composed by the two
different Poets of Two Late Mandalas exhibit that both took non-conventional but
innovative route to challenge the established view that has been the part of Vedic Philosophy
since inception, and were successful in stirring the minds of other Poets of their time.

Please bear in mind that some Important Religions of the present world like Islam and
Christian do believe in monotheism means “One God” but the concept of “the Oneness of
God” described in the scriptures of both religions is not the same.
By designating God Surya as “That One”, the Poet of hymn Rv-1.164 has made it sure that
no one would question on the existence of God, hence it becomes “Unique” feature of Rigved.
W. Pious Dimension – Rigvedic Poets express Indebtedness to their Ancestors:

Since many centuries, the Traditional Vedists (Orthodox Persons) of India who firmly
believe that Rigved is meant for the promotion of religious act or Yajna or Karm Kand and
hence they keep telling the Common People about three things pertaining to the ancient Vedas.

1. Vedas are the Divine Revelations by the Gods.

2. Sanskrit is the Language of the Gods.
3. Brihaspati is the Guru of the Gods.

The most of the Indian Ritualists firmly believe that Vedic hymns are not composed
or scripted by men, but are “heard” (hence called as-Shruti) by the ancient Seers, as and when
they were revealed to them by Gods from time to time. As per them, after hearing, the ancient
Rishis or Sages recollected the thoughts, and retold the same thing to next generation as if it
was the gift given by Gods to them. In their words, the ancient Rishis compiled the eternal truth
directly received from the Gods and communicated the same in the form of oral texts (using
God's language) to future generations.
As per the old belief, Vedic Rishis are considered as the preceptors who educated their
next generations about the pre-existing Knowledge. It is also said that the divine revelation in
the form of Vedas came to them for guiding the People of that time.

Hence it is essential to know what the Rigvedic Poets have to say about this. Some
selected verses taken from the Last Mandala have been given below to bring out the
perception of the Composers of the Tenth Mandala [1, 2] about the Gods in their minds.

10.14,6: Our Fathers are Angirases, Navagvas, Atharvans, Bhrgus who deserve the Soma.
May these, the Holy, look on us with favour, may we enjoy their gracious loving-kindness.

10.15,1: May they ascend, the lowest, highest, midmost, the Fathers who deserve a share of Soma,
May they who have attained the life of spirits, gentle and righteous, aid us when we call them.

10.15,5: May they, the Fathers, worthy of the Soma, invited to their favourite oblations.
Laid on the sacred grass, come nigh and listen: may they be gracious unto us and bless us.
10.15,8: Our ancient Fathers who deserve the Soma, who came, most noble, to our Soma banquet,
With these let Yama, yearning with the yearning, rejoicing eat our offerings at his pleasure.

10.15,14: They who, consumed by fire or not cremated, joy in their offering in the midst of heaven,
Grant them, O Sovran Lord, the world of spirits and their own body, as thy pleasure wills it.

10.16,1: Burn him not up, nor quite consume him, Agni: let not his body or his skin be scattered.
O Jatavedas, when thou hast matured him, then send him on his way unto the Fathers.

10.16,2: When thou hast made him ready, Jatavedas, then do thou give him over to the Fathers.
When he attains unto the life that waits him, he shall become the Deities' controller.

10.16,11: With offerings meet let Agni bring the Fathers who support the Law.
Let him announce oblations paid to Fathers and to Deities.

10,54,3: Who are the Rsis, then, who comprehended before our time the bounds of all thy greatness?
For from thy body thou hast generated at the same time the Mother and the Father.

10.56,4: Part of their grandeur have the Fathers also gained: the Gods have seated mental power in them as
Gods.
They have embraced within themselves all energies, which, issuing forth, again into their bodies pass.

10.56,5: They strode through all the region with victorious might, establishing the old immeasurable laws.
They compassed in their bodies all existing things, and streamed forth offspring in many successive forms.

10.56,6: In two ways have the sons established in his place the Asura who finds the light, by the third act,
As fathers, they have set their heritage on earth, their offspring, as a thread continuously spun out.

10.67,1: This holy hymn, sublime and seven headed, sprung from eternal Law, our sire discovered.
Ayasya, friend of all men, hath engendered the fourth hymn as he sang his laud to Indra.

10.67,2: Thinking aright, praising eternal Order, the sons of Dyaus the Asura, those heroes,
Angirases, holding the rank of sages, first honoured sacrifice's holy statute.

10,98,3: Within my mouth, Brhaspati, deposit speech lucid, vigorous, and free from weakness,
Thereby to win for Santanu the rain-fall. The meath-rich drop from heaven hath passed within it.

10.98,9: All ancient Rsis with their songs approached thee, even thee, O Much-invoked, at sacrifices.
 We have provided wagon-loads in thousands: come to the solemn rite, Lord of Red Horses.

10.130,6: So by this knowledge men were raised to Rsis, when ancient sacrifice sprang up, our fathers.
With the mind's eye I think that I behold them who first performed this sacrificial worship.

10.130,7: They who were versed in ritual and metre, in hymns and rules, were the Seven Godlike Rsis.
Viewing the path of those of old, the sages have taken up the reins like chariot-drivers.

From the above verses, it is clear that the Poets of Mandala-10 have treated their
ancestors as the Gods. Similar to the Deities of their Imaginations, they often invited their
Fathers (who lived in Upper Heaven with Yama) to attend Yajna to drink Soma, and also to
enjoy other sacrifices.
In the verse Rv-10.98,3; the Composer has termed Brihaspati as the lucid speech giver
to them. It means, since inception, the Rigvedic Poets always looked at Brihaspati, a Divine
Being as the main source speech/Vacha or fresh word power to compose the new Songs.

If we go by the beliefs of the present-day Ritualist or the Traditional Vedists, then all
the Rigvedic Poems would have been composed by a few Poets at one place in a shortest
possible time-frame, say in a few years of period. But considering the fact of inclusion of
different geographical locations indicated by the names of various rivers of Rigvedic Territory;
variation in the archaic Sanskrit words used in the composition of the Five Early Mandalas
and the Five Late Mandalas; Five different names of kings of Bharata clan that appear in the
Five Early Mandalas; Six distinct Families of Poets who composed Six Family Mandalas;
incorporation of the Poems composed on the topics that are not meant to laud the Rigvedic
Gods at the time of Yajna such as Rv-10.85; Rv-10.86; Rv-10.102 etc. make it apparent that
all the Praise-songs were the thoughtfully structured spoken words of the Ancient Men of
Saraswati-Sindhu Valley Region who had immense faith in the Deities of their Imaginations
and composed over a very long period, probably took a time span of eight to ten centuries.
From the practical point of view, the ancient Rishis or the ancestors of the Rigvedic
Priests who formulated Yajna, framed the rules for the composition of “Poems of Praise” (for
history of structure of the Hymns see verses Rv-10.130,6-7) in an ancient language, need to
be considered as the Real Gods of the Rigvedic Poets as at the time of Yajna, the Poets often
recalled all of them with eternal gratitude (recall Ribhus) and wished to pay their respect.
In short, Rigvedic Poets considered their forefathers as the Gods who were believed
to live in the upper Heaven and along with the Gods, hence also invited them to attend Yajna.
X. Prejudice Dimensions- Constant Discrimination against the Rigvedic People:

Main intention of discussion on the above mentioned topic is not to add anything new
to already covered key points of the ancient Vedic Philosophy that are found in Rigved, but
due to biased attitude of some persons, there is an inescapable need to bring it to the notice of
the reader that there exists a section of Vedic Scholars and their disciples who have been ill-
treating the Rigvedic Poets and the Aryas in general, since 150 years.

A set of scholars who are the staunch supporters of the Aryans Migration Theory
(AMT) pay little attention to the contents of the Rigvedic hymns as information given in some
of the verses contradict their beliefs or assumptions. This is because, most of the AMT Experts
state that Rigved, the Indian origin ancient literature is nothing but a set of false but loosely
composed stories. Therefore, they have prepared their own narratives based on many
assumptions and have been promoting the same without any break since several decades.

Surprisingly, same scholars often use the archaic Sanskrit words found in Rigved to
justify their claim of pre-historical existence of an imaginary Proto Indo-European (PIE)
Language as the common ancestor of all Indo-European Languages found in the world that
is believed to have originated in the Eurasian Territory for which till date, they could not
produce any concrete textual or archaeological evidence.

The champions of AMT often compare the contents of Rigved with Avesta and claim
that the Avestan Literature is older than Rigved. Hence they regularly assert that the
ancestors of Aryas who were basically Nomadic and Pastoral Tribesmen, started their
journey on the Horse Drawn Chariots from the Eurasian Steppes, then spent considerable
time in the ancient Central Asian region presently known as the Bactria Margiana
Archaeological Complex (BMAC), then all the way they arrived in the present-day
Afghanistan and lived for a few decades on the bank of river Heraxavati that is currently
known as river Helmand. On the bank of this river, they began to compose the Early
Mandalas of Rigved. After a few decades of stay there, a section of the Aryas entered into the
Indian Sub-continent through the Khyber Pass and first landed in the Indus Valley and the
people of other section moved inside Persia or present-day Iran and developed independent
philosophical culture there. As per the version of AMT supporters, the Sanskrit speaking
Aryans or Aryas who were originally from Eurasian Steppes, came to North-west part of
India in more than one wave and brought their material and philosophical cultures with them.
And that is why, they say that there are several common references of Asva, Ratha, Yajna,
Soma, Some Deities in the Avestan and Rigvedic Poems. Now we shall compare some key
features of Rigved with Avesta.

Rigved and Avesta- the comparative dimensions

Key features of Rigved:

1. Origin of Adityas from Goddess Aditi mainly to implement and monitor Rta.
2. Origin of Vritra (real Drought) from Danu.
3. Origin of most of the Deities including Indra from Heaven and Earth.
4. Original Idea of Yajna taken from wildfire but after the fashioning of Indra.
5. Origin of Living and Non-living things is not credited to One Divine Being. There
exists variation in the stories as the Poets of different hymns of the Last Mandala
that are dedicated to Visvakarman (Rv-10.81 and 82) or Prajapati (Rv-10.121) or
creation through sacrifice of Purusha (Rv-10.90) or the Composers of verses addressed
to Tvastar speak different tones. Even though some Mandala-10 hymns create utter
confusion about the birth of the several Gods including Heaven and Earth, then hymn
Rv-10.72 adds some more as there is mention of Eight Adityas (7 regular plus one
Martanda/Surya) are described to have born from Aditi.
6. In Mandala-10 only, some of the regular enemies of the Aryas are redesignated as
“Asuras”/bad or demonic characters. It means to say that in Early Nine Mandalas
though they were portrayed as the evil characters along with Rigvedic Gods, still they
were also grouped together as “Asuras” means the entities that have very special
capabilities surpassing the qualities of the common men.

Key features of Avesta in comparison with Rigved:

1. Origin of Ahura Mazda is not mentioned, hence believed as a self-made Entity.
2. Since beginning, Angra Mainyu is depicted as a villain in Old Avesta, but Indra as
the evil character is noticed twice in Young Avesta Only.
3. Story of formulation of Yasna/Yajna is not found in Avestan literature.
4. Avestan Philosophy describes Ahura Mazda as the creator of everything in the world
that includes Deities, Demons, and Living and Non-living things.
5. In Avesta, there is No Place for some important Rigvedic Deities like Vishnu,
Brahmanaspati, Brihasapti, Maruts who are described to be the close friends of
Indra in Rigved.
6. Some of the Rigvedic Deities are treated as the Demons.

“ABC” analysis of the arguments of AMT Scholars

A- Avoid—no talking about some vital points as if they are “not found” in the texts and
intentionally not to present in the proper context despite information is available.
B- By-pass -circumvent evidence or information or go round about/circular argument or
divert the attention or to drive around the point; for example: River Saraswati.
C- Craziness-even when there is no concrete evidence is available in Rigved, still they
keep propagating the myths like equating “Asvas and Rathas” of the Rigvedic Deities
with the remains of “True Horses and the War Chariots” unearthed in the region of
Eurasian Steppes (Sintashta/Arkaim). Additionally, when their opponents question
their motives, then they start paying more attention to the non-connected topics like
Genetic science, fictitious language PIE with the sole purpose to push their views.

I. AMT Scholars regularly“Avoid” discussion on the following Points:

The champions of AMT deliberately do not look into the following points.
 Absence of names of western rivers like Sindhu, Kubha, Krumu, Rasa, Sararu,
Gomati etc. in the Four (Mandala-2, 3, 6, and 7) out of Five Early Mandalas.
 Absence of the terms like Gatha, Ushtra/Camel in the Five Early Mandalas.
 Missing references of “Ara/Spoked Wheel” in the Five Early Mandalas.
 Absence of the terms related to word “Hima” (means ice or snow) in the Five Early
Mandalas (with the exception of the phrase “Shata Hima” that stands for winter
season) as they are mostly seen in the hymns of the Two Late Mandalas (Mandala-1
and 10).
 Presence of “Mujavat” mountain which was generally believed to have located outside
the Indian Sub-continent but noticed in the Last Mandala verse Rv-10.34,1.
 Presence of “Pavamana” term that implies” self-purified or sheep-wool filtred
Soma” in the verse Rv-8.101,14 and many verses of Mandala-9 only as the Mandala-
8 and 9 are commonly categorised as the Late Mandalas of Rigved.

Countering the Opinions of AMT supporters on the basis of above Points

As mentioned earlier, in Mandala-2, 3, 6, and 7; there is no reference of any of
the rivers of western part of Rigvedic Territory including river Sindhu. The Poet of
Last Mandala through the composed two Verses i. e. Rv-10.75,5 and Rv-10.75,6 has
given fairly good idea about the ancient Rigvedic Territory. In fact, the Poet has
demarcated the country into two parts. Verse Rv-10.75,5 includes the rivers of eastern
part of the Rigvedic Territory, and the verse Rv-10.75,6 covers river Sindhu and her
western tributaries.
Absence of the names of the river Sindhu and her western tributaries in the
Four Early Mandalas wherein river Saraswati has been glorified regularly manifests
that those Rigvedic Poets/Priests did not cross river Sindhu in their entire life.
Also absence of “Pavamana” word in all Six Family Mandalas of Rigved and
presence of mythical story of “Falcon/Eagle brings Soma from a Long distance” in
the Early Mandalas informs us that Soma plant was not grown or found in the region
where the Priestly People spent major part of their life during the Five Early Mandalas.
Probably some Poets of the Early Mandalas knew that Soma is a mountain grown plant
(see verse Rv-3,48,2).
The fact is that, after completion of Mandala-7, when the Priests realised that
up-stream area of river Saraswati is also reeling under drought (refer to verse Rv-
5.43,11), then they decided to shift to area located to west of river Sindhu. The late
hymns of Mandala-5 definitely convey that (revisit the hymns Rv-5.44 to 87
specifically to search for description on the all-time very popular but mythical story
of Indra-Vritra conflict), the Priests did not face water problem anywhere means as
far as availability of water is concerned, they were in comfortable position. Therefore,
first time, the Poet of Mandala-5 has introduced many western rivers such as Sindhu,
Rasa, Kubha, Krumu, Anitabha, and Sarayu in a single verse Rv-5.53,9.

Please note that in all Five Late Mandalas, western rivers Sindhu and Rasa
are unfailingly present (also in the verses of Mandala-4). Therefore, only in the Late
Mandalas, we find terms like, Gatha, Ara, Ushtra, Hima, Pavamana, Mujavat etc.
 II. By-pass or skirt the truth related to river “Saraswati”:

The advocates of AMT always question the references of river Saraswati.

 In the verse Rv-6.49,7; river Saraswati is described as the ‘Paviravi Kanya’ or the
daughter of Lightning which manifests the river was totally a rain-fed river.
 References of river Saraswati such as Rv-6.61,14; Rv-7.96,2; Rv-5.43,11 and Rv-
8.21,17-18 that clearly indicate that a long ago the river used flow in full capacity but
now she has become a seasonal stream that flows only when Sapta-Sindhu region
receives very good rainfall. Therefore, the people who resided on her banks had two
options; after the rainy season either to get relocated somewhere where water was
available (as Purus used to do after rainy season, see the verse Rv-7.96,2 for the
reference of Grassy Banks) or dwell there and prepare to face the water scarcity.
 Geographical location of river Saraswati signalled in the verse Rv-10.75,5 wherein it
is mentioned that Saraswati lies between the two main rivers of the Eastern Part of
Rigvedic Territory i. e. Yamuna (in the east direction) and Sutudri (on the west side).
Some AMT experts assert that Saraswati mentioned in the verse Rv-10.75,5 is not the
same as lauded in the hymns Rv-6.61; Rv-7.95 and Rv-7.96 but the river Helmand of
Afghanistan. According to them, when the Migrated Aryas moved eastward and
settled in the eastern part of Rigvedic Territory, then they transferred the name of their
beloved river of present-day Afghanistan to a dry river they found in present-day
Haryana state of India. But these scholars have no answer to a question; “why did the
Aryas fall in love with the dry river Saraswati, when other rivers of eastern area like
Parushni, Sutudri, Vipas or Yamuna were known to them? As a matter of fact,
presence of river Gomati in the verse Rv-10.75,6 along with river Sindhu manifests
that there was no transfer of the name of river like Sarayu or Gomati (in the Uttar
Pradesh state of India, two rivers named as Sarayu and Gomati are present but they
are located to east of river Ganga) till the composition of the Mandala-10.

Countering the Arguments of AMT scholars on river “Saraswati”

On the basis of information provided by the Rigvedic Poets, the doubts raised by the
AMT protagonists can be easily rebutted. Please take a fresh look at the following three verses
selected from the hymns addressed to river Saraswati [1, Griffith Translation].
Rv-7.95.2: Pure in her course from mountains to the ocean, alone of streams Sarasvati hath
Listened.
Thinking of wealth and the great world of creatures, she poured for Nahusa her milk and fatness.

In the above verse, the Poet belonging to Vasishtha clan after the defeat of the Ten
Kings in the war, when visited the country of the Purus, probably after witnessing pathetic
condition of the river, he might have understood from the Purus that, a long back, during king
Nahusa’s time, river Saraswati used to complete her course right from its origin, means
mountain region to the sea. In other words, in the past river, it was almost perennial stream.
In most of the articles/papers written by the AMT scholars, it has been noticed that
they purposely delink Nahusha term from river Saraswati and then ask the question;
“When Saraswati was a perennial and mighty river, and hence the most favourite of
the Rigvedic Priests, then why did the Rigvedic people desert her?”
As discussed earlier, king Nahusha, the descendant of queen Ila lived a long back,
much before the commencement of the Rigvedic Compositions, and probably during the early
part of Nahusha’s regime, there was no paucity of water in Sapta-Sindhu region.

In the following verse, the Mandala-6 Poet belonging to Angirasa Family makes the
things very clear.
Rv-6.49,7: So may Sarasvati, the Hero's Consort, brisk with rare life, the lightning's Child, inspire
us,
And, with the Dames accordant, give the singer a refuge unassailable and flawless.

Through verse Rv-6.49,7; the Composer has brought out the factuality of river
Saraswati. Here he has highlighted that river Saraswati as the “child of lightning” means the
rain-fed river and not like the rivers that originate from the snow covered mountainous glaciers.
In the last verse of Mandala-6 hymn devoted to river Saraswati, the Poet has warned
Saraswati out of his unfading love and affection for her.
Rv-6.61,14: Guide us, Sarasvati, to glorious treasure: refuse us not thy milk, nor spurn us from
thee.
Gladly accept our friendship and obedience: let us not go from thee to distant countries.
Here the Singer has threatened Saraswati, if she does not provide her milk/water to
the people who live on her banks, then they would not have any alternative but for their
survival, many would leave the locality and go to distant places or countries.
 When above three verses are studied together and then it becomes crystal clear that
during the early period of the king Nuhusha’s rule, river Saraswati used to carry sufficient
water throughout the year. Since beginning, it was definitely a rain-fed river but due to shortfall
in seasonal rains, it stopped flowing throughout the year and hence became seasonal river. The
composer of the verse Rv-6.61,14 has painted true wordy picture as he described that now she
was in very bad state, hence people who resided on her banks started abandoning her.

III. Craziness for the “Horse drawn Chariots”:

The proponents of AMT cannot think of Rigved without the “True Horse”.

 As per the champions of AMT, all the references of the term “Asva” found in Rigved
attest presence of the “True Horse” only.
 AMT backers claim that the Aryas from the BMAC arrived in the Indian Sub-
continent via Persia on the Horse-drawn War Chariots and hence they could easily
subdue the original inhabitants of the Indus Valley. Whereas the History of the Central
Asia informs us that Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan did not attack Central
Asia (BMAC area) with the War Chariots but captured the region with ease due to
strong cavalry and the high skilled archers/ brave foot soldiers they possessed.

Countering the Views of AMT scholars on the “True Horse”

Please take an intense look at the following verse taken from the hymn dedicated to
“Asva”.

Rv-1.162,17: yat te sāde mahasā śūkṛtasya pārṣṇyā vā kaśayā vā tutoda |

sruceva tā haviṣo adhvareṣu sarvā tā te brahmaṇāsūdayāmi ||
# If one, when seated, with excessive urging hath with his heel or with his whip distressed thee,
All these thy woes, as with the oblations' ladle at sacrifices, with my prayer I banish.

In the above verse the Poet has brought out factual thing and that is, when a person
rides the Horse, then only he can use both his heels/ pārṣṇyā and whip/ kaśayā to instigate it
to move forward or to make it run fast. It presents clear example of the Horse Rider in action.
 Additionally, in other hymn addressed to Asva, same Poet has first time introduced
mythical concept of “Rigvedic Deities like Indra mounting Asva first” (see verses Rv-
1.163,2 and Rv-1.163,9 for the use of archaic term Adhyatisthat).

In all probabilities, the Composer would have seen a horse rider in his locality, and
then first time used Adhyatisthat term to describe Gods rode the Asva or True Horse first as
it was meant for them and not for the mortal men who live on Earth.

Asva/Horse is kept in a cowshed and not in stable (?), the place to keep Horse.

Rv-1.163,7: atrā te rūpamuttamamapaśyaṃ jighīṣamāṇamiṣa ā pade goḥ |

yadā te marto anu bhoghamānaḷ ādid ghrasiṣṭha oṣadhīrajīghaḥ ||

# Here I beheld thy form, matchless in glory, eager to win thee food at the Cow's station.
Whenever a man brings thee to thine enjoyment, thou swallowest the plants most greedy eater.

Interpretation: When a mortal man wants to derive maximum benefit from Asva/the True
Horse, then before slaughtering, he feeds Asva as like he feeds the Cow daily (who provides
milk regularly) with fodder/plants in the shed of the latter.

It means, there was no independent shed to keep this Asva/Horse, but it could have
been housed in the Cowshed overnight and fed properly there before taking to sacrificial post.

Rv-1.162 and Rv-1.163 are the two hymns dedicated to Asva actually describe the
systematic slaughtering of the True Horse into pieces and then offering its flesh/body parts in
Yajna and a part of it was properly cooked in the vessels to be served to the people. No hymn
of Rigved addressed to any animal gives detail account of the Sacrifice of that particular animal.

Still some scholars try to equate the description given in these two hymns as the Avsa-
Medha Yajna mentioned in other Vedas and the legends composed later on.

But the main purpose of the sacrifice of Asva was to send him to Heaven so that Gods
reside there would engage it pull their Rathas and after becoming happy with the devotional
act of Priests, in turn, the Gods would bestow wealth, offspring and better health to them.

From the above discussion, it is clear that the True Horse depicted in the hymns
dedicated to Asva was the new entrant in the Rigvedic Territory and some Horse Rider would
have brought it inside the Indus Valley through the Khyber Pass bordering present-day
Afghanistan (Gandharva region; refer to verse Rv-1.163,2).
 How long Vedic Scholars want to fool the Common Man about the term “Asva”?

Please take penetrative look at the verse given below [1, #--Griffith Translation].

Rv-1.164,2: sapta yuñjanti rathamekacakrameko aśvo vahati saptanāmā |

trinābhi cakramajaramanarvaṃ yatremā viśvā bhuvanādhitasthuḥ ||

# Seven to the one-wheeled chariot yoke the Courser; bearing seven names the single Courser draws it.
Three-naved the wheel is, sound and undecaying, whereon are resting all these worlds of being.

Comments: The Poet in the verse-2 has cryptically described how the world moves forward
in a year (progress of a Kaal-chakra/wheel of time with Ritu-chakra).
The key terms used by the Poet in the verse-2 are re-interpreted as follows.

All Seven: Seven Adityas (who rule the world as per the eternal law/Rta)

Single wheeled Ratha: Yearly motion of the World (that includes Heaven and Earth)

Single Asva: Surya/the Sun (Asva stands for Power, Source of Energy of the World).

Three Naves: three main seasons experienced in India/Summer, Rainy, and Winter.

The first line of the verse, सप्त युञ्जद्धन्त रथमेकचक्रमेको अश्वो वहद्वत सप्तनामा can be re-
interpreted as “the Seven Adtityas have yoked Single Asva (the Sun) to pull the Ratha (yearly
movement of the world) on behalf of the Seven Charioteers/Seven Adityas”.

The Composer has given more stress on the Seven (Adityas). This is because, as per
Rta/eternal order, they are responsible to run the show of the world, for which they engage
their favourite but the most trusted God Surya (the Sun who moves daily from one end to other
end of Earth without fail) as Asva/ Prime Mover (real driving force) to take world forward.

The most important point is, in the above verse the word “Asva” does not stand for the
“True Horse” but for Surya/the Sun.

We have already discussed in detail about the “Asvas of the Rigvedic Deities”, that
are in reality, the mental products of the Ribhus/three brothers who lived during pre-Rigvedic
time.

Similarly, in the verse Rv-8.14,3 given below, the Poet has first depicted Indra the
most beloved God of Rigvedic Priests as Dhenu/Milch Cow and then prays to Supreme God
to provide them many gāmaśvaṃ /cattle and the Asvas for their use.
Rv-8.14,3: dhenuṣ ṭa indra sūnṛtā yajamānāya sunvate |
gāmaśvaṃ pipyuṣī duhe ||
# To worshippers who press the juice thy goodness, Indra, is a cow
Yielding in plenty kine and steeds.

For the time being, we need to consider an imaginary Dhenu giving milk as well as a
male calf (later on becomes a bull) or a female calf (on maturity becomes a cow), but how can
dhenu/cow provide Asva/the True Horse (as trusted by the experts) to the worshipper?

In the verse Rv-10.85,11; there is a reference of mythical wooden ratha (made of

Kimsuka and Samali) of Suryaa/ the daughter of Sun being pulled by Gavou/Bulls/Oxen.
Through the verses Rv-3.53,17 to 20; the Poet has narrated actual story of a long
distance journey being performed by him in a all wood Ratha (made of Khadira, and Simsapa)
drawn by Gavou/Bulls/Oxen (and not Asva) from an unknown place to his desired destination.

When some Rigvedic Poets in the hymns addressed to the Ribhus that belong to both
classes of the Mandalas (the Five Early and Five Late Mandalas) have repeatedly mentioned
that the Asvas and the Rathas used by the Vedic Deities are the mental models created by
the Ribhus (and Bhrugu Rishis for Indra’s Ratha) for the main purpose to bring the Deities
of their Imaginations quickly to the place of Yajna, then there is no need to take the
description seriously as it qualifies as a pure myth and hence warrants no further comments
as the creation of both characters perfectly matches with the methods used by the ancient Sages
for shaping almost All Vedic Deities. Hence, in one stroke, all the references of Asvas and
Rathas pertaining to the Deities of Rigved need to be treated as the fairy tales only.

Similarly, at the time of Yajna, the regular demands of the Rigvedic Priests for Ga and
Asva from the invoked Deities have to be seen as the Cows and the Race quality Bull and not
the Cows and Asvas/the True Horses as believed by all most all Vedic Scholars.

Unless and until, present-day Vedic Scholars take into consideration the changed
contexts of the application of the Vedic term “Asva/Ashva” and then decide to re-write the
essays/stories on Rigved by paying proper attention to the factual incidences reported by the
Rigvedic Poets, no true Rigved Lover can call them as the Real Knowledge Worshippers as
since a long they have been doing injustice to the exceptionally gifted ancient Visionary Poets.
 The fact everyone should know about the demonic character “Vritra”

The verse Rv-8.89,5 informs us that it is due to entry of demon Vritra in the ancient
Vedic World, Indra the first warrior god was shaped by the ancient Rishis through several
brain-storming sessions held by them. Many hymns of Rigved talk about the mythical war
Indra fought with Vritra and that becomes the everlasting and the most consistent and popular
story of Rigved. As Immortal Indra kills dragon Vritra then the latter has to be a Mortal.

In true sense, mortal Vritra represents personification of Drought who is believed to

have taken water of whole world in his captivity. He is also known as Ahi/a serpent.

The most striking feature about the demon Vritra is, always not a single entity, and
some Poets in their compositions have described presence of many more Vritras. Following
verse numbers taken from different Mandalas hint at the very existence of several Vritras.

Mandala-wise Verses referring to many Vritras (plural)

Rv-1.4,8; 32,4; 53,6; 84,13; 102,7
Rv-3.30,4; 30,22; 31,22; 32,17; 34,11; 35,11; 36,11; 38,10; 39,9; 43,8; 48,5; 49,5; 50,5
Rv-4.17,19; 22,9; 24,10; 41,2; 42,7
Rv-6.16,34; 25,8; 29,6; 33,1
Rv-7,83.9
Rv-8.3,17; 6.37; 15,3; 15,11; 17,8; 29,4; 95,9; 96,18;
Rv-9.1,10; 17,1; 88,4; 110,1
Rv-10.89,18; 104,11; 170,2

Two verses selected from the hymns dedicated to Indra provide information on killing
of Many Vritras and Ahis (means Vritra/Ahi is a mortal entity) by immortal Indra.

Rv-3.30.22: śunaṃ huvema maghavānamindramasmin bhare nṛtamaṃ vājasātau |

śṛṇvantamughramūtaye samatsu ghnantaṃ vṛtrāṇi saṃjitaṃ dhanānām ||

# Call we on Maghavan, auspicious Indra, best Hero in this fight where spoil is gathered,
The Strong who listens, who gives aid in battles, who slays the Vrtras, wins and gathers riches.

Rv-1.32,4: yadindrāhan prathamajāmahīnāmān māyināmamināḥ prota māyāḥ |

āt sūryaṃ janayan dyāmuṣāsaṃ tādītnāśatruṃ na kilā vivitse ||
# When, Indra, thou hadst slain the dragon's firstborn, and overcome the charms of the enchanters,
Then, giving life to Sun and Dawn and Heaven, thou foundest not one foe to stand against thee.

The Poet of the verse Rv-3.30,22 has depicted that Indra the real Warrior, slays many
Vritras. But in the verse Rv-1.32,4; the Composer has indicated that Indra smites First-born
Ahi/Dragon and then provides rebirth to the Sun, Dawn and Heaven. In other words, there
were more than one Serpent that took birth after Indra killed the earliest born Ahi.

Presence of several references of many Vritras or Ahis manifests that at some point
of time, Sapta-Sindhu region of the Rigvedic Territory was really reeling under a long
duration Drought and that compelled the ruling class of that time to request the Ancient Rishis
to find some solution to the problem of shortage of water. Old Rishis using their wisdom first
created a demonic character Vritra and to overcome the effect of Vritra, then they shaped a
new God Indra whose main task was to kill Vritra/Ahi the imaginary arrester of water. The
story of clash between Indra and Vritra/Ahi goes like: after smashing the serpent using the
most potent weapon Vajra, God Indra would release water in the rivers that was earlier in
possession of Vritra/Ahi or rescue the rain-clouds to make them to give rains in that area.

By including many Vritras or Ahis in the Praise-songs, the Composers have

underlined the fact that the people of the Sapta-Sindhu region had to suffer from a series of
lengthy Droughts/famines that probably lasted for many centuries. Drying up of the rain-fed
river Saraswati strengthens the case further. In reality, frequent mention of Indra-Vritra
conflicts depict real but a long duration struggle for water of Rigvedic Aryas and that exactly
matches with the possible cause of vacating the Harappan towns by the occupants/residents.

The proponents of AMT often state that mythical god Indra is the creation of Indo-
Iranian Tribes/the Aryans when they lived together either in BMAC region or in an ancient
Persia/Iran. From the information available in Rigved, it is very clear that Supreme Deity
Indra was created to negate Vritra (Drought). In Avesta, Indra has been portrayed as the
insignificant Demon and not as a Deity. Status-wise also, there is no comparison between
demon Indra of Avesta, and demon Vritra of Rigved. Hence, there is no substance in saying
that Indra the Supreme God of Rigved, was shaped outside the Indian Sub-continent. Yajna
was also fashioned in India as the persons like the Bhrugus, Ribhus, Ayu, Bharati have
contributed to shape the ancient Ritual. As a matter of fact, hymn Rv-8.96 cryptically provides
the picture of split in the Priestly Community and Rv-10.124 gives proper idea of creation of
a new philosophy under the new Prime God “Pitre Asura” but outside the Indus Valley.
Y. Concluding Remarks:
Modern Physicists often say that we the people, presently live in the world that
comprises of three dimensional space and uni-dimensional time. Rigvedic Poems take us to
the time of Ancient Rishis who conceived thought provoking ideas about the Universe/Space
developed through deep thought process but also compeles the present-day readers to think
hard to understand their approach to address the problem of water scarcity in a Poetic way.
Multifaceted but salient features found in the Rigvedic Praise-songs are as follow.

 Rta is the starting point of the ancient Vedic Philosophy.

 Varuna represents the Leader of the team of Seven Adityas.
 Indra becomes the first Warrior God of the Vedic World.
 River Saraswati is fondly remembered by all generations of the Priests.
 Yajna is the brain-child of the ancestors of the Rigvedic Poets.
 Deification of the Mortals/Living beings is a speciality of Rigved.
 Contributions made by the mortal characters like the Ribhus, Ayu, Bhrugus, Bharati
in shaping and promoting Indra and Yajna are known to the Poets of Ten Mandalas.
 Ila, Pururavasa, Nahusha, Yayati, and the Five Tribes (Anu, Druhyu, Puru,
Turvasa and Yadu) belong to the same Royal Family and their Family History is
known to the all generations of the Rigvedic Poets.
 After the defeat in the “War of Ten Kings”, the leaders of the Five Tribes accepted
Indra as the Supreme Deity and performed Yajna as a method to invoke the Deities.
 A few Poets from the Late Mandalas have brought out Women-specific tales in their
Poems.
 Some Last Mandala Poets took special interest in introducing thought provoking
Religious Cosmology that includes origin of the Universe and Gods plus beginning
of the Life on Earth as the subject of their compositions.
 Due to presence of more than one character as the Originators of the Heaven and
Earth, the issue of their fashioner is not resolved even at the time of Mandala-10.
 Presence of number seven in the hymns of Rigved as Seven Adityas, Seven Priests,
Seven Rivers/Sisters and Seven Chandaas/Metres signals it a very auspicious figure
since pre-Rigvedic time. Vedic People developed and used decimal number system.
 The Poet of the hymn Rv-1.164 in several verses has given major stress on the activities
of God Surya such as his role as the “Time Keeper and Rain Maker” and also termed
 the God as “That One” as he finds the Sun as the most trustworthy and visible God in
the world. He purposely shuffled the composed verses so as to add twist to his Poetry.
 Interpretation of some special hymns like Rv-1.162; Rv-1.163; Rv-1.164; Rv-8.96; Rv-
10.85; Rv-10.86; Rv-10.102; Rv-10.130 need rearrangement of their verses and the
application of investigative approach as well, without which, one cannot decipher
these hymns or know the purpose their composition or the intention of the composers.
 Some archaic Sanskrit terms/phrases such as Ila shata Himasi, Vayukeshan, Paviravi
Kanya, Uccha-chkram, Adhyatishat, Asva, Ratha, Pārṣṇyā, Sapta Maryada, Pitre
Asura etc. have to be understood by taking into consideration the contexts of their use.
 On the basis of several references of Indra-Vritra war story in all Ten Mandalas of
Rigved; history of the fashioning of Yajna rite and its regular use to invoke the Deities
of the imaginations of the Vedic People; presence of description about the pathetic
condition of rain-fed river Saraswati that too in the composition of the Last Mandala
of Rigved become the crucial points to make the statement with full confidence that
“the Ancestors of the Rigvedic Poets were originally from the Indian Sub-continent
who once lived in the up-stream part of river Saraswati (Haryana State of India;
known as Ilaspade in Rigved) and shared their language, culture with the Royal
Family that was headed by Ila and there they envisioned the earliest concept of
Rta/eternal law (the foundation), and subsequently Aryas conceived Seven Adityas
at the Original Home of Vedic Philosophy to manage the activities of the World”.

Z. References:
1. “Rig Veda” (Bilingual), Translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith (1896) in PDF

2. Rig Veda (Griffith Translation)-Table of Content, Alphabetical frequency etc. from

the Intratext Digital Library available on www.Intratext .com

3. Monier-Williams Dictionary

4. General Information is sourced from Internet/Public Domain, Encyclopaedia etc.

“Agenda-driven scholars can never give fair treatment to the Rigvedic Poets”