UNIT IV

ROUTING
Routing and protocols: Unicast routing - Distance Vector Routing - RIP - Link State Routing –
OSPF – Path-vector routing - BGP - Multicast Routing: DVMRP – PIM.

UNICAST ROUTING

Routing is the process of selecting best paths in a network.

In unicast routing, a packet is routed, hop by hop, from its source to its
destination by the help of forwarding tables.
Routing a packet from its source to its destination means routing the packet
from a source router (the default router of the source host) to a destination
router (the router connected to the destination network).
The source host needs no forwarding table because it delivers its packet to the
default router in its local network.
The destination host needs no forwarding table either because it receives the
packet from its default router in its local network.
Only the intermediate routers in the networks need forwarding tables.

NETWORK AS A GRAPH
 The Figure below shows a graph representing a network.

 The nodes of the graph, labeled A through G, may be hosts, switches, routers,
or networks.
 The edges of the graph correspond to the network links.
 Each edge has an associated cost.
  The basic problem of routing is to find the lowest-cost path between any two nodes,
where the cost of a path equals the sum of the costs of all the edges that make up the
path.
 This static approach has several problems:
 It does not deal with node or link failures.
 It does not consider the addition of new nodes or links.
 It implies that edge costs cannot change.
 For these reasons, routing is achieved by running routing protocols among the
nodes.
 These protocols provide a distributed, dynamic way to solve the problem of finding
the lowest-cost path in the presence of link and node failures and
changing edge costs.

UNICAST ROUTING ALGORITHMS

 There are three main classes of routing protocols:
1) Distance Vector Routing Algorithm – Routing Information Protocol
2) Link State Routing Algorithm – Open Shortest Path First Protocol
3) Path-Vector Routing Algorithm - Border Gateway Protocol

DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DSR) ROUTING

INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP) BELLMAN -
FORD ALGORITHM
 Distance vector routing is distributed, i.e., algorithm is run on all nodes.
 Each node knows the distance (cost) to each of its directly connected neighbors.
 Nodes construct a vector (Destination, Cost, NextHop) and distributes to its
neighbors.
 Nodes compute routing table of minimum distance to every other node via
NextHop using information obtained from its neighbors.

Initial State

 In given network, cost of each link is 1 hop.

 Each node sets a distance of 1 (hop) to its immediate neighbor and cost
to itself as 0.
 Distance for non-neighbors is marked as unreachable with value ∞ (infinity).
 For node A, nodes B, C, E and F are reachable, whereas nodes D and G
are unreachable.
 The initial table for all the nodes are given below

 Each node sends its initial table (distance vector) to neighbors and receives their
estimate.
 Node A sends its table to nodes B, C, E & F and receives tables from nodes B,
C, E & F.
 Each node updates its routing table by comparing with each of its neighbor's
table
 For each destination, Total Cost is computed as:
Total Cost = Cost (Node to Neighbor) + Cost (Neighbor to Destination)
 If Total Cost < Cost then
 Cost = Total Cost and NextHop = Neighbor
 Node A learns from C's table to reach node D and from F's table to reach node
G.
 Total Cost to reach node D via C = Cost (A to C) + Cost(C to D)
Cost = 1 + 1 = 2.
Since 2 < ∞, entry for destination D in A's table is changed to (D, 2, C)
Total Cost to reach node G via F = Cost(A to F) + Cost(F to G) = 1 + 1 = 2
Since 2 < ∞, entry for destination G in A's table is changed to (G, 2, F)
 Each node builds complete routing table after few exchanges amongst its
neighbors.
  System stabilizes when all nodes have complete routing information, i.e.,
convergence.
 Routing tables are exchanged periodically or in case of triggered update.
 The final distances stored at each node is given below:

Updation of Routing Tables

There are two different circumstances under which a given node decides to send a routing
update to its neighbors.

Periodic Update
 In this case, each node automatically sends an update message every so often, even if
nothing has changed.
 The frequency of these periodic updates varies from protocol to protocol, but it is
typically on the order of several seconds to several minutes.

Triggered Update
 In this case, whenever a node notices a link failure or receives an update from one of
its neighbors that causes it to change one of the routes in its routing table.
  Whenever a node’s routing table changes, it sends an update to its neighbors, which
may lead to a change in their tables, causing them to send an update to their
neighbors.
Count-To-Infinity (or) Loop Instability Problem
Suppose link from node A to E goes down.
 Node A advertises a distance of ∞ to E to its neighbors
 Node B receives periodic update from C before A’s update
reaches B
 Node B updated by C, concludes that E can be reached in 3 hops via C
 Node B advertises to A as 3 hops to reach E
 Node A in turn updates C with a distance of 4 hops to E and so on
Thus nodes update each other until cost to E reaches infinity, i.e., no
convergence.
Routing table does not stabilize.
This problem is called loop instability or count to infinity

Solution to Count-To-Infinity (or) Loop Instability Problem :

Infinity is redefined to a small number, say 16.
Distance between any two nodes can be 15 hops maximum. Thus distance vector
routing cannot be used in large networks.
When a node updates its neighbors, it does not send those routes it learned from
each neighbor back to that neighbor. This is known as split horizon.
Split horizon with poison reverse allows nodes to advertise routes it learnt from a
node back to that node, but with a warning message.

Distance Vector Routing Example

Consider there is a network consisting of 4 routers. The weights are mentioned on the
edges. Weights could be distances, costs, or delays.

Step-01:
Each router prepares its routing table using its local knowledge.
Routing table prepared by each router is shown below-
At Router A-
 Next
Destination Distance
Hop

A 0 A

B 2 B

C ∞ –

D 1 D

At Router B-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 2 A

B 0 B

C 3 C

D 7 D

At Router C-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A ∞ –

B 3 B

C 0 C

D 11 D

At Router D-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A ∞ –

B 3 B
 C 0 C

D 11 D

Step-02:
Each router exchanges its distance vector obtained in Step-01 with its
neighbors.
• After exchanging the distance vectors, each router prepares a new routing table.
This is shown below-
At Router A-
Router A receives distance vectors from its neighbors B and D.
Router A prepares a new routing table as-

Cost of reaching destination B from router A = min { 2+0 , 1+7 } = 2 via B. Cost of
reaching destination C from router A = min { 2+3 , 1+11 } = 5 via B. Cost of
reaching destination D from router A = min { 2+7 , 1+0 } = 1 via D.
Explanation For Destination B
Router A can reach the destination router B via its neighbor B or neighbor D.
It chooses the path which gives the minimum cost.
Cost of reaching router B from router A via neighbor B = Cost (A→B) + Cost (B→B)= 2
+0=2
Cost of reaching router B from router A via neighbor D = Cost (A→D) + Cost (D→B) =
1+7=8
Since the cost is minimum via neighbor B, so router A chooses the path via B. It
creates an entry (2, B) for destination B in its new routing table.
Similarly, we calculate the shortest path distance to each destination router at every router.
Thus, the new routing table at router A is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 0 A

B 2 B
 C 5 B

D 1 D

Thus, the new routing table at router B is-

Destination Distance Next Hop

A 2 A

B 0 B

C 3 C

D 3 A
Thus, the new routing table at router C is-
Destination Distance Next Hop

A 5 B

B 3 B

C 0 C

D 10 B
 Thus, the new routing table at router D is-
Destination Distance Next Hop

A 1 A

B 3 A

C 10 B

D 0 D

Step-03:
Each router exchanges its distance vector obtained in Step-02 with its neighboring routers.
After exchanging the distance vectors, each router prepares a new routing table.
This is shown below-
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol that uses hop count as a
routing metric to find the best path between the source and the destination network. It is a distance- vector
routing protocol that has an AD value of 120 and works on the Network layer of the OSI model. RIP uses
port number 520.

Hop Count
Hop count is the number of routers occurring in between the source and destination network.
The path with the lowest hop count is considered as the best route to reach a network and therefore placed in
the routing table. RIP prevents routing loops by limiting the number of hops allowed in a path from source
and destination. The maximum hop count allowed for RIP is 15 and a hop count of
16 is considered as network unreachable.

Features of RIP
1. Updates of the network are exchanged periodically.
2. Updates (routing information) are always broadcast.
3. Full routing tables are sent in updates.
4. Routers always trust routing information received from neighbor routers. This is also known as
Routing on rumors.
RIP is an intra-domain routing protocol based on distance-vector algorithm.
Here, intra-domain means routing the packets in a defined domain, for example, web browsing
within an institutional area. To understand the RIP protocol, our main focus is to know the
structure of the packet, how many fields it contains, and how these fields determine the routing
table.
Example

Routers advertise the cost of reaching networks. Cost of reaching each link is 1 hop. For
example, router C advertises to A that it can reach network 2, 3 at cost
0 (directly connected), networks 5, 6 at cost 1 and network 4 at cost 2.
Each router updates cost and next hop for each network number.
Infinity is defined as 16, i.e., any route cannot have more than 15 hops.
Therefore RIP can be implemented on small-sized networks only.
Advertisements are sent every 30 seconds or in case of triggered update.
The following timers are used to update the routing table: RIP
update timer : 30 sec
The routers configured with RIP send their updates to all the neighboring routers every
30 seconds.
RIP Invalid timer : 180 sec
The RIP invalid timer is 180 seconds, which means that if the router is disconnected
from the network or some link goes down, then the neighbor router will wait for 180 seconds to take the
update. If it does not receive the update within 180 seconds, then it will mark the particular route
as not reachable.
RIP Flush timer : 240 sec
The RIP flush timer is 240 second which is almost equal to 4 min means that if the router does
not receive the update within 240 seconds then the neighbor route will remove that particular route from the
routing table which is a very slow process as 4 minutes is a long time to wait. Advantages of RIP
The following are the advantages of a RIP protocol:
 It is easy to configure
 It has less complexity
 The CPU utilization is less.
Disadvantages of RIP
The following are the disadvantages of RIP:
 In RIP, the route is chosen based on the hop count metric. If another route of better
bandwidth is available, then that route would not be chosen. Let's understand this scenario
through an example.
 The RIP is a classful routing protocol, so it does not support the VLSM (Variable Length Subnet
Mask). The classful routing protocol is a protocol that does not include the subnet mask information in
the routing updates.
 It broadcasts the routing updates to the entire network that creates a lot of traffic. In RIP,
the routing table updates every 30 seconds. Whenever the updates occur, it sends the copy of the
update to all the neighbors except the one that has caused the update. The sending of updates to all
the neighbors creates a lot of traffic. This rule is known as a split-horizon rule.
 It faces a problem of Slow convergence. Whenever the router or link fails, then it often
takes minutes to stabilize or take an alternative route; This problem is known as Slow
convergence.
 RIP supports maximum 15 hops which means that the maximum 16 hops can be
configured in a RIP
 The Administrative distance value is 120 (Ad value). If the Ad value is less, then the
protocol is more reliable than the protocol with more Ad value.
 The RIP protocol has the highest Ad value, so it is not as reliable as the other
routing protocols.

RIP Message Format

 The message format is used to share information among different routers. The
RIP contains the following fields in a message:

 Command - It indicates the packet type.

Value 1 represents a request packet. Value 2 represents a response packet.
 Version - It indicates the RIP version number. For RIPv1, the value is 0x01.
 Address Family Identifier - When the value is 2, it represents the IP protocol.
  IP Address - It indicates the destination IP address of the route. It can be the
addresses of only the natural network segment.
 Metric - It indicates the hop count of a route to its destination.

LINK STATE ROUTING (LSR)

OPEN SHORTEST PATH PROTOCOL (OSPF)
DIJKSTRA’S ALGORITHM
Each node knows state of link to its neighbors and cost.
Nodes create an update packet called link-state packet (LSP) that contains:
 ID of the node
 List of neighbors for that node and associated cost
 64-bit Sequence number
 Time to live
Link-State routing protocols rely on two mechanisms:
 Reliable flooding of link-state information to all other nodes
 Route calculation from the accumulated link-state knowledge

Reliable Flooding
Each node sends its LSP out on each of its directly connected links.
When a node receives LSP of another node, checks if it has an LSP already for that
node.
If not, it stores and forwards the LSP on all other links except the incoming one.
Else if the received LSP has a bigger sequence number, then it is stored and
forwarded. Older LSP for that node is discarded.
Otherwise discard the received LSP, since it is not latest for that node.
Thus recent LSP of a node eventually reaches all nodes, i.e., reliable flooding.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Flooding of LSP in a small network is as follows:
 When node X receives Y’s LSP (fig a), it floods onto its neighbors A
and C (fig b)
 Nodes A and C forward it to B, but does not sends it back to X (fig c).
 Node B receives two copies of LSP with same sequence number.
 Accepts one LSP and forwards it to D (fig d). Flooding is complete.
LSP is generated either periodically or when there is a change in the topology.

Route Calculation
Each node knows the entire topology, once it has LSP from every other node.
Forward search algorithm is used to compute routing table from the received
LSPs.
Each node maintains two lists, namely Tentative and Confirmed with entries of the
form (Destination, Cost, NextHop).
DIJKSTRA’S SHORTEST PATH ALGORITHM
(FORWARD SEARCH ALGORITHM)
1. Each host maintains two lists, known as Tentative and Confirmed
2. Initialize the Confirmed list with an entry for the Node (Cost = 0).
3. Node just added to Confirmed list is called Next. Its LSP is examined.
4. For each neighbor of Next, calculate cost to reach each neighbor as Cost (Node to
Next) + Cost (Next to Neighbor).
a. If Neighbor is neither in Confirmed nor in Tentative list, then add
(Neighbor, Cost, NextHop) to Tentative list.
b. If Neighbor is in Tentative list, and Cost is less than existing cost, then replace
the entry with (Neighbor, Cost, NextHop).
5. If Tentative list is empty then Stop, otherwise move least cost entry from
Tentative list to Confirmed list. Go to Step 2.
Example :

OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST PROTOCOL (OSPF)

OSPF is a non-proprietary widely used link-state routing protocol.
OSPF Features are:
 Authentication―Malicious host can collapse a network by advertising to
reach every host with cost 0. Such disasters are averted by authenticating
routing updates.
 Additional hierarchy―Domain is partitioned into areas, i.e., OSPF is
more scalable.
 Load balancing―Multiple routes to the same place are assigned same cost.
Thus traffic is distributed evenly.

Link State Packet Format

Version ― represents the current version, i.e., 2.

 Type ― represents the type (1–5) of OSPF message.
Type 1 - “hello” message, Type 2 - request, Type 3 – send , Type
4 - acknowledge the receipt of link state messages ,
Type 5 - reserved
SourceAddr ― identifies the sender
AreaId ― 32-bit identifier of the area in which the node is located
Checksum ― 16-bit internet checksum
Authentication type ― 1 (simple password), 2 (cryptographic authentication).
Authentication ― contains password or cryptographic checksum

Open Shortest First Protocol(OSPF):

The OSPF stands for Open Shortest Path First. It is a widely used and supported routing
protocol. It is an intradomain protocol, which means that it is used within an area or a network. It is an
interior gateway protocol that has been designed within a single autonomous system.
It is based on a link-state routing algorithm in which each router contains the information of
every domain, and based on this information, it determines the shortest path. The goal of routing is to learn
routes.
The OSPF achieves by learning about every router and subnet within the entire network. Every
router contains the same information about the network. The way the router learns this
information by sending LSA (Link State Advertisements). These LSAs contain information about
every router, subnet, and other networking information. Once the LSAs have been flooded, the OSPF stores
the information in a link-state database known as LSDB. The main goal is to have the same information
about every router in an LSDBs.
OSPF areas:
OSPF divides the autonomous systems into areas where the area is a collection of networks,
hosts, and routers. Like internet service providers divide the internet into a different autonomous system
for easy management and OSPF further divides the autonomous systems into Areas.

Routers that exist inside the area flood the area with routing information

In Area, the special router also exists. The special routers are those that are present at the border
of an area, and these special routers are known as Area Border Routers. This router summarizes the
information about an area and shares the information with other areas.
All the areas inside an autonomous system are connected to the backbone routers, and these
backbone routers are part of a primary area. The role of a primary area is to provide communication
between different areas.

How does OSPF work?

There are three steps that can explain the working of OSPF:
Step 1: The first step is to become OSPF neighbors. The two connecting routers running OSPF on the
same link creates a neighbor relationship.
Step 2: The second step is to exchange database information. After becoming the neighbors, the two routers
exchange the LSDB information with each other.
Step 3: The third step is to choose the best route. Once the LSDB information has been exchanged with
each other, the router chooses the best route to be added to a routing table based on the
calculation of SPF.
There are four types of links in OSPF:
 Point-to-point link: The point-to-point link directly connects the two routers without any host or
router in between.
 Transient link: When several routers are attached in a network, they are known as a transient link.
The transient link has two different implementations:
Unrealistic topology: When all the routers are connected to each other, it is known as an
unrealistic topology.
Realistic topology: When some designated router exists in a network then it is known as a realistic
topology. Here designated router is a router to which all the routers are connected.
All the packets sent by the routers will be passed through the designated router.
 Stub link: It is a network that is connected to the single router. Data enters to the network through
the single router and leaves the network through the same router.
 Virtual link: If the link between the two routers is broken, the administration creates the virtual
path between the routers, and that path could be a long one also.

OSPF Message Format

The following are the fields in an OSPF message format:

 Version: It is an 8-bit field that specifies the OSPF protocol version.

 Type: It is an 8-bit field. It specifies the type of the OSPF packet.
 Message: It is a 16-bit field that defines the total length of the message, including the header.
Therefore, the total length is equal to the sum of the length of the message and header.
 Source IP address: It defines the address from which the packets are sent. It is a sending routing
IP address.
 Area identification: It defines the area within which the routing takes place.
 Checksum: It is used for error correction and error detection.
 Authentication type: There are two types of authentication, i.e., 0 and 1. Here, 0 means for none
that specifies no authentication is available and 1 means for pwd that specifies the password-based
authentication.
 Authentication: It is a 32-bit field that contains the actual value of the authentication data.

Difference Between Distance-Vector And Link-State Algorithms

Distance vector Routing Each Link state Routing
node talks only to its directly Each node talks to all other nodes, but it
connected neighbors, but it tells them tells them only what it knows for sure
everything it has learned (i.e., only the state of its directly
(i.e., distance to all nodes). connected links).

PATH VECTOR ROUTING (PVR) BORDER

GATEWAY PROTOCOL (BGP)
Path-vector routing is an asynchronous and distributed routing algorithm.
The Path-vector routing is not based on least-cost routing.
The best route is determined by the source using the policy it imposes on the route.
In other words, the source can control the path.
Path-vector routing is not actually used in an internet, and is mostly designed to route a
packet between ISPs.

Spanning Trees
In path-vector routing, the path from a source to all destinations is determined
by the best spanning tree.
The best spanning tree is not the least-cost tree.
It is the tree determined by the source when it imposes its own policy.
If there is more than one route to a destination, the source can choose the route that
meets its policy best.
A source may apply several policies at the same time.
One of the common policies uses the minimum number of nodes to be visited.
Another common policy is to avoid some nodes as the middle node in a route.
The spanning trees are made, gradually and asynchronously, by each node.
When a node is booted, it creates a path vector based on the information it can obtain
about its immediate neighbor.
A node sends greeting messages to its immediate neighbors to collect these
pieces of information.
Each node, after the creation of the initial path vector, sends it to all its
immediate neighbors.
Each node, when it receives a path vector from a neighbor, updates its path vector
using the formula

The policy is defined by selecting the best of multiple paths.

Path-vector routing also imposes one more condition on this equation.
 If Path (v, y) includes x, that path is discarded to avoid a loop in the path.
In other words, x does not want to visit itself when it selects a path to y.

Example:
The Figure below shows a small internet with only five nodes.
Each source has created its own spanning tree that meets its policy.
The policy imposed by all sources is to use the minimum number of nodes to reach
a destination.
The spanning tree selected by A and E is such that the communication does not pass
through D as a middle node.
Similarly, the spanning tree selected by B is such that the communication does not
pass through C as a middle node.

Path Vectors made at booting time

The Figure below shows all of these path vectors for the example.
Not all of these tables are created simultaneously.
They are created when each node is booted.
The figure also shows how these path vectors are sent to immediate neighbors after
they have been created.

Updating Path Vectors

The Figure below shows the path vector of node C after two events.
In the first event, node C receives a copy of B’s vector, which improves its
vector: now it knows how to reach node A.
In the second event, node C receives a copy of D’s vector, which does not
change its vector.
The vector for node C after the first event is stabilized and serves as its
forwarding table.
BORDER GATEWAY PROTOCOL (BGP)
The Border Gateway Protocol version (BGP) is the only interdomain routing
protocol used in the Internet today.
BGP4 is based on the path-vector algorithm. It provides information about the
reachability of networks in the Internet.
BGP views internet as a set of autonomous systems interconnected
arbitrarily.
A sample internet with four ASs
In our example, data exchange between AS2, AS3, and AS4 should pass
through AS1.
Each autonomous system in this figure uses one of the two common
intradomain protocols, RIP or OSPF.
Each router in each AS knows how to reach a network that is in its own
AS, but it does not know how to reach a network in another AS.
To enable each router to route a packet to any network in the internet, we
install:
• External BGP (eBGP) on each border router.
- Internal BGP (iBGP), on all routers.
So, the border routers will run three routing protocols (intradomain, eBGP,
and iBGP),
but other routers are running two protocols (intradomain and iBGP).

eBGP operation
eBGP allows two physically connected border routers in two different ASs
to form pairs of eBGP by creating a TCP connection using the well-known port
179.
A simplified update messages sent by routers involved in the eBGP
sessions.
For example, message number 1 is sent by router R1 and tells router R5 that
N1, N2, N3, and N4 can be reached through router R1.
Router R5 add this information at the end of its forwarding table.
 When R5 receives any packet destined for these four networks, it can find in its
forwarding table that the next router is R1.

Combination of eBGP and iBGP sessions in our internet

The iBGP protocol is similar to the eBGP protocol in that it uses the
service of TCP on the well-known port 179, but it creates a session
between any possible pair of routers inside an autonomous system.
in this stage only four messages are exchanged.
Foe example, the first message (1) is sent by R1 announcing that
networks N8 and N9 are reachable through the path AS1-AS2, but the
next router is R1.




Each AS have a border router (gateway), by which packets enter and leave that
AS. In above figure, R3 and R4 are border routers.
One of the router in each autonomous system is designated as BGP speaker.
BGP Speaker exchange reachability information with other BGP speakers,
known as external BGP session.
BGP advertises complete path as enumerated list of AS (path vector) to reach a
particular network.
Paths must be without any loop, i.e., AS list is unique.
For example, backbone network advertises that networks 128.96 and 192.4.153 can be
reached along the path <AS1, AS2, AS4>.
 If there are multiple routes to a destination, BGP speaker chooses one based on policy.
Speakers need not advertise any route to a destination, even if one exists.
Advertised paths can be cancelled, if a link/node on the path goes down. This
negative advertisement is known as withdrawn route.
Routes are not repeatedly sent. If there is no change, keep alive messages are
sent.

iBGP - interior BGP

 A Variant of BGP
Used by routers to update routing information learnt from other speakers to
routers inside the autonomous system.
Each router in the AS is able to determine the appropriate next hop for all
prefixes.

10. UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

A protocol is more than an algorithm.

A protocol needs to define its domain of operation, the messages exchanged,
communication between routers, and interaction with protocols in other domains.
A routing protocol specifies how routers communicate with each other,
distributing information that enables them to select routes between any
two nodes on a computer network.
Routers perform the "traffic directing" functions on the Internet; data
 packets are forwarded through the networks of the internet from router to router until
they reach their destination computer.
Routing algorithms determine the specific choice of route.
Each router has a prior knowledge only of networks attached to it directly.
A routing protocol shares this information first among immediate neighbors, and then
throughout the network. This way, routers gain knowledge of the
topology of the network.
The ability of routing protocols to dynamically adjust to changing conditions such as
disabled data lines and computers and route data around obstructions is what gives the
Internet its survivability and reliability.
The specific characteristics of routing protocols include the manner in which they
avoid routing loops, the manner in which they select preferred routes, using
information about hop costs, the time they require to reach routing
convergence, their scalability, and other factors.
INTERNET STRUCTURE
Internet has a million networks. Routing table entries per router should be
minimized.
Link state routing protocol is used to partition domain into areas.
An routing area is a set of routers configured to exchange link-state
information.
Area introduces an additional level of hierarchy.
Thus domains can grow without burdening routing protocols.

There is one special area—the backbone area, also known as area 0.

Routers R1, R2 and R3 are part of backbone area.
Routers in backbone area are also part of non-backbone areas. Such routers are known
as Area Border Routers (ABR).
Link-state advertisement is exchanged amongst routers in a non-backbone area.
They do not see LSAs of other areas. For example, area 1 routers are not aware of
area 3 routers.
ABR advertises routing information in their area to other ABRs.
For example,R2 advertises area 2 routing information to R1 and R3, which in turn
pass onto their areas.
All routers learn how to reach all networks in the domain.
When a packet is to be sent to a network in another area, it goes through
backbone area via ABR and reaches the destination area.
Routing Areas improve scalability but packets may not travel on the shortest path.

INTER DOMAIN ROUTING

 Internet is organized as autonomous systems (AS) each of which is under the
control of a single administrative entity.
A corporation’s complex internal network might be a single AS, as may the
network of a single Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Interdomain routing shares reachability information between autonomous
systems.

The basic idea behind autonomous systems is to provide an additional way to

hierarchically aggregate routing information in a large internet, thus improving
scalability.
Internet has backbone networks and sites. Providers connect at a peering point.

Traffic on the internet is of two types:

 Local Traffic - Traffic within an autonomous system is called local.
 Transit Traffic - Traffic that passes through an autonomous system is called
transit.

Autonomous Systems (AS) are classified as:

 Stub AS - is connected to only one another autonomous system and carries
local traffic only (e.g. Small corporation).
 Multihomed AS - has connections to multiple autonomous systems but refuses to
carry transit traffic (e.g. Large corporation).
 Transit AS - has connections to multiple autonomous systems and is designed
 to carry transit traffic (e.g. Backbone service provider).
Policies Used By Autonomous Systems :
 Provider-Customer―Provider advertises the routes it knows, to the customer
and advertises the routes learnt from customer to everyone.
 Customer-Provider―Customers want the routes to be diverted to them. So
they advertise their own prefixes and routes learned from customers to provider and
advertise routes learned from provider to customers.
 Peer―Two providers access to each other’s customers without having to pay.

CHALLENGES IN INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING PROTOCOL

Each autonomous system has an intra-domain routing protocol, its own policy
and metric.
Internet backbone must be able to route packets to the destination that complies with
policies of autonomous system along a loopless path.
Service providers have trust deficit and may not trust advertisements by other
AS, or may refuse to carry traffic from other AS.

TYPES OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Two types of Routing Protocols are used in the Internet:

1) Intradomain routing
 Routing within a single autonomous system
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP) - based on the distance-vector
algorithm - (REFER distance-vector routing algorithm)
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) - based on the link-state algorithm -
(REFER link-state routing algorithm)
2) Interdomain routing
 Routing between autonomous systems.
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) - based on the path-vector algorithm -
(REFER Path Vector routing algorithm)

11. MULTICASTING
In multicasting, there is one source and a group of destinations.
 Multicast supports efficient delivery to multiple destinations.
The relationship is one to many or many-to-many.
One-to-Many (Source Specific Multicast)
oRadio station broadcast oTransmitting
news, stock-price oSoftware updates to
multiple hosts
Many-to-Many (Any Source Multicast)
oMultimedia teleconferencing
oOnline multi-player games
oDistributed simulations
In this type of communication, the source address is a unicast address, but the
destination address is a group address.
The group address defines the members of the group.

In multicasting, a multicast router may have to send out copies of the same
datagram through more than one interface.
Hosts that are members of a group receive copies of any packets sent to that
group’s multicast address
A host can be in multiple groups
A host can join and leave groups
A host signals its desire to join or leave a multicast group by
communicating with its local router using a special protocol.
In IPv4, the protocol is Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
In IPv6, the protocol is Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD)

IGMP OR MLD PROTOCOL

Hosts communicate their desire to join / leave a multicast group to a router
using Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) in IPv4 or Multicast
Listener Discovery (MLD) in IPv6.
Provides multicast routers with information about the membership status of hosts
connected to the network.
Enables a multicast router to create and update list of loyal members for each
group.
MULTICAST ADDRESSING
Multicast address is associated with a group, whose members are dynamic.
Each group has its own IP multicast address.
IP addresses reserved for multicasting are Class D in IPv4 (Class D 224.0.0.1 to
239.255.255.255), 1111 1111 prefix in IPv6.
o
Hosts that are members of a group receive copy of the packet sent when
destination contains group address.

MULTICASTING VERSUS MULTIPLE UNICASTING

Multicasting starts with a single packet from the source that is duplicated by
the routers. The destination address in each packet is the same for all
duplicates.
Only a single copy of the packet travels between any two routers.

In multiple unicasting, several packets start from the source.

If there are three destinations, for example, the source sends three packets, each with a
different unicast destination address.
There may be multiple copies traveling between two routers

NEED FOR MULTICAST

Without support for multicast
A source needs to send a separate packet with the identical data to each
member of the group
Source needs to keep track of the IP address of each member in the group

Using IP multicast
Sending host does not send multiple copies of the packet
A host sends a single copy of the packet addressed to the group’s multicast
address
The sending host does not need to know the individual unicast IP address of each
member
TYPES OF MULTICASTING
Source-Specific Multicast - In source-specific multicast (one-to-many model),
receiver specifies multicast group and sender from which it is interested to
receive packets. Example: Internet radio broadcasts.

Any Source Multicast - Supplements any source multicast (many-to-many

model).
MULTICAST APPLICATIONS
Access to Distributed Databases
Information Dissemination
Teleconferencing.
Distance Learning

MULTICAST ROUTING
To support multicast, a router must additionally have multicast forwarding
tables that indicate, based on multicast address, which links to use to
forward the multicast packet.
Unicast forwarding tables collectively specify a set of paths.
Multicast forwarding tables collectively specify a set of trees -Multicast
distribution trees.
Multicast routing is the process by which multicast distribution trees are
determined.
To support multicasting, routers additionally build multicast forwarding
tables.
Multicast forwarding table is a tree structure, known as multicast
distribution trees.
Internet multicast is implemented on physical networks that support
broadcasting by extending forwarding functions.

MULTICAST DISTRIBUTION TREES

There are two types of Multicast Distribution Trees used in multicast routing.
They are
 Source-Based Tree: (DVMRP)
For each combination of (source , group), there is a shortest path spanning tree.
Flood and prune
 Send multicast traffic everywhere
 Prune edges that are not actively subscribed to group
Link-state
 Routers flood groups they would like to receive
 Compute shortest-path trees on demand
 Shared Tree (PIM)
Single distributed tree shared among all sources
Does not include its own topology discovery mechanism, but instead uses
routing information supplied by other routing protocols
Specify rendezvous point (RP) for group
Senders send packets to RP, receivers join at RP
 RP multicasts to receivers; Fix-up tree for optimization
Rendezvous-Point Tree: one router is the center of the group and
therefore the root of the tree.

MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

Internet multicast is implemented on physical networks that support
broadcasting by extending forwarding functions.
Major multicast routing protocols are:
1. Distance-Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP)
2. Multicast Link State (MOSPF)
3. Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)

1. Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol

The DVMRP, is a routing protocol used to share information
between routers to facilitate the transportation of IP multicast packets among
networks.
It formed the basis of the Internet's historic multicast backbone.
Distance vector routing for unicast is extended to support multicast routing.
Each router maintains a routing table for all destination through exchange of
distance vectors.
DVMRP is also known as flood-and-prune protocol.
DVMRP consists of two major components:
A conventional distance-vector routing protocol, like RIP
A protocol for determining how to forward multicast packets, based on the
routing table
DVMRP router forwards a packet if
The packet arrived from the link used to reach the source of the packet
If downstream links have not pruned the tree
DVMRP protocol uses the basic packet types as follows:

The forwarding table of DVMRP is as follows:

 Multicasting is added to distance-vector routing in four stages.
 Flooding
 Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF)
 Reverse Path Broadcasting (RPB)
 Reverse Path Multicast (RPM)
Flooding
Router on receiving a multicast packet from source S to a Destination fromNextHop,
forwards the packet on all out-going links.
Packet is flooded and looped back to S.
The drawbacks are:
o It floods a network, even if it has no members for that group.
o Packets are forwarded by each router connected to a LAN, i.e., duplicate
flooding

Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF)

RPF eliminates the looping problem in the flooding process.
Only one copy is forwarded and the other copies are discarded.
RPF forces the router to forward a multicast packet from one specific interface:
the one which has come through the shortest path from the source to the router. Packet
is flooded but not looped back to S.

Reverse-Path Broadcasting (RPB)

RPB does not multicast the packet, it broadcasts it.
RPB creates a shortest path broadcast tree from the source to each destination.
It guarantees that each destination receives one and only one copy of the
packet.
We need to prevent each network from receiving more than one copy of the
packet.
If a network is connected to more than one router, it may receive a copy of the
packet from each router.
One router identified as parent called designated Router (DR).
Only parent router forwards multicast packets from source S to the attached
network.
When a router that is not the parent of the attached network receives a multicast
packet, it simply drops the packet.
Reverse-Path Multicasting (RPM)
To increase efficiency, the multicast packet must reach only those networks
that have active members for that particular group.
RPM adds pruning and grafting to RPB to create a multicast shortest path tree that
supports dynamic membership changes.

Pruning:
 Sent from routers receiving multicast traffic for which they have no active
group members
 “Prunes” the tree created by DVMRP
 Stops needless data from being sent

Grafting:
 Used after a branch has been pruned back
 Sent by a router that has a host that joins a multicast group
 Goes from router to router until a router active on the multicast group is
reached
 Sent for the following cases
 A new host member joins a group
A new dependent router joins a pruned branch
A dependent router restarts on a pruned branch
2. Multicast Link State (MOSPF)
Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF) is the extension of the Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF) protocol, which is used in unicast routing. It also uses the source- based tree
approach to multicasting. If the internet is running a unicast link-state routing algorithm, the
idea can be extended to provide a multicast link-state routing algorithm.
To extend unicasting to multicasting, each router needs to have another database, as with
the case of unicast distance-vector routing, to show which interface has an active member in a
particular group.
Example of tree formation in MOSPF

3. Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM)

PIM divides multicast routing problem into sparse and dense mode.
PIM sparse mode (PIM-SM) is widely used.
PIM does not rely on any type of unicast routing protocol, hence
protocolindependent.
Routers explicitly join and leave multicast group using Join and Prune
messages.
One of the router is designated as rendezvous point (RP) for each group in
adomain to receive PIM messages.
Multicast forwarding tree is built as a result of routers sending Join
messagesto RP.
Two types of trees to be constructed:
Shared tree - used by all senders
 Source-specific tree - used only by a specific sending host
The normal mode of operation creates the shared tree first, followed by one
ormore source-specific trees

Shared Tree
When a router sends Join message for group G to RP, it goes through a
setof routers.
Join message is wildcarded (*), i.e., it is applicable to all senders. Routers
create an entry (*, G) in its forwarding table for the shared tree.
Interface on which the Join arrived is marked to forward packets for
thatgroup.
Forwards Join towards rendezvous router RP.
Eventually, the message arrives at RP. Thus a shared tree with RP as root
isformed.

Example
Router R4 sends Join message for group G to rendezvous router RP.
Join message is received by router R2. It makes an entry (*, G) in its table
andforwards the message to RP.
When R5 sends Join message for group G, R2 does not forwards the Join. It
adds an outgoing interface to the forwarding table created for that group.

As routers send Join message for a group, branches are added to the tree,
i.e.,shared.
Multicast packets sent from hosts are forwarded to designated router RP. Suppose
router R1, receives a message to group G.oR1 has no state for group G.
o Encapsulates the multicast packet in a Register message.
o Multicast packet is tunneled along the way to RP.
RP decapsulates the packet and sends multicast packet onto the shared
tree,towards R2.
R2 forwards the multicast packet to routers R4 and R5 that have members
forgroup G.

Source-Specific Tree
RP can force routers to know about group G, by sending Join message to the
sending host, so that tunneling can be avoided.
Intermediary routers create sender-specific entry (S, G) in their tables.
 Thusa source-specific route from R1 to RP is formed.
If there is high rate of packets sent from a sender to a group G, then shared- tree is
replaced by source-specific tree with sender as root.

Example

Rendezvous router RP sends a Join message to the host router R1.

Router R3 learns about group G through the message sent by RP.
Router R4 send a source-specific Join due to high rate of packets from sender. Router
R2 learns about group G through the message sent by R4.
Eventually a source-specific tree is formed with R1 as root.

Analysis of PIM
Protocol independent because, tree is based on Join messages via shortest path.
Shared trees are more scalable than source-specific trees. Source-
specific trees enable efficient routing than shared trees.