Precision Machine Design

Lecture 3 : Design Principles

Jung-Yup Kim, Ph. D

School of Mechanical Design & Automation Engineering,

Seoul National University of Science & Technology

References : 1. Dae Gab Gweon, Precision Machine Design, KAIST

2. Alexander H. Slocum, Precision Machine Design, MIT
 1. Introduction : System Body Definition

¾ A system body consists of links (or bars), generally considered rigid,

which are connected by connections(joints), such as pins (or revolute joints)
or sliders (or prismatic joints), to form open or closed chains (or loops).

¾ A system body, with at least one links fixed, becomes

(1) MECHANISM, if at least two other links retain mobility, or
(2) STRUCTURE, if no mobility remains
¾ In other words, a mechanism permits relative motion between its “rigid”
links; a structure dose not. 2
1. Introduction

A precision system must

(1) possess a perfect reference

(2) possess perfect kinematic connections
(3) be constructed to prevent disturbances
(4) be able to detect movement accurately

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 2. Design Principles

1. Minimize alignment error

2. Separate measurement loop from force loop
3. Maximize system stiffness
4. Eliminate disturbances
5. Make system symmetrical
6. Use exact necessary constraints (kinematic design)
7. Make controllable functions independent
8. Total design rather than additive or combination design
9. Zero play motion between reference and moving part
10. Use smooth motion guides
11. Use reduction mechanisms
12. Use elastic elements rather than relatively movable connection
13. Use monolithic structure rather than assembly
14. Compensate inevitable errors
15. Minimize the manufacturing cost of the design 4
 Design Principle 1

¾ When measuring the displacement of a specified point, the

measurement axis should be parallel to the direction of motion and the
axis should also be aligned with (pass through) the point.

™ Alignment Error
- Cosine error
- Sine error (Abbe error)

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 Cosine Error

Sensor

D′
θ
D
Motion axis

• Cosine Error = D′ − D = D′(1 − cos θ ) = D (1 − cos θ ) / cos θ

θ2 θ2
≈D ≈ D⋅ for θ << 1
2 −θ 2
2
x2 x4 x6
참고 . Taylor 시리즈 : cos x = 1 − + − + L
2! 4! 6!
(π / 180) 2
Ex) A misalignment of 1˚ in length of 10mm ⇒ 0.01 = 1.5μm of error
2 6
Abbe Offset Error

Abbe error
D

D
A
θ
D′

D Abbe error = A sin θ

A : Abbe offset
Θ : Tilting angle

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 Alignment Error Example

sensor
D

α2
Total error = D′(1 − cos α ) + A sin α = D + Aα
2

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 Design Principle 2

¾ The measurement loop should be kept apart as much as possible

from the force loop.

9 A FORCE LOOP is the shortest closed loop connecting

components between specimen and probe through which
every externally loaded force or measuring force passes.
Every component in the force loop is DEFORMED.

9 A MEASUREMENT LOOP is the shortest closed loop

connecting components between specimen and probe by
which measuring signals are affected.
The components in the measurement loop should be RIGID.

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 Ex) Force loop = Measurement loop
•Temp. change – dimension change of
loop mech. properties.
• Vibration (at resonance frequency)
• Contact force
- deformation of pivot/stylus arm
• Slideway motion error

Force loop ≠ Measurement loop

• Separated loop
• No deformations
• Good thermal stability of capability
sensor

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 Design Principle 3

¾ To achieve high precision, maximize the system stiffness.

Guidelines for stiffness design

1. Large moment of area and small cross-sectional area

2. Minimization of force loop length
3. Minimization of compliance with preloading

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Large moment of area and small cross-sectional area

Normal stress : σ x =
My I z = ∫ y 2 dA
A
I y y
y y y

I ratio of solid beam of equal cross-sectional area

t = Ro − Ri

Solid and hollow circular

Tr
Shear stress : τ = cross section with same area
J
J = ∫ r 2 dA
A 12
 Large moment of area and small cross-sectional area

z 강성을 높이기 위해 우선적으로 영률(E) 와 전단 탄성 계수(G) 가 높은

재료를 사용하는것이 좋다.

z 같은 단면적에 moment of area 를 높이는 것이 바람직함.

z 비틀림을 받는 부재의 경우 닫힌 단면으로 설계하는 것이 원칙이다.

(같은 단면 크기에 J 값이 50배 이상 커짐)

열린 단면 예 닫힌 단면 예
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Minimization of force loop length

Small deformation

Large deformation

절삭력의 이동 경로 : 공구 Æ 공작 기계 Æ 공작물
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Minimization of force loop length

( 역선의 경로를 짧게한 한 머시닝 센터의 예 )

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 Minimization of force loop length

(A) Open Frame (B) Closed Frame

• Asymmetry
• Symmetry, short loop length
⇒thermal, bending deformation
⇒ stiff, stable
⇒good workzone access
• Adequate for large system
• Adequate for small system

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 Minimization of compliance with preloading

z Stiffness v.s. Compliance

컴플라이언스(compliance, c)는 강성(stiffness, k)의 역수이다.

1
c=
k
힘(F) 컴플라이언스 변위(δ)
δ= c x F
c

변위(δ) 강성 힘(F)
k
F= k x δ

고정도를 위해서는 강성을 높게 즉, 컴플라이언스를 작게 설계한다.

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 Minimization of compliance with preloading

Ex) 구름 안내의 모델 예

상층 구름 안내

상층 구름 안내

• F1=Fa+F2 , k0(x0+x)=Fa+k0 (x0-x), Fa=2k0x

• K=Fa/x=2k0 : stiffness (2배 높아짐)
• c=c0/2 : compliance (2배 낮아짐)
만약, 강성을 높이려면 안내를 추가하여 예압을 주면 효과적으로
강성(Stiffness)를 높여주고, 동시에 컴플라이언스도 낮춰준다.
(예압은 고정도에 매우 중요) 18
 Minimization of compliance with preloading

Ex) 예압에 따른 LM 가이드의 강성 증가 곡선

약 2배 증가 !

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 Design Principle 4

¾ When errors are caused by disturbances, absorb or eliminate the

disturbances as close as possible to its sources.

z Major Sources of Disturbances

(1) VIBRATION
“ On a windy day the operation of ruling machine was affected by the
swaying of the trees in the vicinity of the house that contained the system.”
W. A. Scoble

(2) TEMPERATURE CHANGE

“Thermal effect is the largest source of nonrepeatability”
J. B. Bryan

(3) GRAVITY, ACOSTIC NOISE, HUMIDITY, ELECTRIC and

MAGNETIC FIELD... 20
z Main Direction for Disturbance Elimination

(1) ISOLATION
- isolate system from environment

(2) AVOIDANCE
- design system so that it has little or no response to disturbances

(3) CONTROL
- put system into a controlled environment

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 Design Principle 5

¾ Geometry, force, thermal and other mechanical properties of a whole

system and all system elements should be designed symmetrically.

z Symmetry properties

9 make mathematical analysis easy

9 minimize mechanical errors caused by asymmetry

z Asymmetric structures often have internal gradients which

are an indicator of potential problems.

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• Gravitational forces (FORCE ASYMMETRY) eliminate symmetry
about a horizontal plane.

• Temperature gradient (THERMAL ASYMMETRY) makes unequal

stress and deformations

• Shape deformation causes alignment error. (Abbe/Cosine)

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• Alignment error 예

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• For pure translational motion, all geometrical, mechanical properties
of the system must be mirror symmetry about three orthogonal
reflection planes passing through the system’s mass center.

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Symmetric Design Example : Large Optics Diamond Turning Machine

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 Design Principle 6

¾ To achieve a highly precise and smooth action, use the exact

necessary number of constraints (KINEMATIC DESIGN)

(a) Constraining point : 1 (b) Constraining points : 2 (c) Constraining points : 3

DOF : 5 DOF : 4 DOF : 3

(d) Constraining point : 2 (e) Constraining point : 3

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DOF : 4 DOF : 4
 Design Principle 7

¾ When several controllable functional requirements exist, a system in

which the functions are independent is preferable to one in which the
functions are not independent. (기능독립성의 원리)

예) 주사형 터널 현미경(STM) 의 촉침 선단 구동기구

9 x,y,z 방향으로 각각 최대 6μm의 독립적

구동이 요구됨.
9 그런데, 그림에서 x,y,z 의 변위는 완벽히
독립적이지 않으므로 다른 구동 구조를
생각해야 한다.
9 반드시, 설계 시 FR 에 기능독립성에 대한
내용이 포함되어야 한다.
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예) 스트레인 게이지식의 힘 측정법

9 수직방향 이외의 힘이 작용하면, 이 힘에

의한 변형이 스트레인 게이지에 나타나
측정오차가 생긴다. (기능 독립성의
원리를 만족시키지 못함)
9 또한 센서의 감도를 좋게 하기 위해
구조물의 컴플라이언스를 높이기 때문에
고정도를 실현시키기 힘 듬.
9 컴플라이언스가 매우 작은 압전 소자를
이용한 힘 측정이 훨씬 바람직함.

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예) 복합 제어링에 의한 고속/고강성화

최대 하중 용량 : 구름베어링 >> 공기정압 베어링

최대 회전 속도 : 구름베어링 << 공기정압 베어링

구름-공기정압 베어링

9 주축에 큰 토크 즉 절삭력이 가하여지는 저속도에서는 구름 베어링 사용.

9 초고속영역에서는 토크가 저하하기 때문에 부하량이 작고 열방생이 적은
공기 베어링 사용.
9 기능 독립성의 원리가 적절히 적용되었음. 30
 Design Principle 8

¾ When a new function is needed in a pre-existing system, total

design is better than either additive design or combination design.
(토털설계의 원리)

• 토털설계 : 모든 기능적 요구(FR)를 동시에 총합적으로 최적화를 도모하는 설계

• 부가설계 : 기존의 시스템(제품)에 새롭게 부여된 기능적 요구(FR)를 만족시킬 수
있도록, 기존의 시스템의 일부분을 변경하거나 그것에 새로운 부분을 추가하는
설계를 말한다.
• 조합설계 : 기존의 복수의 시스템을 조합하는 것에 의하여 주어진 복수의 기능적
요구(FR)를 만족시키는 시스템을 구축하는 설계를 말한다.

™ 부가설계와 조합설계는 기능 독립성의 원리를 위배할 가능성이 매우 높다.

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예) Articulated Robot Æ SCARA Robot

New Function

Articulated Robot SCARA Robot

4배의 작업속도 향상
및 1/3 가격
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 Design Principle 9

¾ To achieve a highly precise movement, there must be no clearance

between the reference and the moving part. (유동 제로의 원리)

z ZERO CLEARANCE MECHANISMS

9 Elastic support method (탄성지지법)

9 Constraint with adjusting mechanism(조정기구에 의한 구속)
9 Elastic averaging method (간섭에 의한 구속)

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• Elastic support method : 가장 널리 이용

(a)평행 링크 구조 (b)십자 스프링 지지구

X가 극히 미소한 경우 H 값은 거의 C 를 밀면 0 를 중심으로 회전
변화하지 않고 유동제로의 안내가 운동을 함. 0 의 처짐은 무시됨.
구현.
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 • Adjusting mechanism

9 상하방향을 구속하는 안내 2개, 좌우방향을 구속하는 안내 1개로 이루어짐.

9 롤러 a 는 외팔구조이므로 강성이 낮고, b 는 양단지지이므로 높다.
9 롤러 a 는 편심핀으로 지지되고 있고, 이 핀을 회전시켜 유동을 제로로 설정
가능. 35
• Elastic averaging method

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 Design Principle 10

¾ To achieve smooth motion, design a guide so that it creates

minimal friction and maintains a constant friction level under
different operating conditions."

z GUIDES FOR HIGH PRECISION SYSTEMS

9 Flexure hinge guides

9 Aerostatic(-dynamic) guides
9 Hydrostatic(-dynamic) guides
9 Magnetic guides
9 Rolling guides

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 Design Principle 11

¾ Reduction mechanisms achieve a high precision in movement and

positioning.

a
A± a B±
n

Lever θ

A
B= : Desired Travel Distance
n Gear(reduction) ratio: 1/10
Resolution : 1/10

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 Design Principle 12

¾ When a precise relative motion between two parts is needed, use

elastically deformable mechanisms rather than relatively movable
rotary or sliding connections.

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 Design Principle 13

¾ Use a monolithic structure rather than the assembly of several parts.

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 Design Principle 14 & 15

¾ When machining and assembly technologies cannot achieve the

required precision, the inevitable errors should be compensated
through error analysis and a precision system should be so designed
that errors and motions of the system can be detected accurately.

¾ The manufacturing cost of the proposed design should be the

lowest among all possible design alternatives which satisfy the
given design specifications

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