UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) BIOLOGY

BIO560
LAB 1 REPORT
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

LECTURER: NOR LAILATUL WAHIDAH MUSA

NAME: MUHAMAD QAMARUL AMSYAR BIN MOHD HAZANI

SID: 2021843536

GROUP: AS2013A

DATE: 28th OCTOBER 2022

GROUP MEMBERS:

1. MUHAMAD DINIE ASHRAF BIN MOHAMMAD DASUKI

2. AHMAD ALIF HAIKAL BIN MAMAT
3. MUHAMMAD DANIEL HAKIM BIN ROSLI.
POST LAB QUESTION

A. Units of Measurement

a. Provide the correct conversion units for the following measurements:

100 Å thickness of cell membrane = 10 nm
1A = 0.1nm
100A x 1A = 100A
100A x 0.1 = 10nm

8 Å diameter membrane pore = 800 pm

1pm = 0.01A
8 / 0.01 = 800pm

15 g hemoglobin per 100 ml blood = 150mg/ml

15g = 15 x 1000 = 15000mg
15000 mg / 100 ml = 150 mg/ml

100 ml plasma = 0.1L

1000ml = 1L
100/ 1000 = 0.1L

25°C room temperature = 77 °F

0° C = 32°F
Formula = ( °C X 9/5) + 32
= 77°F

98.6°F body temperature = 37 °C

0° C = 32°F
Formula = (32°F - 32) x 5/9 = 0°C
= (98.6°F - 32) x 5/9 = 37°C

b. A powerlifter lifts 500 lb 6 ft off the ground. How much work has he performed?

3000 ft-lb work = 414.9 kg-m work

3000 lb/ft = 1 kg-m / 7.23 lb/ft

= 414.9 kg-m

How many calories of energy did he used to produce this work? 973 cal
1 kg-m = 2.34385 cal
414.94 x 2.34385 = 973 cal

If he performs this feat 11 times in 1 minute, what is his power output? 746 W
1 Horsepower (HP) = 746 W
 B. Concentration of Solutions

1. How many grams of glucose would you need to make 500 ml of an 8 % solution?

40 g

percentage = (gram solute / volume solution) x 100

glucose (g) = (8 / 100) x 500
= 40g

2. If 6 g of NaCl is dissolved in 1 L of solution, what percent concentration is prepared?

0.6 %

percentage concentration = 6g / 1000 ml x 100

= 0.6 %

3. How many grams of KCl would you need to make 250 ml of a 0.5 M solution?

9.31 g

M = n/V
0.5 = n/0.25
n = 0.125 mol

Molar mass of KCL= 39 g/mol (K) + 35.5 g/mol (Cl) = 74.5 g/mol.
= (39+35.5) 0.125 mol
= 9.3125 g
= 9.31 g
+

4. What molar concentration would a 9 % solution of glucose be? 0.5 M

9% = 9g/100ml
Moles = 9g/180g
=0.05 moles

M = 0.05 moles/0.1L
= 0.5 M
5. What percent would a 300 mM solution of CaCl2 be? 33 %

300Mm = 0.3 M
0.3 M = Moles / volume
= moles / 0.1L
= 0.03 moles
Moles = g / molar mass
0.03 = g / 110
= 3.3g
3.3g x 100% = 3.3%
Hence, 3.3% of CaCl2 is dissolved in 100 Ml of solution.

6. Sodium ions are found in the extracellular fluid (ECF) in a concentration of 150 mM. How
many grams per liter is this? 3.4 g/L

150mM = 0.150M = 0.15 mol/l

molar mass of Na = 23 g/mol
1L = 0.15 MOL
23 G/mol x 0.15 mol/l = 3.45 g/l

7. What osmolar concentration would an 11.7 % solution of NaCl be? 4.00 Osm

Assume 1.00 Kg solution

11.7% NaCl
117 g / 58.442 g/mol = 2.00 moles NaCl
11.7% NaCl = 2.00 m NaCl
NaCl = Na + Cl-
= 2.00 moles x 2 ions
= 4.00 Osm

8. A 0.9 % solution of NaCl is considered isotonic to mammalian cells.What molar

concentration is this? 0.15 M

Isotonic is when two solutions have equal osmotic pressure or osmolality

1 ml H20 = 1 g/L
0.9g NaCl = 0.1 L
NaCl = 58.5 g/M

Molar concentration = 9/58.5

= 0.15 M

9. What percent concentration of KCl would be isotonic to body cells? 1.1 %

KCL → K+ + Cl-

Isotonic is when two solutions have equal osmotic pressure or osmolality.

Normal osmolality of blood = 0.29 Osml/kg
 ∴ 1 mol KCL = 2 Osm
= (0.29 Osml / 1kg) x ( 1 mol KCl / 2 Osml) x (74.55 g KCL / 1 mol KCl)
= 11 g KCl / 1 kg H20
Mass percentage / Mass = (Mass Solute / Mass Solution) x 100%
% KCl = (11 g / 1011g) x 100%
= 1.1 %
Hence, 1.1 % concentration of KCl would be isotonic to body cells.

10. A 33 % solution of CaCl 2 would be what osmolar concentration? 9 Osm

MW of CaCl2 = 10
33% of CaCl2 = 33 g in 100ml
= (1000ml / 100ml) x 33g
= 330 g in 1000 ml

1M of CaCl2 = 111g in 1000ml

33% of CaCl2 = (330g / 111g) x 1M
= 3M of CaCl2

3M of CaCl2 solution = 3 Osm x 3

= 9 Osm

11. You want to make 500 ml of an isotonic glucose solution to infuse into a patient. How many
grams of glucose do you need? 27 g

0.3 Osm = 0.3 M glucose

1 M glucose = 180 g / L
= 0.3 M glucose x 180 g / L
= 54 g / L

500 ml = 0.5 L
54 g / 2 = 1 L / 2
27 g = 0.5 L

Hence, 27 g glucose is needed

 UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) BIOLOGY

BIO560
LAB 2 REPORT
INSULIN REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE

LECTURER: NOR LAILATUL WAHIDAH MUSA

NAME: MUHAMAD QAMARUL AMSYAR BIN MOHD HAZANI

SID: 2021843536

GROUP: AS2013A

DATE: 4th NOVEMBER 2022

GROUP MEMBERS:

1. MUHAMAD DINIE ASHRAF BIN MOHAMMAD DASUKI

2. AHMAD ALIF HAIKAL BIN MAMATI
3. MUHAMMAD DANIEL HAKIM BIN ROSLI
 INTRODUCTION

Insulin is an endocrine hormone secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
Its principal function is to assist the transport of glucose across the cellular membrane. When insulin is
deficient or lacking, only a small amount of glucose can cross the cell of the membrane and be used in
cellular metabolism. This low rate of transport results in excess accumulation of glucose in the blood
called hyperglycaemia. An excess of insulin causes a decrease in the level of blood glucose or
hypoglycaemia. The normal concentration for blood glucose is 90 mg% (90 mg/100 ml of blood) but it
may range from 60 mg% to 140 mg%, depending on the individual’s dietary intake of glucose.

Diabetes mellitus can be caused by a lack of insulin. This fact can be demonstrated by either removing
the pancreas of an experimental animal or destroying the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans by
injecting the chemical alloxan (alloxan is a specific inhibitor of the beta cells). Either of these procedures
will produce the typical symptoms of diabetes in the animal: high blood glucose level and excretion of
glucose in the urine. Urinary excretion of glucose (glucosuria) results when the concentration of blood
glucose exceeds the threshold level for total reabsorption by the kidney. The increased osmolarity of the
urine also causes abnormally large quantities of water to be excreted (polyuria); this increased excretion
of water may lead to dehydration, which in turn stimulates excessive water intake (polydipsia).
Glucosuria, polyuria, and polydipsia are three major characteristics of diabetes. Diabetes mellitus
received its name because the body of the diabetic person was formerly visualised as melting and
flowing out in the copious, sweet-tasting urine.

When insulin is deficient and the cells cannot metabolise glucose for energy, the cells compensate by
increasing their metabolism of fats and proteins. Thus, the diabetic is usually thin, owing to the loss of
fats and proteins from the body structure. The increased metabolism of fats releases into the blood
large quantities of ketone bodies (e.g. acetone), which are intermediate products of fate breakdown.
These are excreted in the urine and have the easily recognizable odour of acetone. Also, ketone bodies
are acidic, and their accumulation will cause a drop in blood pH; the diabetic becomes acidotic. Severe
acidosis leads to coma and eventually death.

Hyperinsulinism causes weakness, tremors, hunger, irritability, and other symptoms of low blood
glucose; insulin shock can occur if blood glucose falls to a very low level.
 FLOW OF PROCEDURE

1. Select one person from each group for this experiment. These subjects should report to the lab in the
fastest state (not having eaten for the last 12 – 18 hours). For our purpose, it will be adequate if they
just skip the meal preceding this lab.
2. Determine each subject’s normal blood glucose level, using the Accu-Chek Advantage Meter (see
instructions below). Clean the finger with 70% alcohol. Obtain blood for the test from a finger, using a
sterile lancet. The subject will then obtain a specimen of his or her urine and test it for glucose using the
glucostix.
3. Each subject will then drink a lemon flavoured solution of 25% glucose. The quantity of solution will be
based on a quantity of 1 g of glucose per kilogram of body weight.
4. After ingesting the glucose, the subject will repeat the Accu-Chek Advantage test every 30 minutes. As
soon as each blood sample has been taken, the subject will obtain another urine sample and repeat the
glucostix test for urinary glucose. Testing will continue in this manner for 2 hours or until the end of the
lab period.
5. Record the results in the Laboratory Report and draw a graph of the blood glucose tests. Note the time
when glucose appears in the urine. How do the results compare with the normal glucose tolerance test
curve?
RESULTS

Glucose Tolerance Test

Record the blood and urine glucose data for the subject in your group and the average
values for all group subjects in the laboratory. Plot the blood glucose data on a graph paper
(Blood glucose level (mg %) vs. Time (min).

Group 1 2 3 4 5
Blood
Subject
Glucose
Class 4.7 mmol/L 8.0 mmol/L 7.8 mmol/L 8.1 mmol/L 8.7 mmol/L
Level
Average

Group 1 2 3 4 5
Urine
Subject
Glucose
Class Negative 5 Trace 5 Trace 5 Trace 5 Trace
Level
Average (blue) (green) (green) (green) (green)
POST LAB QUESTION

a. List the effect of each of the following hormones on blood glucose, and the mechanism
producing the effect.

HORMONE BLOOD GLUCOSE EFFECT MECHANISM

Decrease - Enhances entry of glucose into

Insulin cells
- Enhances storage of glucose as
glycogen, or conversion to fatty
acids
- Enhances synthesis of fatty acids
and proteins
- Suppresses breakdown of protein
into amino acids or fatty acids
Increase - Bind to G-protein coupled
Adrenaline receptor
- activate the adenylate cyclase
signalling pathway which will turn
increase in glycogenolysis
Increase - Enhances release of glucose from
Glucagon glycogen
- Enhances synthesis of glucose
from amino acids or fatty acids
Increase - Antagonises insulin
Growth Hormone

Increase - Enhances gluconeogenesis

Cortisol - Antagonises insulin

b. How are the levels of insulin and glucagon regulated in the body?
When the glucose in blood is too high, their pancreas secretes more insulin.
Meanwhile when the glucose levels in blood drop, their pancreas releases glucagon
to raise them.

c. What causes the “insulin shock” seen when an overdose of insulin is given to an organism?
Having too much insulin in your blood can lead to having too little glucose. If your blood
sugar falls too low, your body no longer has enough fuel to carry out its regular functions. In
insulin shock, your body becomes so starved for fuel that it begins to shut down.

d. Why is there an increase in urine output (diuresis) in diabetes mellitus?

Urine output will increase in diabetes mellitus because of high levels of glucose in blood.
When excess glucose is produced, kidneys need to execute more work to absorb and to
filter the excess glucose. This process will make body excrete more urine than normal.
e. Why does a person who has diabetes mellitus have more acidic urine?
Person with diabetes mellitus have more acidic urine because of their urine contain proteins
and micro albumin.

f. Some diabetics control their blood glucose level by ingesting tablets rather than by receiving
injections of insulin. How do these tablets work, and who may use them?
The tablets work by lowering glucose production in the liver where it slows down the
breakdown of carbohydrates, lessens the absorption of glucose and stimulates
pancreas to secrete insulin so that insulin can be produced efficiently. These tablets
can be used by person with type 2 diabetes.

g. Define the following terms:

Glycogenolysis:

Process by which glycogen, the primary carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of
animals, is broken down into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood
glucose levels during fasting.

Gluconeogenesis:
A metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain non-carbohydrate
carbon substrates. It is a ubiquitous process, present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and
other microorganisms.

Ketonemia:
A condition marked by an abnormal increase of ketone bodies in the circulating blood.

Hyperglycaemia:
High blood glucose level.
DISCUSSION

According to the experiment described above, before beginning the experiment, the students will take an initial
reading of their blood glucose level and record the value 86.85 without first drinking anything. After 120 minutes
of the experiment, the average blood glucose level is 92.93, which is significantly lower than the highest
average blood glucose level of 142.3 after 30 minutes of the experiment. The graph demonstrates that all of the
students who participated in this experiment have a normal curve, which indicates that there are some changes
in the level of glucose in blood after the ingestion of glucose, but the results of the urine test demonstrate that
none of the participants' urine contains glucose.

Intake of meals during a 24-hour period causes fluctuations in blood glucose levels. After eating, the
body enters what is called an "absorptive state," during which time it takes in nutrients through the walls of the
intestines. The liver's ability to store glucose counteracts the increase in blood glucose. When digestion is
complete and nutrient absorption begins to slow, the body enters a post-absorptive stage, and blood-glucose
levels fall as glucose is used by cells for energy.

Once the beta cells of the pancreatic islets detect an increase in blood glucose, they secrete more
insulin into the blood. This is known as the absorptive state. Specifically, adipose and muscle cells respond to
insulin by increasing their uptake of glucose from the circulation. The GLUT family of trans-membrane
transporters is responsible for bringing glucose into cells (GLUcose Transporter). Among these, GLUT4 is the
most common since it is expressed by both muscle and fat cells. Cells are driven to expand the amount of
glucose transporters when insulin interacts to insulin receptors on the cell membrane. The more the production
of transporters, the greater the uptake of glucose into cells and the lower the blood glucose level.

CONCLUSION

In the end, insulin is important because it helps control the amount of glucose (sugar) in the blood so that the
body has the energy it needs to do everyday things. As the amount of glucose in the blood rises to a certain
level, the pancreas can pump more insulin to bring more glucose into the cells. This makes it possible for the
blood glucose levels to go down.
 UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) BIOLOGY

BIO560
LAB 3 REPORT
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURER: NOR LAILATUL WAHIDAH MUSA

NAME: MUHAMAD QAMARUL AMSYAR BIN MOHD HAZANI

SID: 2021843536

GROUP: AS2013A

DATE: 11th NOVEMBER 2022

GROUP MEMBERS:

1. MUHAMAD DINIE ASHRAF BIN MOHAMMAD DASUKI

2. AHMAD ALIF HAIKAL BIN MAMAT
3. MUHAMMAD DANIEL HAKIM BIN ROSLI
 1. INTRODUCTION

The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that lie along the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity. Macroscopically, a
kidney is made up of the renal cortex (a granular region), the renal medulla (contains the renal pyramids), and
the renal pelvis (where urine collects) . Microscopically, each kidney contains a million nephrons.

The kidneys contribute to homeostasis by excreting nitrogenous waste and by regulating blood volume and pH.
One of the kidney’s main functions is to regulate the osmolarity of the body fluids at around 300 milliosmoles
(mOsm)/L.

Urine formation involves three steps:

1. Glomerular filtration requires the movement of molecules from the glomerulus to the inside of the
glomerular capsule
2. Tubular reabsorption requires the movement of molecules from the proximal convoluted tubule
to the peritubular capillary network.
3. Tubular secretion requires the movement of molecules from the peritubular capillary network to
the distal convoluted.

The loop of Henle (of the nephron) and the collecting duct are both active in water reabsorption. Regulation of
water reabsorption maintains blood volume at the proper level.

URINALYSIS
The kidneys are the chief regulators of the internal environment of the body. They do this by regulating the
concentration of ions, water, and pH in the various body fluids. In addition, they provide for the elimination of
the waste products of metabolism. The million nephrons in the kidneys contain two main structures, the
glomerulus, and the renal tubule. As blood passes through the kidneys, it is first filtered through the glomerulus
(120 mL/min), and the filtrate then passes into the renal tubule.

The tubule filtrate is similar to blood plasma in composition, except those molecules (having molecular weights
of more than 70,000) are excluded (e.g., plasma proteins). As this filtrate passes along the proximal and distal
tubules, most of the water is reabsorbed, and many essential substances are actively or passively reabsorbed
into the bloodstream. Toxic byproducts of metabolism and substances in excess are retained in the filtrate or
are secreted into the filtrate and finally excreted in the urine (1 mL formed per minute). Thus, the final
composition of the urine is quite different from that of the glomerular filtrate and reflects the integrity of kidney
function and changes in blood composition.

An analysis of urine can yield valuable information about the health of the kidney and of the body in general.
Various diseases are characterised by abnormal metabolism, which causes abnormal by-products of
metabolism to appear in the urine. For example, phenylpyruvic acid appears in the urine in phenylketonuria
(PKU), a disease resulting in mental retardation. In diabetes mellitus, deficient production of insulin by the
pancreas results in the appearance of glucose in the urine (glycosuria). The volume of urine produced, and its
specific gravity gives information on the state of hydration or dehydration of the body.
 2. FLOW OF PROCEDURE

ACTIVITY 1
1. Limit your fluid intake on the day of the experiment. Empty your bladder 1 or 2 hours before the
laboratory begins and record the exact time. DO NOT save this urine sample

2. On entering the laboratory, take a urine collection bottle to the restroom and void into the bottle,
emptying the bladder completely. Record the exact time. This will be designated the “control” urine.

3. Return to the laboratory and immediately drink the solution assigned to you as quickly as possible. The
class will be divided into three groups as follows:

Group 1: drinks 800 mL of water

Group 2: drinks 800 mL of an isotonic sports drink such as 100 Plus® or Excell®
Group 3: drinks 80 mL of water plus 7 g of NaCl (coated salt tablets).

4. Empty your bladder into a clean collection bottle, every 30 minutes after drinking the solution. If you are
unable to avoid it, retain the urine in the bladder until the next 30-minute collection time.

5. Analyse the urine from each collection for:

a. Volume. Measure the total volume with a graduated cylinder and express it as millilitres per
minute excreted.
b. Chloride concentration. Place 10 drops of urine into a test tube. Add 1 drop of 20% potassium
chromate.
Add 2.9 silver nitrate solution drop by drop, shaking the mixture continuously while the silver
nitrate is being added. Count the number of drops of silver nitrate required to change the bright
yellow solution to a brown colour. Each drop of 2.9% silver nitrate added to produce the brown
colour represents 1 g/L (1 mg/mL) of NaCl in the urine. The silver nitrate should be made fresh
daily.
Calculate the total grams of NaCl in the urine collected at each 30-minute interval and the NaCl
concentration in milligrams per millilitre.

6. Record the data from all students on the board and the data sheet, calculate average values for each
experimental group, and draw a graph of the results in the Laboratory Report. Make three separate
plots of millilitres of urine per minute, specific gravity, and chloride concentration (mg/mL), each plotted
against time. Use different colours on each 15 plot to represent the average results of groups 1, 2, and
3. Explain how the results illustrate the kidney’s processing of the water or salt loads.
ACTIVITY 2
Take a urinalysis bottle to the restroom and collect a 15 to 25 mL sample of your urine.
1. Clinistix / Dipstick Test
Recent advances in urinalysis techniques have made it possible to perform tests in a few seconds
tests that previously took hours. The Clinistix / Dipstick test is a combined test of urinary pH, protein,
glucose, ketones, and occult (hidden) blood. Abnormally low pH, along with a high level of glucose
and ketones, indicates diabetes mellitus. Alkaline urine is found in many conditions, an example
being cystitis, in which urine decomposes in the bladder with the production of ammonia. Urinary pH
usually is slightly acidic (around pH 6), but the pH may be lowered by a diet rich in proteins or citrus
fruits, so pH is not very informative itself. Protein and occult blood in the urine are much more
definite, indicating nephritis, a disease in which the glomeruli are damaged and plasma proteins and
erythrocytes leak into the kidney tubules.

Obtain a Clinistix / Dipstick reagent strip and bottle with the colour standards. Examine the strip
carefully before making the test so you will know which portions to read first. When ready, dip the
reagent portions into the well-mixed urine specimen, wetting all five reagents completely. Wipe the
excess urine off on the lip of the urinalysis bottle. In exactly 10 seconds read the glucose test
portion against the appropriate colour standard. Exactly 5 seconds later read the ketone portion,
and in exactly 15 more seconds read the occult blood portion (at the end of the strip). The pH and
protein portions may be read after this at your leisure because time is not so critical with these two.

If the urine glucose or pH is found to be beyond the normal range, make a more accurate analysis
for glucose by using the Clinitest tablets, and for pH by using the pHydrion paper.

Obtain a sample of the abnormal urine and run the Labstix /Dipstick test on in so that you can
compare your urine results with some non-normal results.
 3. RESULTS

A KIDNEY REGULATION OF OSMOLARITY

VOLUME EXCRETED CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION

SOLUTION (ml/min) NaCl (mg/ml)
STUDENT
INGESTED
30 30
C* 60 90 120 C 60 90 120
min min
Daniel 24 43 155 242 223 11 14 5 2 2
Group 1
Ilya 51 65 68 86 67 1 3 2 2 2
800 ml of
water

AVERAGE 37.5 54 111.5 164 145 12 8.5 3.5 2 2

Amir 5 51 100 17 62 11 10 2 2 7
Group 2
Samihah 18 15 46 63 21 11 16 3 3 5
800 ml of
isotonic Wajihah 40 23 185 175 74 9 5 2 2 4
drink

AVERAGE 31 29.6 110.3 125 52.3 10.3 10.3 2.3 2.3 2.3

Alia 31 16 13 15 9 15 17 25 15 23
Group 3
Daliliey 37 15 12 11 20 14 19 17 20 16
80 ml of
water + 7 g Adriana 55 20 18 8 18 9 11 13 14 20
of NaCl

41 17 14.3 11.3 15.6 12.6 15.6 18.3 16.3 19.6

AVERAGE
1. Plot the average values for each group. Use the following colours in the plot:

Group 1 = blue Group 2 = green Group 3 = red

B. URINALYSIS

Clinistix / Dipstick test:

GLUCOSE KETONES BLOOD PROTEIN pH SG

Student’s NEGATIVE NEGATIVE NEGATIVE NEGATIVE 5.0 -
urine
Unknow NEGATIVE NEGATIVE NEGATIVE NEGATIVE 5.0 -
n urine

POST LAB QUESTION

Indicate the excretory organs removing nitrogenous wastes in each:

Annelids = Nephridia
Crustaceans = Green glands(antennal glands and maxillary glands)
Insects = Malpighian tubes
Mammals = lungs, skin, liver and kidney

a. List three forms of nitrogenous waste excreted by animals.

1. Urea
2. Ammonia
3. Uric Acid
 Which compound is most effective in water conservation?
= Urea
Which compound is most toxic?
= Ammonia

b. Examine the data in the experiment on kidney regulation of osmolarity. Are the results
consistent with what you would expect when a subject imbibes fluids that are hypotonic,
isotonic, and hypertonic? Explain.
= When drinking hypotonic drinks, the solution is quickly absorbed into the
bloodstream, resulting in rapid hydration and electrolyte release to help muscles
regulate functionally. Because hypotonic fluid contains less carbohydrates and salts
than blood, fluid levels remain stable. Hypertonic drinks have a higher concentration
of salts and sugar than blood, and they contain a lot of carbohydrates. The solution is
slowly absorbed, but it acts quickly to replenish glycogen stores. Following that,
isotonic drinks take longer to absorb into the bloodstream. The solution contains the
same amount of salts and carbohydrates as blood. Isotonic fluid also replaces fluid
and electrolytes lost through sweating.

c. The loss of water during sweating on a hot day causes the blood volume to decrease and
the osmolarity of body fluids to increase. Outline the mechanisms operating to restore
homeostasis via the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in this situation.
= When the body's temperature rises, the receptor detects it and sends information to
the thermoregulatory centre in the brain. The pituitary gland in the control centre will
send information to the sweat glands, which will cause them to secrete fluid. Pituitary
glands produce antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The purpose of the release of antidiuretic
hormone is to increase sodium concentration and water in order to return to normal.
Antidiuretic hormone promotes water reabsorption by stimulating the insertion of
aquaporins into the kidney tubule membrane. This causes a decrease in plasma
osmolarity and an increase in urine osmolarity. The body will then respond with
increased sweating, increased blood flow in the skin, and restoration of homeostasis.
d. Two symptoms present in a person with diabetes mellitus are hyperglycemia (elevated blood
glucose) and diuresis (increased urine production). What causes this increase in urine
output?
= Hyperglycemia is caused by high blood glucose levels, which occur when the body
is unable to produce insulin properly or has insufficient insulin. When there is an
excess of glucose produced, the kidneys will have difficulty and will have to work
hard to absorb and filter the excess glucose. This causes excess glucose to be
excreted in the urine, dehydrating the body. This causes thirst, which causes the
body to urinate frequently. Hyperglycemia causes increased urine production and
reabsorption capacity, which causes the kidneys to overreach and cause osmotic
diuresis. Diuresis occurred because the kidneys needed to filter more body fluids.
This causes the body to produce more urine. Glycosuria occurs when the
concentration of blood sugar rises above the capacity of the kidneys to reabsorb
filtered glucose. When there is a lot of blood moving through the medulla, it becomes
less concentrated. If the flow of medulary blood increases during osmotic diuresis,
the medullary gradient is washed out. Glycosuria.

e. Briefly explain the importance of the following to renal physiology and homeostasis.

a) Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
= Secrete renin into the blood to decrease volume of NaCl, volume of extracellular fluid,
and arterial blood pressure. Secretion of renin increases the sodium ions reabsorption by
the distal and collecting tubules and osmotically induced water retention in order to
restore the volume of plasma. It also coordinates responses to reduce the glomerular
filtration rate.

b) Angiotensin II
= Activated by renin and converted from Angiotensin I by angiotensin-converting enzyme
in the pulmonary capillaries. Angiotensin II causes constriction of blood vessels and it
secrete aldosterone from adrenal cortex to increase the reabsorption of sodium ions by
the distal and collecting tubules. Then aldosterone promotes addition the insertion of
sodium ions leak channels into luminal membrane Na+ -K + pump into the basolateral
membranes of distal and collecting tubular cells. This will cause the volume of
extracellular fluid to increase and also increase blood pressure in the body.

c) Atrial Natriuretic Hormone

= Atrial natriuretic hormone stimulates vasodilation of the afferent arteriole of glomerulus

which results in the rise of renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate to increase. It
also lower blood pressure where it rises the volume of blood and decrease the volume of
water and volume of sodium in the circulatory system.
 4. DISCUSSION

The experiment demonstrated the impact of a particular solution on the production of urine. The reason
for this is that the concentration of urine varies depending on how much fluid is present in the blood. Results
showed that Group 1, which drank 800 ml of mineral water, produced significantly more urine than the other
groups. The osmoreceptor detects changes in blood volume and plasma osmolality, and the posterior pituitary
secretes ADH into the kidney, leading to a large volume of urine output. The urine of Group 2 members is more
concentrated and produces less volume compared to Group 1. Because they consume more solute than water,
this occurs. The kidneys will filter as much water and other substances out of the blood as they can. Since
Group 3 consumed 7g of sodium chloride with only 80 ml of water, their drop was the highest of all the groups.
The kidney's inefficient homeostatic regulation of intracellular electrolyte concentration results in a higher
concentration of salt in their urine.

Because it has a high renal threshold, glucose is rarely detected in the urine. As a result, it builds up in
the blood and is not eliminated until it reaches dangerously high levels. The conclusion regarding the presence
of glucose was thus negative. Urine from a healthy person should only contain trace amounts of protein
(ketone), and proteinuria results when there are abnormally large amounts of protein in the urine. Urine's
normal pH level is between 4.5 and 8.0. With a mean pH of 5.0, the classroom as a whole is moderately acidic.
During the course of the experiment, there was no evidence of blood in any samples of urine taken. It's
possible that kidney problems are to blame when blood is detected in the urine.

REFERENCES

1. Chiras, D., 2005. Human Biology. 5th ed. Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Pp. 168- 180.

2. Martin, p. Blumer, I., 2004. The everything diabetes book. Cincinnati: Adams Media Corporation. Pp 297
 UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) BIOLOGY

BIO560
LAB 4 REPORT
BLOOD PHYSIOLOGY I: ERYTHROCYTE FUNCTIONS

LECTURER: NOR LAILATUL WAHIDAH MUSA

NAME: MUHAMAD QAMARUL AMSYAR BIN MOHD HAZANI

SID: 2021843536

GROUP: AS2013A

DATE: 9th DECEMBER 2022

GROUP MEMBERS:

1. MUHAMAD DINIE ASHRAF BIN MOHAMMAD DASUKI

2. AHMAD ALIF HAIKAL BIN MAMAT
3. MUHAMMAD DANIEL HAKIM BIN ROSLI
 INTRODUCTION

Blood serves the cells of complex organisms in the same way that the aquatic environment serves
unicellular organisms. That is, it provides a medium for the maintenance of homeostasis in the cells’
environment. To do this in complex organisms, blood must function as a transportation system,
bringing nutrients and oxygen to the cells and removing wastes and carbon dioxide from the
interstitial fluid around the cells. This transportation system also serves to link the various organs of
the body together, integrating them through the action of hormones. Blood also performs other
functions that are not as obvious, such as providing buffers for acid-base balance, destroying
foreign organisms through phagocytosis and antibody action, distributing, and conserving body
heat, and preventing its own loss through haemostatic (coagulation) mechanisms.

In the following set of experiments, you will examine the important characteristics of the red blood
cells (erythrocytes), which transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. A decreased ability to
transport oxygen produces the condition called anaemia, which can be caused by a decrease in the
number or size of the red cells, or the amount of haemoglobin in the blood. To accurately diagnose
the cause of anaemia, the complete status of the erythrocytes must be examined – haematocrit,
blood haemoglobin concentration, RBC count, RBC size, and percent haemoglobin per cell. These
parameters will be measured in this lab using either your own blood or blood sample provided
(obtained from the nearest hospital).

FLOW OF PROCEDURE

1. Disposable latex gloves must be worn by any person handling blood specimens or supplies that have
come in contact with blood (lancets, slides, capillary tubes, cotton, etc.). Wash your hands immediately
after removing the gloves.

2. Use only sterile lancets and clean, unused slides, capillary tubes, toothpicks, tissues, and so on. Never
reused these supplies. Used lancets and needles should be placed in a fresh 10% solution of household
bleach (sodium hypochlorite) and placed in a puncture-proof container for disposal. Other items, such
as cotton, toothpicks, and the like, that have been in contact with blood are placed in double plastic
bags and sealed. Autoclaves all items before disposal.

3. Lab coats, masks, and protective eyewear should be worn during procedures that produce blood
droplets or splashes.

4. Laboratory surfaces and instruments such as haemocytometers and reusable pipettes should be
disinfected with a fresh 10% solution of household bleach and then washed with soap and hot water.

5. Never use mouth pipetting. Mechanical pipetting devices should be used to manipulate liquids in the
laboratory.
RESULTS

Blood Physiology I: Erythrocyte Function

Hb (g/100 ml) Hb (g/100 ml) RBC Count

NAME HAEMATOCRIT (%)
Tallquist Method Sahli Method (M/mm3)

DINIE - 14.1 x 16.5g - 6.1

=232.65
NEIL - 7.8 x 16.5g - 4.8
=128.7
AISYA - 9.4 x 16.65g - -
=155.1
HANIS - 9.4 x 16.5g - 5.3
=155.1
AISHA - 14.1 x 16.5g - -
=232.65
TUAN NAJWA - 7.8 x 16.5g - 5.6
=128.7
YASMIN - 14.1 x 16.5g - 4.6
=232.65
WAWA - 9.4 x 15.6g - -
=155.1
Female - 169.714 - 5.1
Class
Average - 232.65 - 6.1
Male

POST LAB QUESTION

a. What is anaemia? Which blood measurements provide information on a possible anaemic

condition?
Anaemia is when there aren't enough red blood cells or haemoglobin in the blood.
Men with anaemia have haemoglobin levels of less than 130 to 140 g/L (13 to 14 g/dL),
while women with anaemia have haemoglobin levels of less than 120 to 130 g/L (12 to
13 g/dL).

b. Briefly explain the function of the following in erythogenesis:

Vitamin B12 = helps make purine and thymidylate, makes pairs of DNA, and stops
erythroblasts from dying off.

Erythropoietin = used to control the production of red blood cells by controlling how erythroid
progenitor cells in the bone marrow change and grow.

Iron = used to make haemoglobin.

Intrinsic factor = helps the body absorb vitamin B12 (cobalamin) in the intestine.
Pernicious anaemia happens when the body can't make or use intrinsic factor.
c. Polycythemia (excess number of red cells) occurs in patients with chronic emphysema.
Explain the mechanism responsible for this response.
Polycythemia is the body's way of getting more oxygen when it needs it more. It
happens when the haemoglobin in the blood cannot pick up enough oxygen from the
lungs. Chronic pulmonary disease, like emphysema, which causes the lungs to fill
with air in an abnormal way, can lead to chronic hypoxemia (less oxygen in the blood)
and absolute polycythemia.

d. How does haemoglobin carry both oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood?
Hemoglobin, or Hb, is a protein molecule that is made up of two alpha subunits and two beta
subunits. It is found in red blood cells (erythrocytes). Each subunit wraps around a central
iron-containing heme group that binds one oxygen molecule. This means that each
haemoglobin molecule can bind four oxygen molecules. Redder molecules have more
oxygen bound to the heme groups. So, oxygenated arterial blood, in which the Hb carries
four oxygen molecules, is bright red, while deoxygenated vein blood is a darker shade of
red. When CO2 binds to haemoglobin, it makes a molecule called carbaminohemoglobin.
CO2 can bind to haemoglobin in both directions. So, when the carbon dioxide gets to the
lungs, it can easily break away from the haemoglobin and leave the body.

e. Why is the inhalation of car exhaust fumes life threatening? Explain the physiology involved.

The gas carbon monoxide (CO) has no smell and no colour. It can be found in fumes
from burning things. CO can get to dangerous levels when combustion fumes get
stuck in a space that doesn't have enough air flow or is closed off, like a garage. CO
builds up in your bloodstream when you breathe in these fumes, which can damage
your tissues badly. CO poisoning is very dangerous and can even be fatal. If you
breathe in a lot of CO, your blood will start to get rid of the oxygen and replace it with
CO. When this happens, you can fall asleep. In these situations, death could happen.

f. Why are the haematocrits, haemoglobin concentrations, and erythrocyte counts generally
lower for females than males?
Males have a higher haematocrit because their bodies can carry more oxygen and
they have more muscle mass than females. Erythrocyte counts are usually lower in
women than in men because women lose iron when they have their periods. Because
women are better at oxygenating tissues per unit of red cell mass, they have less red
blood cells
DISCUSSION

With the Tallquist method, the average concentration of haemoglobin in females was found to be 11.24 g/100
ml for task 2, whereas the concentration of haemoglobin in males was 14.1 g/100 ml. Haemoglobin levels in
women should be between 11.6, and 15.4 grammes per deciliter. Haemoglobin levels in healthy guys, on the
other hand, typically range from 13.2 to 16.6 g/dL. The blood haemoglobin levels of roughly the majority of the
students are within normal ranges. Anaemia and polycythemia are two conditions that can result from
haemoglobin concentrations below and above the reference range, respectively. Low levels of red blood cells
are what medical professionals mean when they talk about anaemia. A normal blood test will reveal anaemia if
the haemoglobin or hematocrit levels are abnormally low. Red blood cells contain the major protein,
haemoglobin. As a result, oxygen is carried to all of your organs and tissues. More than 400 subtypes of
anaemia have been identified by Contributors (2020), who also classify the condition into three broad
categories. There are three main types of anaemia: hemorrhagic anaemia, aplastic anaemia, and chronic
hemolytic anaemia. However, an elevated red blood cell count is a symptom of polycythemia. The thickened
blood raises the likelihood of health issues including blood clots due to the increased number of cells in the
blood. Primary polycythemia, sometimes called polycythemia vera (PV), and secondary polycythemia occur for
different reasons in each case (Johnson, 2019). According to the findings, neither male nor female pupils were
affected by these conditions.

While men typically have a higher Red Blood Cell Count than women do (8.73 vs. 3.504 M/mm3), women have
a lower average White Blood Cell Count (3.504 M/mm3) for this particular task. For women, a red blood cell
(RBC) count of between 3.6 and 5 million per cubic millimetre (million/mm3) is considered normal, while for
men, this range is between 4.2 and 5.4 million. A high RBC count in a male is indicative of polycythemia.
Nonetheless, a number of factors, such as dehydration, overhydration, stress, and so on, can affect the
outcome of the RBC count. Due to the potential for human error in counting red blood cells (RBCs), the tallquist
method can be considered more reliable than the RBC count. Alsayed (2020) states that the Tallquist
Haemoglobin Scale is a valid method for estimating intraoperative blood loss during liposuction, allowing for
more precise fluid resuscitation and fewer complications. The overall class average appears to be healthy and
normal.

REFERENCE

Alsayed, A. A. (2020). Using Tallquist Haemoglobin Scale for Estimating Intraoperative Blood Loss in
Liposuction. Modern Plastic Surgery, 10(02), 17–22. https://doi.org/10.4236/mps.2020.102003

Contributors, W. E. (2020, August 11). Anemia. Retrieved from WebMD:

https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/understanding-anemia-basics

Johnson, J. (2019, December 16). Polycythemia: Everything you need to know. Retrieved from
MedicalNewsToday: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/polycythemia
 UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) BIOLOGY

BIO560
LAB 5 REPORT
DIGESTION

LECTURER: NOR LAILATUL WAHIDAH MUSA

NAME: MUHAMAD QAMARUL AMSYAR BIN MOHD HAZANI

SID: 2021843536

GROUP: AS2013A

DATE: 16th DECEMBER 2022

GROUP MEMBERS:

1. MUHAMAD DINIE ASHRAF BIN MOHAMMAD DASUKI

2. AHMAD ALIF HAIKAL BIN MAMAT
3. MUHAMMAD DANIEL HAKIM BIN ROSLI
INTRODUCTION

Living organisms run on energy, and it is the job of the digestive system to reduce the foods we eat to small
molecules that can be used by the cells to capture ATP. This degradation process is catalyzed by hydrolytic
enzymes, which split large molecules into smaller units by combining with water. The end result of digestion is
the reduction of carbohydrates to monosaccharides, proteins to amino acids, and fats to fatty acids and
glycerol.

Hydrolytic reactions are made more efficient by the division of the digestive tract into compartments where
specific enzymes can operate at their optimum pH. Release of these enzymes at the proper time is controlled
by neural reflexes and endocrine hormones such as gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and gastric inhibitory
peptide.

A. SALIVARY DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth where the salivary glands (parotid), sublingual, submandibular)
secrete an amylase called ptyalin that begins the hydrolysis of complex polysaccharides:

Ptyalin has an optimum pH of around 6.8, which is roughly the pH found in the mouth.

B. GASTRIC DIGESTION OF PROTEIN

Protein digestion begins in the stomach where the enzyme pepsin splits proteins to shorter polypeptide chains
containing amino acids. Secretion and activation of pepsin occurs as follows:

The strong hydrochloric acid secreted by the parietal cells has two functions in gastric digestion: It activates
pepsin and it produces a stomach pH of around 2, which is optimal for pepsin activity.

C. DIGESTION OF FAT WITH PANCREATIC LIPASE AND BILE SALTS

Pancreatic lipase has a major role in fat digestion, but by itself lipase is ineffective, because it is a water-soluble
enzyme trying to act on large lipid droplets, which are water insoluble. Bile salts help overcome this problem by
acting as emulsifying agents, which 25 break the fat into smaller droplets so that lipase has a larger surface
area for the hydrolysis of fats.

The pancreas also aids digestion by secreting sodium bicarbonate. This compound provides a pH of around 7.8
in the small intestine, which is optimal for the action of the pancreatic enzymes.
FLOW OF PROCEDURE
1. Collect 10 ml of your own saliva in a graduated cylinder. Dilute the saliva with an equal amount of
water if you are unable to collect 10 ml.

2. A commercial Amylase solution (400 units per 100 ml) may be used as a substitute for saliva.

3. Place a small amount of saliva in a watch glass and add a few drops of 1% acetic acid. A precipitate
indicated that mucin (a glycoprotein) is present.

4. Prepare and label four test tubes as follows:

Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3 Tube 3

3 ml starch 3 ml starch 3 ml starch (cooled) 3 ml starch

+ + + +
3 ml water 3 ml saliva 3 ml saliva (cooled) 3 ml saliva
↓ in ↓ in ↓ in +
37˚C water bath 37˚C water bath Ice bath 5 drops conc. HCl
↓ in
37˚C water bath

5. After the tubes have incubated for 1 hour, pour half of each tube’s contents into a new test tube.
Test one set of tubes for starch using Lugol’s solution and the other set for maltose using Benedict’s
solution.

a. Starch Test: Add 3 drops of Lugol’s solution to each tube. A dark purple colour indicates the
presence of starch. Shades of reddish brown indicate lesser amounts of starch. Rate the amount
of starch (+++), (++), (+), or (-).

b. Maltose Test: Add 4 ml of Benedict’s solution to each tube and place in a boiling water bath for 2
minutes. Remove the tubes using a clamp and compare the concentration of maltose using the
following scale: (+++) red, (++) orange-yellow, (+) green, (-) blue.

ACTIVITY 2

1. Place thin slices of cooked egg white in four test tubes. It is important to make these slices the same
size (about 0.5 cm2 ) and as thin as possible.

2. Add the following solutions to the tubes and determine the ph of each tube:

Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3 Tube 4

5 ml pepsin (5% 5 ml pepsin (5% 5 ml HCl (0.5%) 5 ml pepsin (5%

solution) solution) + solution)
+ + 5 ml water +
5 ml HCl (0.5%) 5 ml water 5 ml NaOH (0.5%)

3. Allow the tubes to incubate in a 37˚C water bath for 1 hour. Test the final pH of the solutions and
 estimate the amount of protein digestion using a scale of (+++), (++), (+), and (-) to compare the four
tubes.

ACTIVITY 3

1. In each of two test tubes (A and B) place 3 ml of distilled water and 3 ml of vegetable oil. To tube B add
a small pinch of bile salts. Shake each tube for 30 seconds and observe it for several minutes.

2. Add litmus powder to dairy cream until a blue colour is produced. Preincubate the litmus cream and a
1% pancreatin solution at 37˚C for 5 minutes. Prepare a series of test tubes as follows:

Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3 Tube 4

3 ml cream 3 ml cream 3 ml cream 3 ml cream

+ + + +
3 ml pancreatin 3 ml water 3 ml pancreatin 3 ml water
+ +
Pinch bile salts Pinch bile salts

3. Incubate all tubes in a 37˚C water bath for 1 hour, or until colour change occurs in one tube. Blue litmus
will turn pink in an acid environment. Test the pH using pH paper, and note the colour of each tube.
 RESULTS

A. SALIVARY DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

pH of saliva 6.7 Mucin present? yes

TUBE STARCH MALTOSE EXPLANATION

+++ - No enzyme. Water doesn't have anything in it that
1. Water can turn starch into maltose.

- ++ There is an enzyme in the saliva. Starts the process

2. Saliva of turning starch into maltose with water. It is needed
to break down starch.
++ +++ Starch is slowly being broken down despite the
3. Cooled
presence of an enzyme. The effects of amylase could
saliva
be mitigated by lowering the temperature. The
optimal temperature for the amylase reaction is
around 37 degrees Celsius, or the human body
temperature.
4. Saliva, +++ + Starch can be broken down more quickly with HCl.
HCl The HCl will lower the pH of the solution by a lot,
which will speed up the reaction. Too acidic. Enzyme
has denatured

POST LAB QUESTION

a. What is the function of mucin in the mouth?

Salivary mucin provides a lubricating, moistening, and softening function. It improves the
capacity to talk and improves mastication, deglutition, and oral tissue protection.

b. What in vivo (in the body) situation is simulated by the conditions in tube 4?

We can see the effects of concentration in the saliva and HCl tube on the stomach.

c. Does ptyalin hydrolysis of carbohydrates continue in the stomach? Explain.

Ptylain doesn't have much time in the mouth to do anything. But pretty quickly, the tongue
clumps the food and saliva into a bolus so that it can be swallowed. Even after the bolus has
reached the stomach, the protein keeps making maltose inside of it. So, it's clear that it will
keep going.

d. Where else is amylase secreted in the digestive system?

In the pancreas and small intestine.

B. GASTRIC DIGESTION OF PROTEIN

Record the initial and final pH of the solutions and the estimated amount of egg white digestion
in each tube.

INITIAL FINAL ESTIMATED

TUBE EXPLANATION
pH pH DIGESTION
1. Pepsin, 1.0 2.0 +++ The breakdown of proteins is faster
HCl when pepsin digestion is paired with a
strong acid. a pH level of 20, which is
similar to the stomach's pH.
6.0 7.5 + Protein breakdown occurs when pepsin
2. Pepsin,
and water are combined. The solution
water
becomes more soluble by the water.
1.0 1.0 - Proteins won't be destroyed by water
3. HCl,
and strong acid when mixed. In order
water
to begin the breakdown, pepsin is
needed.
9.0 8.0 - Pepsin can degrade when coupled with
4. Pepsin,
a powerful base, however it is less
NaOH
soluble than water. To break down the
protein, a lower pH is needed.

POST LAB QUESTION

a. What in vivo situation is simulated by tube 4?

When there are no more proteins for the body to digest,NaOH and pepsin neutralize HCl.

b. Which other enzymes have major proteolytic activities in the digestive tract?

In the small intestine which are aminopeptidase, enterokinase, exopeptidase, chymotrypsin,

trypsin, carboxypeptidase, and endopeptidase.

c. A person with achlorhydria has defective secretion by the parietal cells. What is the
physiological effect of achlorhydria in the body?

Without HCl, it would be impossible for the person to break down the nutrients
needed to keep the body functioning. Weight loss, stomach pain, diarrhoea, and
constipation are physical side effects.

d. What is the function of the mucous cells in the gastric pits?

The mucous cells in the gastric pits secrete mucus, which coats the stomach's inside.
Although the stomach's interior is very acidic, the mucus can protect the stomach's tissues
from its own digestive juices.
C DIGESTION OF FAT WITH PANCREATIC LIPASE AND BILE SALTS

Record the final colour, pH, and odour of each tube involved in the digestion of cream.

TUBE COLOUR pH ODOUR EXPLANATION

Pink Acidic Rancid Pepsin works in a stomach that is acidic.
1. Pancreatin Pancreatin makes enzymes, which help
digestion go faster.
Blue Basic None Pepsin slowly breaks down protein. Water
2. Water should have no effect on pH or cream
digestion.

POST LAB QUESTION

a. Which tube (A or B) has the smaller and more dispersed fat droplets?
Tube B

b. What are bile salts?

Amphipathic molecules are bile sodium salts and chloric acid mixed together.

c. What are bile pigments?

Pigments/color in the bile derived from the rupture of a methane bridge.

d. Where is bile secreted?

Bile is secreted by the liver in the gall bladder

e. Describe the mechanism of bile salts in the emulsification process (a diagram would help).

Bile salts work as an emulsifier because they have a water-loving (hydrophilic) head that
attracts water molecules and a water-hating (hydrophobic) tail that attracts lipid molecules.
Bile salts work as an emulsifier because they have a water-loving (hydrophilic) head that
attracts water molecules and a water-hating (hydrophobic) tail that attracts lipid molecules.
This makes the bile salts gather around droplets of lipids, with the hydrophobic sides facing
 the lipid and the hydrophilic sides facing out. The structure that is made is called a micelle.
The hydrophilic sides have a negative charge, which keeps bile-coated fat droplets from
coming back together to make bigger fat particles. This makes sure that the molecules of
lipids stay spread out in the water. The result is an emulsion, which is a stable mixture of
two liquids that usually don't mix. This makes a large increase in the amount of lipid surface
area that is exposed to lipase enzymes, which speeds up chemical digestion.

f. What produces the acid pH, indicating that fat digestion has occurred?
The fatty acids of triglyceride are acidic and lower the pH of the solution. As more fat is
digested the pH will continue the drop.

g. What produces the rancid odour with fat digestion?

Butyric acid

h. Which enzymes are present in the pancreatin solution?

Amylase, lipase and protease

i. Which enzymes are present in the microvilli brush border of the small intestine?
Sucrase, isomaltase, lactase

j. Briefly list the site of origin, stimulus for release, and function of the following
gastrointestinal hormones.

SITE OF RELEASE
HORMONE FUNCTION
ORIGIN STIMULUS
G cells, in the presence of Enhance gastric mucosal growth, gastric
Gastrin stomach lining foodstuffs motility, and secretion of hydrochloric acid
(HCl) into the stomach.
S cells in the acidification of Hormone that involves: regulation of gastric
Secretin duodenum the duodenum acid, regulation of pancreatic bicarbonate
and osmoregulation.
I-cells in Introduction of Gut hormone released after a meal; helps
Cholecystokinin duodenum hydrochloric digestion and reduces appetite.
lining acid, amino
acids, or fatty
acids into
duodenum.
Gastric inhibitory K cells in Intake of Enhances insulin production in response to
peptide mucosa of glucose a high concentration of blood sugar, and
duodenum inhibits the absorption of water and
electrolytes in the small intestine.

k. Why aren’t the acinar cells of the pancreas digested by the proteolytic enzymes they
secrete?
Proteolytic enzymes are secreted by the pancreatic acinar cells as zymogens or
proenzymes. These enzymes need to be activated because they are currently in an
inactive state. Enterokinase, which is present in the cells that make up the wall of the
duodenum, activates one of these enzymes called trypsinogen.
l. How does the intestinal absorption of lipids differ from the absorption of glucose and amino
acids?
While glucose and amino acids are absorbed through co-transport, water and lipids
are retained in the small intestine through passive absorption. This is because water
and lipid obey the concentration gradient in the plasma membrane and do not require
the utilisation of cellular resources, whereas glucose and amino acids were
transported to cells by using transport proteins implanted in the cell membrane in
opposition to the concentration gradient. Achlorhydria is a condition when a
person's stomach's digestive juices are deficient in hydrochloric acid. Due to
hydrochloric acid's inability to absorb vitamins and minerals like iron into the body, it
may increase the chance of developing iron deficiency anaemia.

DISSCUSSION

Activity 1

To obtain the nutrition through absorption by the digestive system, the food that enters the
stomach must be digested into a smaller unit. The disintegration of carbs or starch initiates
the breakdown of the food into a smaller unit. Maltose would turn out to be the starch.
Saliva containing amylase is used in activity 1 of this experiment to convert glucose into
maltose. The ideal temperature for the activity of the enzyme amylase is 37 °C. The solution
of Lugol is administered to each test tube after an hour of incubation. This process is used
to determine whether starch is present in the test tube because it can cause it to turn dark
purple if it is.

Tube 1's test tube doesn't contain any saliva. When there is insufficient amylase in the
saliva, starch cannot be broken down, causing the solution to change colour. A lighter
shade of brown or yellow may be present in tube 2's solution, which indicates less starch.
This is due to the tube's high temperature concentration of amylase, which causes the
starch to break down into maltose. The saliva does not function well in a chilly state
because the test tube 3 solution produces a richer solution colour than the test tube 2
solution. Because the atoms and molecules are moving more slowly, the enzyme is unable
to behave naturally and efficiently below the ideal temperature. As the temperature drops,
the manufacturing of enzymes diminishes. Because strong HCl in test tube 4 can decrease
the stabilization of the enzyme, the solution should have a dark colour. Maltose won't
degrade since the substrate (starch) won't attach to the enzyme's active site. The solution's
dark colour suggests that there is a lot of starch present.

Moreover, Activity 1 calls for a maltose test that uses a Benedict solution. It is used to
categorize sugar reductions that contain ketone and aldehyde functional groups. The
amount of sugar reduced affects how the solution changes colour. As a result of maltose
being broken down into starch, a disaccharide, the concentration of maltose is being tested
in this experiment. The blue colour of the fluid depicts the unfavorable result that test tube 1
predicted. This is because the loss of amylase in the test tube prevented the conversion of
starch to maltose. However, Test Tube 2 can yield a reddish-colored solution (+++) when an
enzyme is at its ideal temperature and breaks down starch. It will result in a significant
concentration of disaccharides (maltose). Test Tube 3's anticipated outcome is that the
solution will shift to. Since amylase is not operating at its optimum temperature, it cannot
properly and efficiently break down the starch, resulting in the colour green (+). As strong
HCl disables amylase, test tube 4 is expected to have no detectable colour changes.
Amylase's optimum pH is 7, and since strong HCl has a relatively acidic pH, it will disrupt
the active enzyme site. Unfortunately, there won't be an enzyme-substrate complex and no
starch will be broken down.
Activity 2

Eggs that had been boiled were used in this experiment to measure protein digestion.
Pepsin serves as an enzyme to break down the protein into more manageable
polypeptides. For the first test tube, it consists of hydrochloric solution and pepsin. For the
proper digestion of proteins, an HCl solution must be present. Its acidic environment is
perfect for breaking down proteins. This occurs as the boiled egg is broken down and any
ions it may have contained alter the pH of the mixture. Next, because there is not enough
HCl solution in the second and third test tubes, protein digestion does not occur. Because
NaOH is present in the last tube, the solution exhibits a small protein digestion.

Activity 3

In the case of test tube 1, colour changes will be seen because pancreatin, an enzyme
needed to substitute the digestive enzyme when the body does not have enough of its own
to break down fat into fatty acids, causes the breakdown of fat (cream) to occur. The answer
should change to pink in hue. The pH of the solution will be lowered to an acidic state when
there are changes in colour. When fat is digested, weak acids called fatty acids or non-anoic
acids are formed, which is why the solution turns pink. Because pancreatin is missing and
the breakdown of fats is slowed down in Test Tube 2, the solution won't turn pink.

CONCLUSION

At the conclusion of the procedure, some of the main digestive enzymes, such as
pancreatin and amylase, are tested. Factors that change their behaviour, such as
temperature and pH, are analyzed via the experiment

REFERENCE

1. Barrett K. Carbohydrate, Protein and Water-Soluble Vitamin Assimilation. In GI

Physiology. 2nd ed. New York, NY. McGraw Hill, 2013: 256-284

2. Frenkel, Erica Shapiro; Ribbeck, Katharina (2014-10-24). "Salivary Mucins Protect

Surfaces from Colonization by Cariogenic Bacteria". Applied and Environmental
Microbiology. 81 (1): 332–338