Module 1: The Endocrine System: Learning Objectives

Module 1: The endocrine system
A vast array of body functions are controlled by hormones from the anterior
pituitary gland. This endocrine gland is comprised of many endocrine cell types that
act in large part independent of each other, each producing at least one hormone.
The activity of the gland is controlled by neurohormones called releasing factors
(and release inhibitory factors) that are produced in the hypothalamus. The
releasing factors are secreted into portal blood that travels down the pituitary stalk
to the anterior pituitary gland, where the releasing factors act to stimulate specific
hormone secretion. In turn, many anterior pituitary hormones stimulate a particular
peripheral endocrine gland.
Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
List the endocrine cells and their corresponding hormones in the anterior
pituitary gland.
Describe the anatomical arrangement of the hypothalamus and anterior

pituitary gland.
Explain the consequences of pituitary stalk section on anterior pituitary

hormone secretion.
Provide an example of a hypothalamus-pituitary-endocrine gland axis.
The anterior pituitary gland
The anterior pituitary gland is comprised of a number of endocrine cells that

secrete hormones into the general circulation. There are 5 endocrine cell types, each
producing their own hormone(s).
Cell Type Hormone(s) Key Role
Growth Hormone Stimulate somatic cell growth.

Somatotrophs
Prolactin (PRL) Stimulate milk synthesis and secretion in lactation.

Lactotrophs
Thyroid Stimulating Stimulate the production thyroid hormones from the

Thyrotrophs
Hormone (TSH) thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotrophic Stimulate the production of cortisol from the adrenal

Corticotrophs
Hormone (ACTH) gland (adrenal cortex).
Follicle stimulating Stimulate the gonads, including the production of

Gonadotrophs
Hormone (FSH) sex steroid hormones.
Luteinising Hormone
(LH)
Using Immunohistochemistry, with different antibodies to each hormone, we can see

that anterior pituitary cells express different hormones. In the figure below, note that
there are many cells, but only some of them express a given hormone. Indeed, this is
how we identify the different cells types, via the hormones they produce. Note that
it is only the gonadotrophs which produce two hormones, FSH and LH; which
collectively are called the "gonadotropins".
Click on the image for a larger view (opens in a new tab)
Image source: 'Rat Anterior Pituitary'. By jhsteel, Creative Commons, BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia
Commons.
Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axes
Each of the anterior pituitary endocrine cell types acts in large part independent of
each other. That is, they are functionally discrete. Also it is noteworthy that many of
the anterior pituitary hormones act upon another peripheral endocrine gland to
stimulate secretion of other hormones. This is called a tropic effect.
Image source: 'Pituitary Gland Hormones'. By pikovit, Adobe Stock, modified (corrected),
cropped
Hypothalamic-pituitary axes
Altogether, there exist what are termed hypothalamic-pituitary axes:
Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis
Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
The gonadotropins (LH and FSH) stimulate the activities of the male and female
gonads. TSH, as its name suggests, acts on thyroid to stimulate the release of
thyroid hormones. ACTH stimulates the production of steroid hormones by adrenal
cortex. Most often, we use the term "axes" when refering to the control of these
endocrine systems.
The other anterior pituitary hormones, GH and PRL, are considered hormones that
act more in their own right (in a non-tropic manner), although for GH this is not
strictly true as we shall discuss later in this module.
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
Consider perhaps the most well-known axis - the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal

(HPA) axis. The HPA axis is activated in a stress response (see figure below). The
end point is that the hormone cortisol is released from the adrenal gland. Indeed, a
stressor can be defined as any stimulus that causes activation of the HPA axis; and
as a consequence an increase in circulating cortisol concentrations. Note, upstream
of the adrenal gland is release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary gland, whilst
further upstream in the axis, is release of a neurohormone called Corticotrophin
Releasing Hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus. We shall now explore how the
hypothalamus regulates the anterior pituitary gland.
Image source: 'Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis'. By designua, Adobe Stock, cropped and
modified.
Releasing factors
The release of anterior pituitary hormones is in response to neurohormones from the

hypothalamus. These neurohormones are termed releasing factors or releasing
hormones. Recall that within the hypothalamus there exist discrete nuclei that
produce neurohormones (see figure below). In regard to the regulation of the
anterior pituitary gland, in constrast to the posterior pituitary gland, the neurons that
produce releasing factors only send their axons to a specialised region at the base
of the brain called the median eminence. Here, the nerve terminals synapse upon a
capillary plexus; at the top of the infundibulum.
Image description: Action potentials in the hypothalamic releasing factor neurons result in secretion
of the releasing factors into blood (Step 1). The releasing factors then travel in hypophyseal portal
veins down the rostral surface of the infundibulum to the anterior pituitary gland, where there is a
secondary capillary plexus. The releasing factors then bind to receptors on the anterior pituitary cells
to stimulate hormone release (Step 2). The anterior pituitary hormones are released into general
systemic circulation to act on distant target cells that express specific receptors (Step 3).
Image source: 'The Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary Gland'. Access for free at
https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-introduction, Modified.
Releasing factors (or releasing hormones) are usually small peptides, and therefore
rapidly metabolised in blood. They are usually not measurable in peripheral systemic
blood. Their sole purpose is to signal via the short distance from the hypothalamus
to the anterior pituitary.
Pituitary stalk section
Besides neurohormones that act as releasing factors, there are others that act as
release-inhibiting factors. So, for many anterior pituitary hormones, there is dual
control by both positive and negative regulatory neurohormones from the
hypothalamus.
But which neurohormones play the key role?
To find the answer, we need to consider what happens when the hypothalamus is
disconnected from communicating from the pituitary gland. This is called
hypothalamic-pituitary-disconnection (HPD) or 'stalk-section'.
In 2001, there was an article in the New England Journal of Medicine, showing a
picture of a 58 year-old man, that shot himself in the head with a nail gun. You can
find the picture here. You can see that the nail did not enter the man's brain, and
that, as one of his clinicians says, "If the nail had gone a little higher, it would have
taken out his pituitary gland".
POLL
Consider if you measured the circulating concentrations of the anterior pituitary

hormones before and after sectioning the pituitary stalk.
What would happen to hormone secretion?

The plasma concentration of all anterior pituitary hormones would decrease.
The plasma concentration of all anterior pituitary hormones would increase.
Some anterior pituitary hormones would increased, others would decrease.
Submit
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Module 1: The endocrine system

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Describe the anatomical arrangement of the hypothalamus and anterior

Explain the consequences of pituitary stalk section on anterior pituitary

Provide an example of a hypothalamus-pituitary-endocrine gland axis.

The anterior pituitary gland

The anterior pituitary gland is comprised of a number of endocrine cells that

Cell Type Hormone(s) Key Role

Growth Hormone Stimulate somatic cell growth.

Prolactin (PRL) Stimulate milk synthesis and secretion in lactation.

Thyroid Stimulating Stimulate the production thyroid hormones from the

Adrenocorticotrophic Stimulate the production of cortisol from the adrenal

Follicle stimulating Stimulate the gonads, including the production of

Using Immunohistochemistry, with different antibodies to each hormone, we can see

Click on the image for a larger view (opens in a new tab)

Altogether, there exist what are termed hypothalamic-pituitary axes:

Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Consider perhaps the most well-known axis - the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal

The release of anterior pituitary hormones is in response to neurohormones from the

Pituitary stalk section

But which neurohormones play the key role?

Consider if you measured the circulating concentrations of the anterior pituitary

What would happen to hormone secretion?

The plasma concentration of all anterior pituitary hormones would increase.

Some anterior pituitary hormones would increased, others would decrease.

CLICK HERE TO REVEAL THE ANSWER

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