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Verbs
Transitive and intransitive ....................................................................................................................... 6
Intransitive verbs................................................................................................................................. 6
Transitive verbs ................................................................................................................................... 6
Linking verbs ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Mixed .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Some TrVB have an object which itself has a complement ................................................................ 7
Verb + adverbial .................................................................................................................................. 7
Verbs with two objects....................................................................................................................... 7
Vb+Oi+Od – Vb+ Od + to/for + Oi...................................................................................................... 8
Pronouns as the object ................................................................................................................... 8
One object as pronoun (Od) ............................................................................................................ 8
One object as pronoun (Oi) ............................................................................................................. 8
Multi-syllable verbs with two objects – to/for structure .................................................................... 8
Verbs which use ‘for’........................................................................................................................... 8
Verbs which use ‘to’ ............................................................................................................................ 8
Passive verbs (vb with two objects) ........................................................................................................ 9
Active .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Passive ................................................................................................................................................. 9
Person at the beginning (more common) ....................................................................................... 9
Object at the beginning................................................................................................................... 9
Informal ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Auxiliary verbs ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Do ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
Be ...................................................................................................................................................... 10
Have .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Auxiliary verbs in questions .............................................................................................................. 10
Auxiliary verbs in short responses to yes/no questions.................................................................... 10
Auxiliary verbs in short responses with so/neither .......................................................................... 11
Auxiliary verbs in short responses with echo questions ................................................................... 11
Auxiliary verbs in question tags ........................................................................................................ 11
AuxVB give emphasis to a statement: do.......................................................................................... 11
Stress the AuxVB to express emphasis with tenses and forms that already have an AuxVB ....... 11
Modal verbs as AuxVB....................................................................................................................... 11
Questions .............................................................................................................................................. 11
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Auxiliaries and modals ...................................................................................................................... 11

AuxVB before the subject.............................................................................................................. 11
Present and past simple: do .......................................................................................................... 11
Continuous and present tenses already include have/be ............................................................. 11
‘Be’ before the subject for the present and past perfect of ‘be’ as a main verb .......................... 12
Modal verbs – put the modal verb before the subject ..................................................................... 12
Question words/phrases ................................................................................................................... 12
Put question words (what, where, etc) and question phrases (what time, how much, etc.) at the
beginning of a question................................................................................................................. 12
Intonation (question-word question)............................................................................................ 12
Intonation goes down at the end of the question (which, how, etc.) ........................................... 12
Intonation goes up at the end of the question (yes/no – without a question word) ................... 12
Subject questions .............................................................................................................................. 12
Subject-demanding information – same order as in a statement .................................................... 12
Doesn’t/didn’t/don’t – negative forms – to ask about negative ideas ......................................... 13
Negative questions ............................................................................................................................ 13
We make it by adding -n’t to the auxiliary verb. We do not use the full form ‘not’: .................... 13
Use not after the subject .............................................................................................................. 13
Negative of ‘am I’ is ‘aren’t I’......................................................................................................... 13
Negative question without a question word .................................................................................... 13
To show surprise or when something is not as expected ............................................................. 13
As a real question, when you expect or hope the listener will agree ........................................... 13
Negative question with a question word .......................................................................................... 14
To ask for information ................................................................................................................... 14
Yes/no answers ............................................................................................................................. 14
Negative words to form negative questions ................................................................................. 14
Making suggestions ....................................................................................................................... 14
Echo questions .................................................................................................................................. 14
She is going where ........................................................................................................................ 15
You did what.................................................................................................................................. 15
Did you? Auxiliary verb (be, do, have, modal) + pronoun............................................................. 15
He’s getting married? .................................................................................................................... 15
Indirect questions ............................................................................................................................. 15
Question sensitive or personal...................................................................................................... 15
Indirect questions begin with a question phrase .......................................................................... 15
Followed by if ................................................................................................................................ 16
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If/whether ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Question phrase + question word + to infinitive ........................................................................... 16
Question phrase + object (not I was wondering…) ........................................................................... 16
Asking for an opinion .................................................................................................................... 16
Question tags ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Affirmative statement + affirmative tag ............................................................................................ 17
Present simple....................................................................................................................................... 17
Present continuous ............................................................................................................................... 17
Imperative ............................................................................................................................................. 18
The base form of the verb: Wait for me! ...................................................................................... 18
To form the negative: don’t + base form....................................................................................... 18
Do not + base form in more formal situations: ............................................................................. 18
Do (not) + base form to add emphasis.......................................................................................... 18
Uses of the imperative ...................................................................................................................... 18
Always, never, and don’t ever + imperative ...................................................................................... 18
Subject + imperative ......................................................................................................................... 18
Imperative + question tag ................................................................................................................. 19
Imperative + will/would/could/can you? To make it less abrupt: ................................................. 19
Imperative + can’t you? To express annoyance or impatience ..................................................... 19
Imperative + will you/won’t you? In reminders and warnings ..................................................... 19
Will/Would you…? To make it less direct ...................................................................................... 19
Expressions with the imperative ................................................................................................... 19
The past simple ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Present simple....................................................................................................................................... 20
To form the negative we add -n’t or not. We usually use the full form to give emphasis: ........... 20
Have/has before the question to form a question:....................................................................... 20
It is + time expression ....................................................................................................................... 20
Present perfect continuous ................................................................................................................... 20
Uses of present continuous .............................................................................................................. 21
Past continuous ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Sequence adverbs ............................................................................................................................. 22
‘Used to’ and ‘would’ ............................................................................................................................ 22
Used to .............................................................................................................................................. 22
Would ................................................................................................................................................ 22
Action and state verbs....................................................................................................................... 22
Action verbs tend to be used in the continuous form. ................................................................. 22
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States (existence, possession, etc) ................................................................................................ 22

State verbs in a continuous form for emphasis ................................................................................ 22
Verbs of the senses in conjunction with can/can’t ........................................................................... 23
Never to be used in continuous form ............................................................................................... 23
The present subjunctive .................................................................................................................... 23
Uses of subjunctive ........................................................................................................................... 23
If/whether-beginning clauses ........................................................................................................... 23
Should as a formal alternative to if ................................................................................................... 24
Present tense as an alternative ......................................................................................................... 24
Past subjunctive .................................................................................................................................... 24
Form .................................................................................................................................................. 24
Present tenses for the future ................................................................................................................ 24
Present simple: Events in the future that are part of an itinerary, timetable, programme .............. 24
Present continuous: Things in the future that are already arranged, agreed, or finalised ............... 25
We use it because we see it as existing now, because we have made an arrangement, a booking.
...................................................................................................................................................... 25
Things which we see as existing now and certain: ........................................................................ 25
When we use it to specify to the future, we specify the date ...................................................... 25
Be going to can be used with little difference in meaning ............................................................ 25
Present continuous to ask about somebody’s planned activities ................................................. 25
Present tenses after time conjunctions ................................................................................................ 25
Use present simple after conjunctions such as when, after, as soon as, etc. ............................... 25
Present continuous to express something in progress ................................................................. 25
Present perfect to show that one event is completed before the other event ............................ 25
Two clauses can go in either order. When we begin with the time conjunction, we put a comma
between the clauses. .................................................................................................................... 25
Present tense after if ..................................................................................................................... 26
Present tenses in relative clauses ......................................................................................................... 26
When talking about the future, we use a present tense in a relative sense ................................ 26
Present tenses in noun clauses ............................................................................................................. 26
A present tense in (1) Noun clause that begins with that,(2) a question word, or (3) If/whether
...................................................................................................................................................... 26
After hope, we use a present tense .............................................................................................. 26
Be, be about to, etc. .............................................................................................................................. 26
Be .......................................................................................................................................................... 26
Be+ to-infitinitive to talk about a formal or officially arranged event .......................................... 26
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Be due/set + to-infinitive in a similar way ..................................................................................... 26

Be + to-inifinitive to talk about a rule, order, instruction ............................................................. 26
Be (just) about to – smth happening very soon ............................................................................ 27
Just about to.................................................................................................................................. 27
On the verge of/point of + ing. ..................................................................................................... 27
Never use time adverbs with these .............................................................................................. 27
Be bound/certain/sure/likely, etc.+ to-infinitive to talk about what will happen in the future ... 27
Be (un)likely to express less certainty ........................................................................................... 27
Was to, was about to, etc. in the past tense ..................................................................................... 27
Headlines express future events ................................................................................................... 27
Uses of major verbs .............................................................................................................................. 27
Be (238) ............................................................................................................................................. 27
To link subject with its complement ................................................................................................. 27
Identity and definition: ................................................................................................................. 27
Nationality and origin.................................................................................................................... 27
Someone’s job ............................................................................................................................... 28
Age ................................................................................................................................................ 28
Personality, character, feeling ....................................................................................................... 28
Properties and qualities ................................................................................................................ 28
Possession ..................................................................................................................................... 28
Time, days, date ............................................................................................................................ 28
Weather and temperature ............................................................................................................ 28
Prices and cost .............................................................................................................................. 28
Continuous to talk about behaviour and states ............................................................................ 28
Place and location ......................................................................................................................... 28
There+be (there is, there aren’t, there were, etc.) to say something that exists or doesn’t exist 28
Been vs having gone.......................................................................................................................... 28
Have (241) ............................................................................................................................................. 28
As an auxiliary verb to form past tenses ........................................................................................... 28
Semi-modal verb to express necessity and obligation ...................................................................... 28
Got+noun to talk about possession or characteristics ...................................................................... 29
Have+sb/smth to express cause smth to happen ............................................................................. 29
Have + smb/smth + infinitive ............................................................................................................ 29
Have + noun to talk about certain experiences ............................................................................ 29
Have got ............................................................................................................................................ 29
Possessions and things we own .................................................................................................... 29
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Have got on – talk about possessions at the moment ...................................................................... 29

Available ............................................................................................................................................ 29
Features, characteristics, qualities ................................................................................................ 29
Illness ............................................................................................................................................ 30
Have got as a semi-modal to express obligation ........................................................................... 30
Have got a clue/idea ..................................................................................................................... 30
Do .......................................................................................................................................................... 30
Do – perform an activity ................................................................................................................... 30
Make ..................................................................................................................................................... 30
To construct, to create ...................................................................................................................... 30
Produce or prepare ........................................................................................................................... 30
Make + NP: to perform an action .................................................................................................. 31
Make (it to) = attend ......................................................................................................................... 31
Make – to be in time for.................................................................................................................... 31
To make it = to achieve success......................................................................................................... 31
Make + adj + noun = to have the necessary qualities ................................................................... 31
Made from/of = produced, manufactured from ........................................................................... 31

Verbs

Transitive and intransitive

Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs lack an object:

It is raining.

I went to London yesterday.

He died in 2005.

Transitive verbs
Must have an object:

I’ve bought a guitar.

I made a mistake.

I found a wallet in the street.

Linking verbs
Linking verbs have a complement:

• Tells us smth about the subject – e.g., what it is, how it feels, what it is like.
• Complement can be an Adj, AdjP, N, NP, a PP, or a clause:
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I feel cold.

She seems very friendly.

The lift is out of order.

The film was not what I expected

Mixed
Some verbs can be of more than one type, depending on how you use them

Depending on how = in functie de cum

We got lost for a while (linking)

I got 50 euros from the ATM (transitive)

Some TrVB have an object which itself has a complement

The publicity made the film a massive worldwide hit.

The judge found all the defendants guilty.

The housework kept us busy all day.

It drives me mad!

Verb + adverbial
We use adverbials with all the verb types:

• Vb+adv
• Vb+adv+obj/complement

We waited for an hour.

I was tired all morning.

The lift was out of order last week.

When we use an adverbial, it most commonly goes after the object or complement:

We bought a new TV yesterday.

I was hungry all day.

The housework kept us busy for hours.

Verbs with two objects

An indirect and a direct object.

These verbs are generally those which express giving, conveying, or telling something to somebody.

Indirect object is usually a person

The direct object is usually a thing

When a verb has two objects, there are usually two possible structures:
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Vb+Oi+Od – Vb+ Od + to/for + Oi

We bought Julia a watch – We bought a watch for Julia.

I made my mum a cake – I made a cake for my mum.

When both objects are a noun or noun phrase, we can generally use either structure.

Pronouns as the object

When both the Od and Oi are pronouns, again we can usually use either structure:

Ulrich bought me it – U bought it for me.

One object as pronoun (Od)

The pronoun usually goes first:

I’ll give it to Andrew.

One object as pronoun (Oi)

Use a structure without to/for

I’ll send you the photos.

Multi-syllable verbs with two objects – to/for structure

Announce Demonstrate
Communicate Describe
Deliver Mention
Obtain
Report Propose
Suggest Repeat

He explained the rules to me.

They donated millions to the charity.

Verbs which use ‘for’

buy get
book made
choose order
fix pick
find reserve
save

Dave bought it for me.

Verbs which use ‘to’

award pay
bring post
donate read
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email sell
offer send
owe show
show teach
pass tell
throw
write

I’ll email the photos to you.

Passive verbs (vb with two objects)

When a verb with two objects is used in the passive, there are two possible structures

Active
The jury awarded first prize to Katie.

Passive
Person at the beginning (more common)
Katie was awarded the first prize.

Object at the beginning

First prize was awarded to Katie.

Informal
In informal spoken English, when the verb has two pronouns, you may hear the direct pronoun before
the indirect pronoun without to/her:

Anna gave me it

Anna gave it me

Auxiliary verbs
Combine with other verbs to form:

• Tenses
• Questions
• Negatives
• Passives
1. Do
2. Be
3. Have

Do
We most commonly use it to:

• Make questions and negative in the present simple and past simple

Where do you live?

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I don’t agree.

Did you go out last night?

I didn’t have lunch today.

Last night = aseara

Be
• Form a continuous tense
• Form the passive

It is snowing.

What were you doing?

Where were the last Olympics held?

Have
• To form a perfect tense
• To form a causative statement (when you cause or arrange for something to happen)

She has gone to the supermarket.

I have not finished.

We’d met before.

We’re having the house redecorated.

Auxiliary verbs in questions

All are used in forming questions.

In questions, the AuxVB goes before the subject:

Is it raining?

Where do you work?

Have you been to the US?

Auxiliary verbs in short responses to yes/no questions

Are you going home?

Yes, I am.

Have you had lunch. – Yes, I have.

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Did you see her? – Yes, I did.

Auxiliary verbs in short responses with so/neither

I am starving. – So am I.

We went away for the weekend. – So did we.

I haven’t seen her for ages. – Neither have I.

Auxiliary verbs in short responses with echo questions

It’s raining. – Is it?

We saw him last night. – Did you?

He has sold his new car. He’s done what?

Auxiliary verbs in question tags

He is in Belin, isn’t he?

He writes novels, doesn’t he?

You’ll be at the conference, won’t you?

James did not go, did he?

AuxVB give emphasis to a statement: do

• Present or past simple

I do like Thai food.

I did enjoy that film.

He doesn’t watch much TV, but he does like nature programmes.

Stress the AuxVB to express emphasis with tenses and forms that already have an AuxVB
I am looking forward to the weekend.

Modal verbs as AuxVB

We can use them as auxiliary verbs in the ways described above:

Can you speak French. No, I can’t.

You couldn’t help me, could you

Questions
Auxiliaries and modals
AuxVB before the subject
Present and past simple: do
Do you know him?

Did he phone this morning?

Continuous and present tenses already include have/be

Was the internet working earlier?
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Have you seen her recently?

Has he been waiting long?

‘Be’ before the subject for the present and past perfect of ‘be’ as a main verb
Is she OK?
Are you ready?

Were they late?

Modal verbs – put the modal verb before the subject

Can you help me please?

Must you leave already?

Will she be at the meeting?

Question words/phrases
Put question words (what, where, etc) and question phrases (what time, how much, etc.) at
the beginning of a question
Which do you prefer?

What did you do at the weekend?

How much was lunch?

Intonation (question-word question)

Intonation goes down at the end of the question (which, how, etc.)
Which is Helena’s car?

How far is it to London?

Intonation goes up at the end of the question (yes/no – without a question word)
Is this her car?

Is it far to London?

Subject questions
Subject-demanding information – same order as in a statement
The word order is the same as for a sentence

The same… as…

Question word or question phrase replaces the subject.

Who teaches you English? (Ms Giuchici teaches us English)

Which countries border Tasmania? (Algeria and Lybia border Tasmania)

What caused the problem (The computer caused the problem)

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Who last used the computer (Ina last used the computer)

In subject questions, we do not use the auxiliary verb do for the present and past simple tenses:

• Who does teach you English?

• What did cause the problem?

Doesn’t/didn’t/don’t – negative forms – to ask about negative ideas

Who doesn’t want any tea?

Who didn’t go to the meeting?

Which lights don’t work?

Negative questions
We make it by adding -n’t to the auxiliary verb. We do not use the full form ‘not’:
Isn’t she here?

Haven’t we met before?

Why didn’t you get a taxi?

Use not after the subject

Is Diana not here?
Are you not coming with us?

Negative of ‘am I’ is ‘aren’t I’

Aren’t I coming with you?

Am I not coming with you?

Negative question without a question word

We use it in two main ways:

To show surprise or when something is not as expected

Don’t you like football? I thought you did.

Haven’t you left yet? You’d better get a move on.

Was the conference not useful?

Doesn’t he play the guitar? I was sure he did.

As a real question, when you expect or hope the listener will agree
Haven’t we met before? Istanbul, wasn’t it?

Are you a friend of Marco’s?

Isn’t it a lovely day?

Doesn’t he play the guitar? He plays jazz, doesn’t he?

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Negative question with a question word

To ask for information
What don’t you like about this job?

Who hasn’t got a drink?

Which café does she not want to go to?

Why isn’t she coming with us?

Yes/no answers
Didn’t you go away at the weekend? No, we stayed at home. Yes, we went to Brighton.

You haven’t eaten all day. Are you not hungry? No, I’m fine. I’m starving actually.

If the answer is no, we can express agreement:

Doesn’t the light work? No, I think the bulb’s gone.

Negative words to form negative questions

Why is there no one here

Did nobody tell you about this meeting?

Have you never met Jo?

Is there no sugar?

Making suggestions
Why don’t we?

Why doesn’t she?

Expressions for making suggestions.

Why don’t you get a taxi?

Why don’t you look for another job?

Why not look for another job?

Why not get a taxi?

Echo questions
An echo question is when we ask a question in direct response to something we have just heard. This
is usually to express surprise and/or ask for clarification.

Four typical structures exist:

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She is going where

She is going to Siberia. She’s going where?

It was 85. It was how much?

You did what

Show disbelief:

I told her everything. You did what?

I saw her last night. You saw whom?

Did you? Auxiliary verb (be, do, have, modal) + pronoun

For the present and past simple, we use the auxiliary do:

We sometimes call this kind of question an echo tag:

They live in Oxford. Do they?

I can’t drive. Can’t you?

I saw her last night. Have you?

He isn’t coming with us. Isn’t he?

Raising intonation shows that you are surprised.

He’s getting married?

We can repeat information:

He is getting married. He’s getting married?

Indirect questions
We use indirect questions to be more tentative.

To sound polite

Do you know where the nearest ATM is?

Question sensitive or personal

Do you know if Jen’s got a boyfriend?

I was wondering if you knew anything about the Harrison merger?

Indirect questions begin with a question phrase

I’d like to know

Have you any idea…

I was wondering…

Do you happen to know…

Do you mind if I ask you…

Can you tell me…

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Could you tell me where the canteen is?

Do you know which is Martha’s desk?

Have you any idea what time it is?

Followed by if
Have you any idea where he is?

Do you know if it’s going to rain later?

Do you know whether or not it’s going to rain later?

If/whether
Can you tell me where meeting room number 4 is?

Do you know if he speaks English?

Question phrase + question word + to infinitive

Do you know how to get to the station?

Question phrase + object (not I was wondering…)

Do you know the new PA’s name?

Asking for an opinion

Would you say…

Do you think…

Would you say you are a good learner?

Do you think we ought to book in advance?

Question tags
Affirmative question tag after a negative statement:

Your flight wasn’t too delayed, was it?

She hasn’t phoned, has she?

I’m invited too, aren’t I?

Let’s go, shall we? (Use shall after let’s)

Somebody told you, didn’t they? (they in qt after -one or -body)

Soemething is wrong, isn’t it?

It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?

The train takes two hours, doesn’t it?

You could not lend me your book, could you?

You haven’t brought another dress, have you?

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Affirmative statement + affirmative tag

She doesn’t work here anymore.

Oh, she’s left, has she?

He did not get here until 9:30. I see. He was late, was he?

Present simple
Tip: use it with adverbs (usually, generally, every week, never, once a week)

We generally get together once every Saturday.

We generally use it to talk about something unchanging or permanent.

• Facts and permanent situations

• States of minds, feelings, likes and dislikes (eg. I hope it doesn’t rain)
• Habits and routines

Present continuous
To say something is in progress not at the moment of speaking. We usually see the situation as
temporary or unfinished.

1. Thing is progress now (e.g. It is raining/She is not wearing her new coat)
2. Things in progress right now, but not at the exact moment (She is having driving lessons. Is
anyone sitting here? Are you reading a good book at the moment?)
3. Changing situations (Your English is getting better. The earth is getting warmer.
Unemployment is increasing.)
4. To show we see something as temporary and possibly short-lived (I’m working at home this
week. I am going to the gym a lot these days. They are redecorating the office this week).
5. Time expressions (now, right now, at the moment, at present, nowadays, etc) – I’m really
enjoying work nowadays/I’m reading a good book at the moment/Can you call back? We’re
having dinner at the moment.
6. Use still to show that the situation continues (We’re still waiting for a taxi. Is it still snowing)
7. Use not anymore o show that the action does not continue (I’m not having guitar lessons
anymore)
8. Rarely do we use verbs describing states in the continuous form (It depends on the weather.
Who owns this house?)
9. To talk about the future

Distinction (pp 30-32)

• Present simple to talk about things as permanent – facts, routines, habits

• Present continuous to talk about something which is in progress around the time of speaking
(temporary or unfinished)
• Example: I work in London, but I’m working in the Cambridge office this month.
• Present simple to talk in a neutral way about things which happen regularly
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• Present continuous to express irritation or annoyance (use frequently, always) – e.g. my

computer is constantly crashing. He’s always having time off work.
• Present simple to talk about states (e.g. this restaurant looks expensive)
• Present continuous to add emphasis (I’m really enjoying this pizza – The children are being
very naughty today)
• I look forward to + ing (present simple is more formal)

Imperative
The base form of the verb:
Wait for me!
Be careful!

Calm down!

Turn right at the traffic lights.

To form the negative: don’t + base form

Don’t be late.

Don’t worry about it.

Don’t forget to get some bread.

Do not + base form in more formal situations:

This email is automated. Do not reply.

Please do not walk on the grass.

Do (not) + base form to add emphasis

Do be quiet!

Do ask me if you need any help.

Do not say anything to anyone.

Uses of the imperative

• Instructions and orders (don’t’t touch!)
• Signs and notices (Keep to the left. Do not feed the cows. Do not use towpath when flooded)
• Informal offers (Have a biscuit. Come with us if you like.)
• Good wishes (Have a nice day. Enjoy the party)

Always, never, and don’t ever + imperative

Emphasise that the instruction is permanent:

Always try your best.

Never open spam emails.

Don’t ever do that again.

Subject + imperative
Emphasise the role of the person we are addressing:
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You tell him.

All of you listen for a moment.

Everyone meet here at 5:30.

No one say anything about the party.

Imperative + question tag

Imperative + will/would/could/can you? To make it less abrupt:
Give me a hand, could you?

Wait a minute, will you?

Pass me the sugar, would you?

Imperative + can’t you? To express annoyance or impatience

Be quiet, can’t you?

Imperative + will you/won’t you? In reminders and warnings

Don’t forget about the milk, will you?

Drive carefully, won’t you?

Will/Would you…? To make it less direct

Will you wait here for a moment?

Would you pass me the water, please?

Expressions with the imperative

Calm down!

Cheer up!

Look out!

Hurry up!

Have fun!

Don’t be silly!

Don’t be nosy!

The past simple

I am afraid we did not receive your booking form.

I was late for work this morning.

We were at home last night.

What time was the flight?

How long was I asleep?

• Completed past events, situations, or states

• Single events or repeated events
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• With expressions of finished time (The bus left 50 minutes ago)

Present simple
The present participle is the present or have + past participle

I’ve finished the report.

Sara’s gone to the supermarket.

The president has resigned.

I’ve lost my wallet.

To form the negative we add -n’t or not. We usually use the full form to give emphasis:
I have not finished.

No, I have not told anyone.

Have/has before the question to form a question:

Why has she quit her job?

It connects the past and the present. We use it in three basic ways:

• A past event or situation that has an impact on the present (My bikes gone. At last, we’ve
finished. Sue’s resigned. Have you heard?)
• We do not say when the event occurred (The plane’s landed)
• Experiences in our lives
• To talk about somebody’s life experience
• To talk about an activity, event that started in the past and continues in the present (I’ve had
this laptop for about a year. I haven’t seen him since the conference. How long have you been
married?)
• This is the first/nth time + perfect: This is the third time I’ve stayed in this hotel. Is this the
first time you’ve been skiing?

Pages 42-44 for differences, notably

They’ve lived in Oxford for 4 years now (They are still living there)

I’ve played the piano since I was a child (I’m still playing it)

It is + time expression
It’s ages since I saw a good movie.

Its at least one year since we met.

Present perfect continuous

The present of have + been + ing

It’s been raining all morning.

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I have not been waiting long.

He has been holding meetings all week.

I have not been using your computer!

Uses of present continuous

Something which started in the past but continues now (It’s been snowing all morning.) – note that
we use it with a time expression

For something which stopped recently but which has an impact on the present (Sorry about the
mess. I’ve been trying to fix my moped – It looks like it’s been raining)

There is sometimes little difference between the present and past continuous, and in some situations
both forms are possible. We tend to favour the present continuous to emphasise the length of a
situation. We use the present perfect simple to express completion (We’ve had 15 meetings this
month). We tend to use the present perfect continuous for something that is new, temporary, or
short-lived.

How long have you lived here?

How long have you been living here?

We’ve been waiting for over an hour.

I’ve been studying a lot.

I haven’t been going out much.

We’ve been having a lot of meetings this week

Past continuous
Was/were + ing form

They were waiting for hours.

We were living in Paris in 2010.

The internet was not working this morning.

You were not listening!

Was it snowing when you arrived?

• Use it to talk about something in progress in the past (e.g. We were having breakfast at 7:30)
• That continues over a period of time in the past (They were waiting for ages. I was working
on the project from May to August.
• Emphasise the continued activity (They were waiting for ages. I was working on the report all
night. We were driving all night.)
• Use past continuous with past simple to emphasise a repeated action (We were having a
walk by the river when it started raining/We were driving along the coast when we suddenly
noticed)
• Use while/when to link actions
• Use it for linking two continuous actions
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Sequence adverbs
To link two past actions (when, after, until, as soon as)

I had breakfast after I’d shaved and showered.

I did not buy my first car until I’d passed my driving test.

We set off as soon as we’d had lunch.

‘Used to’ and ‘would’

Used to
To talk about past actions that no longer exist – e.g.:

Past habits and routines (We used to go skiing every month. Do you do any sports? – No, but I used
to)

Past states (I used to live in Scotland. There used to be a supermarket here. I did not use to like
coffee).

Used to gives more emphasis to a situation that no longer exists (I used to have long hair when I was
in my teens)

Would
We use would with similar meaning to use to used to to talk about past habits and routines:

I’d play computer games all the time. My grandparents used to stay with us every Christmas.

Note: We do not use would to talk about past states (I used to live in Scotland)

Would is rarely used in the negative to talk about past habits and routines.

Use frequency adverbs (rarely, seldom, frequently): I sometimes used to walk to school, but I’d
usually get the bus. My boss would often arrive late for work.) Does your mother work? No, but she
used to.

Action and state verbs

Action verbs tend to be used in the continuous form.
I read the paper every day. I’m reading the paper at the moment.

I work at the BBC. I am working on an analysis.

States (existence, possession, etc)

She looks about forty.

We’ve known each other for 1 year.

Who does this belong to?

State verbs in a continuous form for emphasis

I’m really loving this pasta.

I’m really loving work at the moment.

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Verbs of the senses in conjunction with can/can’t

Smell, taste, hear, feel

I can hear the TV.

I can smell gas.

Can you see James?

Never to be used in continuous form

It depends.

I don’t mind.

It doesn’t matter.

I don’t agree.

I don’t mind.

The present subjunctive

Same as base form of the verb:

They requested that she arrive early.

It is proposed that she give a careful account of his actions.

It is important that everyone be present at the meetings.

Negative: not+base form:

1) They asked that he not be late.

2) The chairman requested that we not start the meeting until everyone is here.
3) He spoke to the media on condition that he not be identified.

Uses of subjunctive
That- clause expressing a formal desire, instruction, request, suggestion:

They request that Mr Jones report to the reception on arrival.

They require that he submit the application by Friday.

I suggested that he leave immediately.

He was released from prison on condition that he report to the police station twice a week.

He was allowed an extra week’s leave on condition that he finish his report beforehand.

It is our recommendation that she receive a full refund.

It is desirable that he present his research to the students on a regular basis.

If/whether-beginning clauses
If that be the case, there is little more we can do.

Crime is on the increase, whether that be in inner cities or rural areas.

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Should as a formal alternative to if

Should that be the case, there is little more we can do.

Please let us know, should you require any further assistance.

Present tense as an alternative

She insists that her students are on time.

It that’s the case, there is little more we can do.

Past subjunctive
Form
Same as the past simple form of the verb.

It’s time we left.

I’d rather you did not say anything to R.

It’s time we went home.

It’s time I started my dissertation.

I’d rather you arrived a bit before seven.

It’s time they stopped making empty promises.

It’s about time you grew up and started acting your age.

Suppose you failed the exam. What would happen?

Present tenses for the future

Present simple: Events in the future that are part of an itinerary, timetable,
programme
Note: We usually specify the time:

• His plane lands at 6:40.

• The meeting is on Wednesday.
• The train leaves soon.
• When does the football season start?
• The show begins at 6 and finished at 8.

Use the following verbs: arrive, leave, take off, come, go, leave, depart, finish, open, close.
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Present continuous: Things in the future that are already arranged, agreed, or finalised
We use it because we see it as existing now, because we have made an arrangement, a
booking.
• I’m seeing Dan tomorrow night. We’re going to Coco Café.
• Sasha isn’t coming to the meeting.

Things which we see as existing now and certain:

• I’m staying in tonight.
• I’m doing my homework and then I’m having an early night.

When we use it to specify to the future, we specify the date

Are you working tomorrow?

They are getting married in April.

Be going to can be used with little difference in meaning

We’re going to have pizza tonight.

We’re having pizza tonight.

Present continuous to ask about somebody’s planned activities

Are you doing anything this evening?

What are you doing this weekend?

Are you going out tonight?

Present tenses after time conjunctions

Use present simple after conjunctions such as when, after, as soon as, etc.
I’ll text you when we get to the hotel.

Call me as soon as you arrive.

Wait here until I tell you.

Present continuous to express something in progress

I’ll think of you next week while I’m lying on the beach.

I’ll phone you when I’m feeling better.

Let me know the next time you’re working here in New York.

Present perfect to show that one event is completed before the other event
Do borrow the book when I’ve read it.

I won’t decide until I’ve seen the report.

Two clauses can go in either order. When we begin with the time conjunction, we put a
comma between the clauses.
I’ll call you when I get to the station.

When I get to the station, I’ll call you.

I won’t know where I’m staying until I’ve heard from him.
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Present tense after if

Time conjunctions: when, while, as soon as, the next time, the minute, the second.

I’ll call you the second I hear any news.

Let’s wait here until the rain stops.

You must visit the next time you’re in Oxford.

Let me know if you need any help with the shopping.

Present tenses in relative clauses

When talking about the future, we use a present tense in a relative sense
Anyone who arrives late will not be allowed to enter.

Will the person who is late to leave turn off the lights?

We’ll get whichever bus arrives first.

Present tenses in noun clauses

A present tense in (1) Noun clause that begins with that,(2) a question word, or (3) If/whether
Make sure that the windows are closed when you leave.

We have to take if we take the coast road home.

You must let me know which train you get. Send me a text when you’re on it.

After hope, we use a present tense

I hope your exams go OK.

I hope it isn’t raining when we get there.

Be, be about to, etc.

Be
Be+ to-infitinitive to talk about a formal or officially arranged event
The MP is to hold a press conference tomorrow.

ID cards are to be introduced next year.

The concert is to take place on 17th April in Hyde Park.

Be due/set + to-infinitive in a similar way

He is due to hold a press conference next week.

ID cards are to be introduced next month.

Interviewes are due to take place in April.

Be + to-inifinitive to talk about a rule, order, instruction

Mum says we’re to be in bed by 10:30.

Visitors are to report to the main entrance.

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Be (just) about to – smth happening very soon

The meeting is about to start.

The meeting is about to start (to add that it is happening immediately).

Just about to
Have you sent that email. No, but I’m just about to.

Has it started. No, but it’s about to.

On the verge of/point of + ing.

The company is on the verge of going bankrupt.

I’m on the point of giving up.

Never use time adverbs with these

The company is on the verge of going bankrupt.

Be bound/certain/sure/likely, etc.+ to-infinitive to talk about what will happen in the future
Jim’s bound to be late – he always is!

We’re certain to win at least one gold medal.

Be (un)likely to express less certainty

The concert is unlikely to be sold out.

It’s unlikely to rain for the next few days.

Was to, was about to, etc. in the past tense

The conference was originally to take place in Amsterdam, but it was moved to Rome.

I was just about to leave when it started raining.

She was on the verge of giving up.

Headlines express future events

BBC to lose 5,000 jobs.

Qatar to lose World Cup.

Uses of major verbs

Be (238)
Continuous: We update the site every day.

Passive: The site is updated every day.

To link subject with its complement

Identity and definition:
X and Y are my neighbours. A flute is a musical instrument.

Nationality and origin

She is Romanian.
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Someone’s job
She is a statistician.

Age
I am 31.

Personality, character, feeling

She is friendly.

Properties and qualities

The exam was easy.

Possession
This is our car.

Time, days, date

The bus was late.

Weather and temperature

It’s sunny

Prices and cost

The trousers are 630.

Continuous to talk about behaviour and states

The weather is being a bit unpredictable these days.

The children are being a bit noisy.

Place and location

Your keys are not on the table.

There+be (there is, there aren’t, there were, etc.) to say something that exists or doesn’t exist
There is a train at 3.30.

There has not been much rain recently.

Been vs having gone

Been (participle of be) = having gone somewhere and then left

Gone (the participle of go) = having gone somewhere and still being there

Kara’s been to the supermarket = She went to the supermarket and then returned home.

She’s gone to the supermarket = She is still at the supermarket.

Have (241)
As an auxiliary verb to form past tenses
Have you seen my keys.

It has been raining all day.

Semi-modal verb to express necessity and obligation

You’ve got to be joking.
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What time do you have to be at the airport?

Got+noun to talk about possession or characteristics

I’ve got two brothers.

She’s got long hair?

Have+sb/smth to express cause smth to happen

She’s had us tidying our rooms all morning.

He had us crying with laughter.

Have + smb/smth + infinitive

When we arrange for smb to do smth for us:

We’re having somebody cut down our apple tree.

Have + noun to talk about certain experiences

Meals: We’re having breakfast soon.

Food and drink: have a coffee.

Everyday activities: nap, shower, rest, a walk – Have a little nap after lunch.

Events: Have a lesson, dance class, meeting, chat.

Positive experiences: have fun, good time, a laugh.

Negative experiences: Have a bad day, an argument, an accident.

Imperative form to wish people a good time: Have a nice day! Have fun! Have a safe trip!

Have a + noun: Have a go/stab at smth. I can’t open the window. Will you have a go? I’ve had a go on
his motorbike this morning. There’s a problem with my computer. Can you have a look at it?

Have + noun to offer something: Have a Coke! Please, have a seat. Have some more cake..

Have got
Possessions and things we own
Have you got your own office at work?

I’ve got a new mobile.

Have got on – talk about possessions at the moment

I’ve got no money on me.

Have you got your laptop with you?

Available
Have you got this dress in a size ten?

They’ve got lots of vegetarian dishes.

Features, characteristics, qualities

She’s got short hair.

Has the school got a swimming pool.

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You’d got a beard the last time I saw you—You had a beard last time I saw you.

Illness
I’ve got a cold.

I’ve got a heart condition.

Have got as a semi-modal to express obligation

What time have you got to be at the airport?

My keys have got to be here somewhere.

Have got a clue/idea

Where’s Oliver? I have no idea.

What’s his name. I haven’t got a clue.

Do
Simple tense to form a negative

I don’t drink coffee.

Do you live here. Yes, I do.

Do – perform an activity
Are you doing anything tonight?

He didn’t do anything wrong.

What’s your job = What do you do?

Do + NP: I’m doing a computer course.

Do + some + gerund: I am doing some gardening.

Sports: Have you ever done yoga?

Nothing to do = be involved with = something to do: This mess has nothing to do with me. The
problem is to with the computer anti-virus

Be enough = will do: Will 10 pounds do?

How do you do?

I’m James. How do you do? The response is also how do you do.

Make
To construct, to create
They make the Mini in Oxford. The Mini is made in Oxford.

Did you make this application?

Produce or prepare
I made dinner last night.

I’m going to make coffee.

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Who made this mess?

Make + NP: to perform an action

Stop making a fuss!

Who is making that noise?

Don’t make promises you can’t keep!

I need to make a phone call.

Make (it to) = attend

Did you make it to meeting last night?
I won’t make the lecture this evening.

Make – to be in time for

Hurry up! We need to make the 10.15 meeting.

He’s only just made it.

To make it = to achieve success

To make it to the top

Make + adj + noun = to have the necessary qualities

They make a lovely couple, don’t they?

Do you think he’ll make a nice prime minister?

Made from/of = produced, manufactured from

Glass is made form sand. (from = raw material is altered)

This sculpture is made of ice. (of = raw material is not altered)

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