Dental Material Science Exam Preparatory Manual For Under Graduates1 103727

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Exam Preparatory Manual for

Undergraduates
DENTAL MATMATERIAL
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Exam Preparatory Manual for

Undergraduates
DENTAL MATERIAL
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Aruna Jawaharlal Bhandari
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BDS MDS
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Professor, Head (Prosthodontics) and Ex Dean
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Dental Faculty
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Rural Dental College
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Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences
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Loni, Maharashtra, India
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Akshay Jawaharlal Bhandari
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MBBS MS
Assistant Professor
Department of Ophthalmology
Rural Medical College
Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences
Loni, Maharashtra, India
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Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material
First Edition: 2016
ISBN: 978-93-5250-116-8
Printed at
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Tribute
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I would like to pay my humble tribute to
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My Late father
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Mr Uttamchand Dagaduram Gundecha
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My Late husband
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Dr Jawaharlal Zumbarlal Bhandari
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Who were my backbone and a milestone behind my success.
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With all possible humility
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I dedicate this book to them.
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In Loving Memory
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Memories hover like darting arrows
Solace to heart and therein sorrows
The dawn was marching towards dusk

A cruel storm blew away the noon like husk.
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Preface
Thorough knowledge and understanding of the science of dental materials is the basic need in
dentistry. The aim of the study should not be just passing but one should do progress and achieve
victory. A budding dentist, therefore, must have the knowledge of each and every material used in
dentistry. Several good textbooks are available for the students, but it is a known fact that all these
textbooks are used for undergraduate as well as postgraduate curriculum. When a student enters in a
professional college of dentistry and opens the books, students think that Medical education is very
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difficult. Of course, when they start studying, it becomes easy and a student definitely steps out of the
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institution with flying colors.
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As a professor, I have been teaching this subject since 25 years and it is my observation that some
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students still require a simplified way for learning and also to face the examination, practical and viva
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voce. This observation has encouraged us in writing the Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates:
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Dental Material. This book will help the students to know the basics, understand the dental materials
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and also develop interest in learning.
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A student without knowledge of the basic is like a tree without roots, which cannot survive. I am
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sure this book will definitely help the students to write their theory paper and to face the practical and
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viva voce in a confident manner.
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Aruna Jawaharlal Bhandari
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Acknowledgments
The completion of the book Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material marks a
major milestone in my academic career. At the same time, it gives me an excellent opportunity to
express my gratitude and thanks to all those who knowingly or unknowingly have helped me in the
contribution of this book, and of course in making my career.
First of all , I am thankful to my mother Sarasbai and father Uttamchand Gundecha who has taught
me along with my four sisters and one brother, and also encouraged me to do my MDS, under the able
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guidance of late Dr AB Sidhaye, so as to get the credit of a first MDS in Ahmednagar District.
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I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my beloved husband Dr Jawaharlal MD Gynaec and
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Obst Gold medalist who had whole heartedly supported and encouraged me to write a book.
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I would like to thank the Trustee and Secretary Mr Ranjendra Vikhe Patil and his team who has
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given me the opportunity to serve Rural Dental College, Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences, Loni,
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Maharashtra, India, after doing postgraduation and steeping out from Government Dental College,
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Nagpur and also provided necessary help in bringing out this book.
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It is proud privilege to express my gratitude to my teachers of GDC, Nagpur.
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It is a proud privilege to express our gratitude to Dr Gangadhar SA, Principal RDC, Dr Shashank
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D Dalvi, Vice Chancellor of Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences, Loni, Maharashtra, India, for the
cooperation and necessary help.
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I am also thankful to prosthodontic departmental staff Dr Lagdive, Dr Veena, Dr Dhananjay,
Dr Preeti, Dr Deepak and Dr Ruchi and all past PGs Paras,Trupti, Amit, Kalinga, Sonali P, Madhavi,
Murtuza, Swaroop, Parmeet, Ashwini, Abhishek, Naeem, Nidhi, Kunal, Tushar, Sonali N, Sonal, Yogesh,
Pravin, and Sonia, and patients who have helped us. Also, thanks to current PGs Preetam, Suraj, Amol,
Viral, Ashwin, Ronak, Prashant, Akshay, and Summit for their help.
Thanks to my son Dr Akshay for his contribution in writing chapters on properties and also helping
me in writing this book.
Thanks to Shri Jitendar P Vij (Group Chairman), Mr Ankit Vij (Group President), Mr Tarun Duneja
(Director-Publishing) of M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., New Delhi, India, and their
team members who have given the opportunity to publish this book.
Lastly, thanks to Almighty for everything.
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Contents
1. M Materials for Dental Application 1
2. S Structure of Matter 5
3. Physical and Chemical Properties of Dental Materials 9
4. M Mechanical Properties of Dental Materials 13
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5. Biocompatibility of Dental Materials 17
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6. M Metals 19
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7. D Dental Polymers 23
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8. Impression Materials 30
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9. Inelastic Impression Material: Impression Compound 34
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10. Inelastic Impression Materials: Zinc Oxide Eugenol Impression Paste 36
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11. Elastic Impression Materials: Reversible Hydrocolloids-Agar 39
12. Elastic Irreversible: Hydrocolloid Impression Material-Alginate 42
13. Elastomeric Impression Materials 45
14. G Gypsum Products 48
15. D Dental Waxes 53
16. Casting Investment Material 55
17. F Finishing and Polishing Material 59
18. D Direct Restorative Material 64
19. R Restorative Resins 68
20. D Dental Cements 73
21. G Glass Ionomer Cement 79
22. D Dental Amalgam 82
xii Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material
23. Direct Filling Gold 86
24. D Dental Casting and Soldering Alloys 89
25. Casting Gold Alloys 90
26. Wrought Alloys 95
27. D Dental Ceramics 100
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Index 107
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1 CHAPTER
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Materials for Dental Application
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Q. 1 What are dental materials? Name the 3. Preventive materials: Materials that are used
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types of dental material. to prevent or arrest the demineralization
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Ans. Dental Materials are the materials used of the tooth structure e.g. cements, bases,
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in dentistry for the replacement or treatment of sealants, varnish, fluorides, chlorhexidine,
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tooth, crown or root and associated structure. Or etc.
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it is a substance or combination of substances 4. Temporary restorative materials: Materials
used in dentistry either for clinical or laboratory used temporarily for few days to several
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purpose. months to restore or replace missing teeth or
tooth structure until permanent restoration
There are four types of dental materials:
or prosthesis is given e.g. temporary cement,
1. Auxiliary dental materials: These are the
resin crown, etc.
materials or substances that are used in the
construction of a dental prosthesis but that Q. 2. What is dentistry?
does not become a part of the structure, e.g. Ans. Dent means tooth, and istry means study.
gypsum products, impression materials, Study of tooth/teeth and its associated
waxes, finishing and polishing abrasives, etc. structures is known as dentistry. Dentistry is a
2. Restorative materials: Materials that are specialty where the work is done by a dentist
used to restore, replace or rebuild the teeth who is a qualified person to examine and treat
or root and enhance esthetics. They can be people’s teeth.
used directly in the mouth or indirectly extra-
orally to produce the prostheses. Direct Q. 3. Write the ideal properties for restorative
restorative materials are the materials that materials.
are placed and formed directly intraorally Ans. The ideal properties for restorative
to reduce to restore teeth and/or to enhance materials are as follows:
the esthetics, e.g. cements, composites, poly • Biocompatible: Material should be
mers, compomers, amalgam, etc. Indirect compatible with biological tissues. It should
restorative materials are those materials that be tasteless, odorless and harmless to the
are used extraorally to produce prosthesis, oral tissues.
restorations or appliances for replacing • Bonding capacity: Material should bond with
missing teeth, enhance esthetics and to tooth and restorative materials.
restore the teeth structures, e.g. ceramics, • Esthetic: Color should match with tooth and
metal acrylic resins (For figures, see Plate 10). tissue surface.
2 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material
• Should have properties similar to the tooth, • Mouton in 1746 used gold shell crown.
enamel, dentine or tissues. • Alexis Duchateau in 1774 invented decay
• Capability of repair or regeneration. If a proof porcelain denture and in 1789 invented
prosthesis or appliance is fabricated and if it mineral paste porcelain teeth.
breaks then it must be capable of repair. • President George Washington in 1789 –
• Should have adequate physical, mechanical, 1797 used wooden teeth and then used
and chemical properties. dentures made of his own teeth. Cow’s teeth,
• Material should be resistance to tarnish and hippopotamus’ teeth ivory and lead’. Prior
corrosion. It should not change its color or to his Presidency he worn partial dentures
cause deterioration. fastened to his remaining teeth (1732–1799).
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• Dimensional stability. Material should not His Dentures were made by John Greenwood
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expand or contract but remain same as that Dentist.
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of the original dimension. • Crower Brothers in 1833 introduced
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• Ease of manipulation. Material should be Traveau’s Amalgam filling.
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easy for manipulation and require minimum • Edward Huston in 1805 used gold points for
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equipment. root canal filling.
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• Economic. Material should not be expensive. • Guippangelo Fonzi in 1806–1808 used first
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• Should have thermal and electrical insulator baked porcelain tooth with embedded
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quality. platinum pin.
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• Bull in 1812 used beaten gold for dental
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Q. 4. Describe in brief about history of dental application.
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materials. • M. Traven of Paris in 1816–1826 introduced
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Ans. Brief history of dental materials: silver paste—the original name of amalgam
• Around 3000 BC gold bands and wires were
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(mix of silver coins and mercury).
used by Phoenicians. • Plateaus in 1817 introduced porcelain teeth
• Around 700 BC Etruscans used ivory or bone in Union States.
tied with gold wires for teeth and partial • Charles pearl in 1822 fired mineral in
dentures and gold bands for positioning Philadelphia.
extracted teeth. • Samuel Stockton 1825 started commercial
• Around 600 BC Mayans used implants of production of porcelain teeth.
seashell. Hammered gold or stone materials • Ash in 1837 developed improved porcelain
were placed for aesthetic purpose. teeth in England.
• Gold foil in 1480 was first used in University • Evans in 1836 refined the method of making
of Bologna and Papura in Italy. accurate measurements in the mouth.
• In 1509–1590: Pare used lead or cork for • Denture bases were introduced in 1839 with
tooth filling. advanced quantity of acrylic resins and cast
• In 1533–1603: Queen Elizabeth used cloth metals.
fragments to fill the tooth cavities. • Horace wells: American dentist in 1844 who
• In 1678–1761: Pierre Fauchard, father of is the inventor of anesthesia used nitrous to
Modern Dentistry used tin foil or lead for remove tooth.
filling tooth cavities. He described several • Arculanus in 1848 recommended gold leaf
types of dental restorations and also method for dental fillings.
for construction of dentures. • Charles Goodyear in 1850 invented Vulcanite:
• Philip Pfaff (1715–1767): Dentist of Frederick It is sulphur hardened rubber and is used as
the Great of Prussia used gold foil to cap the denture base material.
pulp chamber. • Sponge in 1853 replaced gold leaf in the US.
• Philip in 1756 used wax as an impression • Arthur in 1855 used cohesive gold in the
material and made model of plaster. United States.
Materials for Dental Application 3
• Beers in 1873 patented Gold Shell crown. • Composite resins

• Dental Engine invented in 1871. • Modern casting noble alloys
• Logan in 1885 patented porcelain fused to • Base metal alloys
platinum post instead of wooden post. • Implant materials
• GV Black in 1895 was known as father of • Ceramics castable
modern scientific dentistry. He proposed • Glass ionomers
standardized cavity preparation and • Carboxylate cements
manufacturing process for dental amalgam • Dentine adhesives
products. • Bonding agents
• Philbrook in 1897 described the use of metal • High copper amalgam alloys
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filling made from wax pattern. • Super elastic and shape memory orthodontic
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• Thomas in 1904 introduced interchangeable wires
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porcelain teeth in the United States. • Pit and fissure sealants
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• WH Taggart in 1907 introduced Lost • Acid etching materials
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Wax Process, a more refined method for • Fluorides.
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producing gold cast inlay. Prior to 20th
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Q. 6. What is esthetic dentistry?
century due to inadequate technology and
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Ans. Esthetics implies the principles and
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lack of electricity fillings were of poor quality
techniques associated with the development of
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and also did not fit well in the cavities within
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the color and appearance required to produce a
the tooth.
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natural pleasing effect in the dentition.
• In 1915: Fluoride was used to prevent tooth
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Dentistry using tooth colored dental
demineralization in areas of Colorado.
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materials to simulate the appearance of natural
• In 1919: Advancement in knowledge and
tissues or teeth that are being replaced is called
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Research in Dental Materials was used.
as esthetic dentistry.
• In 1920: Research started in dental materials
It is that branch of dentistry which deals
under the leadership of Wilmer Sounder to
with the study of beauty and sense of beautiful,
set the specifications for evaluations and
especially with respect to the appearance of
uses of dental amalgam for use.
dental; restorations, as achieved through its
• In 1925: Alphous Pollor of Vienna discovered
form and/or color (GPT).
hydrocolloid.
• In 1928: Dental Research fellowship at the Q. 7. What are specifications?
National Bureau of Standards was assumed Ans. Specifications are the guidelines with
by ADA. definite requirements for physical, chemical
• In 1934: Acrylic resin was introduced. and mechanical properties of dental materials
• In 1944: Controlled water fluoridation which have clinical significance and the
(1 ppm) was used to reduce decay. Incidence development of new materials, instruments
of tooth decay was reduced by 50% in and test methods that are measured in the
children. Use of Pit and Fissure further laboratory and laid down by American Dental
sealants and fluoride releasing varnishes Association for Dental Materials.
reduced further caries.
Q.8. Name the different standard
Q. 5. What are the recent dental materials? organizations.
Ans. Recent dental materials are: Ans. Names of different standard
• Elastomeric impression materials organizations are:
• Silicones addition curing type • NIST: National Institute of Standards and
• Silicones condensation curing type Technology
• Polysulfide • ISO: International Standards Organization
• Polyether • ADA: American Dental Association
• ANSI: American National Standards Institute of acceptance is important for products safety
• IDA: Indian Dental Association and effectiveness. This ADA seal was approved
• BDA: British Dental Association in 1931. Over 400 companies participated in this
• FDI: Federation Dentaire International seal and approximately 1250 dental products
• SCDP: Standard Committee for Dental carry the seal of acceptance. 60% products
Products used by the dentist and 40% directly sold to the
• CSA: Council on Scientific Affairs consumers in the form of tooth paste, mouth
• FDA: Food and Drug Administration wash, etc.
• DCI: Dental Council of India Following information is often required like
• OTC: Over–the–counter products sold to the serial or lot number, composition, physical
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public properties, biocompatibility and data covering
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• TC 106: It is the committee formed on May every provision of the official specifications.
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2011 responsible for dental standards,
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Q. 11. What are the ideal properties of dental
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terminology used in standards, method
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of testing and specifications applicable to materials?
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the materials instruments appliance and Ans. The ideal properties of dental materials
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equipments used in all branches of dentistry. are regarding:
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• Biocompatibility
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Q. 9. Define science of dental materials. • Nontoxic and nonirritant
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Ans. It is the science that deals with the
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• Physical properties
development of physical, chemical and
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• Chemical properties
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biological properties, manipulation and uses of • Mechanical properties
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various materials used in dentistry. • Resistance to tarnish and corrosion
Q. 10. What is ADA specifications? • Dimensional stability
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Ans. ADA specifications means American • Esthetic property
Dental Association specifications which • Easy manipulation
includes the specifications that are the • Tasteless and odorless
standards by which quality and properties of a • Adequate shelf life
particular dental material can be gauged so as • Economical
to enhance satisfactory performance. ADA seal • Easily reparable, etc.
2 CHAPTER
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Structure of Matter
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Q. 1. What is acid etching technique? Q. 3. What is absorption, adsorption and
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Ans. Acid etching technique is a process of sorption?
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roughening a solid surface by exposing it to Ans. Absorption is the uptake of substances
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an acid and thoroughly rinsing the residue into or through tissue (GPT). It is a process in
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to promote micromechanical bonding of an which there is attraction of a substance and
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adhesive to the surface. its penetration or diffusion into the whole
substances or material.
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Q. 2. What is adhesion?
Adsorption is the adhesion in an extremely
Ans. Adhesion is the molecular or atomic
thin layer of molecules to the surfaces of liquids
attraction between two contacting surfaces
or solids with which they are in contact (GPT).
promoted by the interfacial force of attraction
It is a reaction which involves attraction of a
between the molecules or atoms of two
substance onto the surface of a material.
different species. It is important for retention of
Sorption is a process where both absorption
restorations.
and adsorption is seen which can lead to the
It is the property of remaining in close
changes in the dimensions of the material, e.g.
proximity as that resulting from the physical
acrylic resins.
attraction of molecule to a substance or
molecular attractions existing between the Q. 4. What is cohesion?
surfaces of bodies in contact (GPT). Adhesion Ans. Force of molecular attraction between
may occur as chemical adhesion, mechanical molecules or atoms of the same species is called
adhesions (structural interlocking) or a as cohesion, e.g. water molecules. It is the act or
combination of both types. state of sticking together tightly. According to
Adhesion occurs when two unlike molecules GPT, it is the molecular attraction by which the
join together on being brought into contact due particles of a body are united throughout their
to the force of attraction between them. Surface mass.
that promotes adhesion is c/a adhesive, e.g. These are based on the principles of
adhesion of denture with saliva and saliva with dipole attraction due to uneven distribution
tissue surface. of electrons around atoms or molecules.
This occurs when two unlike molecules or
substances join together on being brought into
contact due to force of attraction between.
For example, cohesive property of salivary Q. 11. What is self diffusion?

molecules interposed between denture and Ans. Thermally driven transfer of an atom to
tissue surface. an adjacent lattice site in a crystal compound
of the same atomic species is called as self
Q. 5. What is glass transition temperature?
diffusion.
Ans. Glass transition temperature is the
temperature at which a sharp increase in the Q. 12. What is smear layer?
thermal expansion coefficient occur indicating Ans. It is the tenacious deposit of microscopic
increased molecular mobility. Glass has no fixed debris that covers enamel and dentine surfaces
melting or solidifying point. It gradually changes that have been prepared for a restoration.
from one state to another. The temperature at
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Q. 13. What is stress concentration?
which this change takes place is glass transition
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Ans. It is a state of elevated stress in a solid
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temperature.
caused by surface or internal defects or by
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Q. 6. What is heat of vaporization? marked changes in contour. Stress concentration
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Ans. Thermal energy required to convert a is an area or point of significantly higher stress
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solid to a vapor is called as heat of vaporization. associated with a structural discontinuity such
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as cracks, pores.
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Q. 7. What is latent heat of fusion?
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Ans. It is the thermal energy required to Q. 14. What is super cooled liquid?
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convert a solid to a liquid, or to melt a metal. Ans. It is a liquid that has been cooled at
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Metal must be heated above fusing temperature a sufficiently rapid rate to a point below the
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during casting. temperature at which an equilibrium phase
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change can occur.
Q. 8. What is linear coefficient of expansion?
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Ans. It is the relative linear change in length Q. 15. What is surface tension?
per unit of initial length during heating of a Ans. Surface tension is defined as the force
solid per degree within a specified temperature acting tangentially to the liquid surface and
range. perpendicular to the unit length of an imaginary
It is the fractional change in length of a given line drawn on the surface.
material per degree change in temperature. Or It is the molecular attraction at the surface of
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion is the liquids resulting in the tension at the surface as
change in length per unit length of a material if it were being pulled tight.
when its temperature is raised or lowered by S.T. = F/L neutrons per meter.
one degree. Interfacial surface tension is usually between
Q. 9. What is melting point or melting a liquid and a solid surface, which occurs because
temperature? of an unbalanced intermolecular force. It is a
Ans. Melting temperature is the equilibrium property of a liquid in which the exposed surface
temperature at which heating of a pure metal, tends to contract to the smallest possible area,
compound or eutectic alloy produce a change as in the spherical formation of drops. This is a
from a solid to liquid. phenomenon attributed to the attractive forces
or cohesion between the molecules of liquid.
Q. 10. What is micromechanical bonding? High S.T. – Mercury 465 dynes/cm
Ans. Mechanical adhesion associated with Low S.T. – Water 72.8 dynes/cm
bonding of an adhesive to a roughened adherent
surface is called as micromechanical bonding. Q. 16. What is setting expansion?
When the surface irregularities responsible Ans. It is the dimension increase that occurs
for bonding have dimensions of only a few concurrent with the hardening of various
micrometers it is called as micromechanical materials such as plaster of Paris, dental stone,
bonding. and die stone and dental casting investment.
Structure of Matter 7
Q. 17. What is wettability? negatively charged ions are attracted to each

Ans. It is the relative affinity of a liquid for other, e.g. NaCl. Covalent bond is due to sharing
the surface of a solid. To produce adhesion the of electrons between two atoms, e.g. H2Cl2.
liquid must flow easily over the entire surface Metallic bond is seen due to electric cloud
and adhere to the solid and this property is around all the atoms of that metal.
referred as wetting. Secondary Van der Waals forces are based
on the principle of dipole attraction due to
Q. 18. What is wetting and wetting agent?
uneven distribution of electrons around atoms
Ans. For good adhesion the liquid must
or molecules. Attraction between atoms or
flow easily over the entire surface and adhere
molecules is not of a chemical nature but there
to the solid. This property is due to wetting.
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is secondary bonding called as Van der Waal
Thus, wetting is the relative interfacial tension
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forces. Nature and type of bond decides whether
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between a liquid and a solid substrate that
material is strong or weak.
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results in a contact angle less than 90 degree. It
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is the ability of the liquid to flow and adapt to Q. 23. What is the significance of interatomic
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the surface of solid. distance?
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Wetting agent is surface active substance Ans. Regardless of the type of structure in the
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that reduces the surface tension of a liquid to solid state, there is a limiting factor that prevents
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promote wetting or adhesion. the atoms or molecules from approaching each
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Contact angle is the angle formed by other too closely and there is some distance in
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adhesive with the adherent at their interface. between which is called as interatomic distance.
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Contact angle is zero for complete wetting or for If interatomic distance is increased then there is
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wettability. expansion and if the distance is decreased then
there is contraction.
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Q. 24. What is coefficient of thermal
Q. 19. What is vacancy?
expansion?
Ans. Vacancy is the unoccupied atom lattice
Ans. In some cases as the temperature
site in a crystalline solid.
increases the amplitude of the atomic or
Q. 20. What is Van der Waals force? molecular vibration increases and therefore
Ans. Van der Waals force is a secondary bond. interatomic spacing increases as well as the
It is a short range force of physical attraction internal energy, thus causing an expansion
that promotes adhesion between molecules which is called as thermal expansion.
of liquids or molecular crystals. Or It is a bond Coefficient of thermal expansion is a measure
that involves weak inter atomic attraction such of fractional change in volume or length due to
as variations in physical mass or location of change in temperature.
electrical charge. This is important to avoid marginal leakage
at the margins of the restorations.
Q. 21. What is matter?
Ans. Anything that occupies space and has Q. 25 What is thermal conductivity?
weight with which all physical things are made is Ans. It is the rate of heat flow through a
matter. It is made of molecules which are having material over a time and it depends on the
atoms like protons, neutrons and electrons. distance and area. Due to thermal conductivity
Matter exists in three states namely solid, there may be pulpal sensitivity in metal fillings.
liquid and gas. To avoid the sensitivity, there must be insulator
Q. 22. State different types of interatomic base.
bonds. Q. 26. What is amorphous and crystalline solid?
Ans. Interatomic bonds are primary bonds Ans. In crystalline solid molecules are
like ionic, covalent and metallic bonds. Ionic arranged in a definite geometric pattern, e.g.
bonds are those where positively charged and metals.
In amorphous solid molecular arrangement Q. 32. What factors are necessary for good
is irregular and structure less e.g. glass, resin, adhesion?
wax, etc. Ans. Intimate contact between two surfaces,
large surface area of contact, clean surface of
Q. 27. Define space lattice.
the adherent, low surface tension of adhesive,
Ans. It is a regular three dimensional repeating
high surface tension of adherent and zero
arrangement of atoms in a space of crystals
contact angles are the necessary factors for
(substance with regular shape and flat faces),
good retention.
e.g. quartz, metal, silicon etc.
Q. 28. What are basic shapes of unit cell?
u
Ans. Basic shapes of unit cells are cubic,
_
tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic, Q. 33. What are the methods of bonding
r
and hexagonal and rhombohedra. In cubic restorative material to the tooth?
f o
forms are simple cubic, body centered and face Ans. Bonding can be mechanical or chemical.
_
centered. Bonding of the restorative material to the
h
Q. 29. What is warpage or distortion? tooth structure is seen due to the mechanical
c
Ans. Change in shape or contours of a material bond or retention by making use of dovetails
t e
is known as warpage or distortion and it is due screws, bolts, or undercuts or by acid etching
_
to the relief of stress and strains. that creates rough surface. Chemical bond
t
exists between same type of materials, e.g. glass
n
Q. 30. What is solid state reaction?
ionomer cements, acrylic teeth and acrylic resin
e
Ans. It is a reaction taking place in solid
denture material.
d
substances due to the diffusion or movement of
Mechanical bond is present between
atoms under the influence of temperature, e.g.
@
different types of material, e.g. porcelain teeth
heat treatment for the gold alloys.
and acrylic resin denture base material, silver
Q. 31. What is contact angle? amalgam filling in a tooth.
Ans. Contact angle is the angle between
adherent and adhesive at their interface.
The extent to which the adhesive will wet the
surface of the adherend is generally determined
by measuring the contact angle between the
adhesive and adherend. If the forces of adhesion
are stronger than cohesive forces holding the
molecules of the adhesive together, the liquid
adhesive will spread completely over the surface
of the solid, and no angle will be formed. If the
adherent is having more surface energy or less
surface tension the contact angle will be zero Chemical bonding: Acrylic teeth
and acrylic denture base
which results in complete wetting.
For example, in complete dentures for
good adhesion the contact angle should be
zero degree so that saliva can spread all over
uniformly so as to provide good retention.
Mechanical bonding
3 CHAPTER
Physical and Chemical Properties
_ u
of Dental Materials
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What are the physical properties? Chroma is the strength, degree or amount of
t
Ans. Physical properties are the properties saturation of a particular hue. It is the excitation
t _
that are based on the laws of mechanics, purity and is the measurement of color intensity.
n
acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, electricity, Higher the chroma more intense or dark is the
e
magnetism, radiations, atomic structure or color.
d
nuclear phenomenon. Hue is the main color of an object associated
with dominant wavelength of light, e.g. red,
@
Q. 2. Define color. blue, green.
Ans. It is the effect of light wave striking the Value describes the relative lightness or
retina of eye or it is the sensation induced from darkness of a particular color. It is the photometric
light of varying wavelength reaching the eye. It is parameter associated with total reflectance or
a physiological response to a physical stimulus luminance. It is also called as Gray scale. This is
such as beam of light. The perception of the required during shade selection of the artificial
color of an object is the result of a physiological teeth and dental restorative material.
response to a physical stimulus. It is the property Q. 6. Describe natural tooth color and
determined by combinations of wavelength methods to measure color.
present in a beam of light. Ans. Natural tooth color has hue from yellow
Q. 3. What is color spectrum? to red (Y–R ). Chroma is low 1–3 and value is
Ans. Beam of white light when a split forms a high 6–8.
visible color spectrum like Violet, Indigo, Blue Various methods have been used to define
Green, Yellow, Orange and Red (VIBGYOR). and measure color quantitatively.
Methods to measure color are:
Q. 4. What is light? • Munsell color coordinate system
Ans. It is a radiant energy from a hot body like • Oswald color system
Sun and transmitted as electromagnetic waves • International color system.
of widely varying length. Most commonly used method is Munsell
It is an electromagnetic radiation that can be system. In this system, hue range from 7.5 Yr to
detected by a human eye, e.g. visible light. 2.7 Yr, brightness from 5.8/to 8.5/, and chroma
Q. 5. What are the dimensions of colors? from 1.5 to 5.6.
Ans. Color has three-dimensional quality Q. 7. What is spectra photometer?
specified by values for three variables, chroma, Ans. Spectra photometer is a device used to
hue and value. measure the intensity of light reflected by an
object at numerous wavelength of visible light. Q. 13. What is opacity?

Spectrophotometers are normally equipped Ans. Opacity is the extent to which light does
with dispersion optics (prism or grating) to give not pass through a material. No light and no
a continuous spectral curve. image can be seen through an opaque object.
Q. 8. What is radiolucent and radiopaque? Q. 14. What is reflection?
Ans. If a structure is seen in X-rays it is called Ans. It is the amount of light that reflects from
as radiopaque. If not seen in X-rays then it is an object.
radiolucent. A structure that strongly inhibits
Q. 15. What is refraction?
the passage of radiant energy is radiopaque, e.g.
Ans. Refraction is the degree to which light
metal. Radiolucent is that in which a structure
u
is bent when it passes from one medium to
is permitting the passage of relatively little
_
another.
r
attenuation by absorption, e.g. porcelain.
o
Q. 16. What is fluorescence?
f
Q. 9. What is radiation?
_
Ans. Radiation is the emission of Ans. A process by which a material absorbs
h
electromagnetic waves such as light, short wave, radiant energy and emits it in the form of
c
radio, ultraviolet or X-rays or particular rays radiant energy of different wavelength band,
e
all or most of whose wavelength exceeds that
t
such as alpha, beta and gamma.
of the absorbed energy (GPT). Here the energy
t _
Q. 10. What is transparency? that the tooth absorbs is converted into light
n
Ans. Transparency is the property where the with longer wavelength, in which case the tooth
e
material permits the passage of light through it, actually becomes a light source. The emitted
d
e.g. glass. It is the extent to which light passes light is in the 400 to 450 mu range and is of blue
through a material and in which an undistorted white color. This phenomenon is due to the
@
image can be seen. action of ultraviolet light on natural teeth or any
dental material. Fluorescence gives brightness
Q. 11. What is translucency?
and vital appearance of a human tooth.
Ans. Translucency is the property of a material
that permits passage of light and disperses it Q. 17. What is luminescence?
so that the object cannot be seen through it. It Ans. It is the intensity of light per unit area. It
is having the appearance between complete is the production of light in a substance without
opacity and transparency, i.e. partially opaque. the use of heat.
Q. 12. What is metamerism? Q. 18. What is tarnish?
Ans. Objects that appear to be color matched Ans. Tarnish is a surface discoloration on a
under one type of light may appear different metal, or it is a slight loss or alteration of the
under another source of light. This phenomenon surface finish or luster. It is a process by which
is called as metamerism. a metal surface is dulled or discolored when
Or pairs of objects that have different spectral a reaction with a sulphide, oxide, chloride or
curves but appear to match when viewed in a other chemical causes a thin film to form, e.g.
given hue exhibits metamerism (GPT). formation of soft or hard deposits on the surface
It is a phenomenon in which the color of an of tooth or restoration.
object under one type of light source appears
to change when illuminated by a different light Q. 19. What is corrosion?
source. Due to this property color matching Ans. Corrosion is a process by which
should be done under two or more different deterioration of a metal is caused by reaction
light sources, one of which should be sunlight. with its environment, through the action of
Physical and Chemical Properties of Dental Materials 11
moisture, acid or alkaline solution and certain The two metal plates of a battery act as a
chemicals. Or it is a chemical or electrochemical anode and cathode and there is electrolytic
process in which a solid usually a metal is solution through which current flows and
attacked by an environment agent, resulting in this corrosion requires presence of water or
partial or complete dissolution. other fluid electrolyte and so it is called as wet
corrosion.
Q. 20. Classify corrosion.
Types of corrosions: Q. 23. What is galvanic corrosion or
• Dry corrosion or chemical corrosion and electro-galvanism?
• Electrochemical corrosion or wet corrosion. Ans. Galvanic corrosion is the accelerated
Dry corrosion or chemical corrosion: Here attack occurring on a less noble metal when
u
there is direct combination of metallic and
_
electrochemically dissimilar metals in an
r
nonmetallic element by reaction such as electrolytic medium, e.g. silver filling and gold
o
oxidation, halogenations or sulfurization in inlay in exactly opposing or neighboring teeth.
f
absence of water or other fluid electrolyte.
_
Q. 24. What is galvanic shock?
h
Wet corrosion may be grouped as: Ans. The presence of dissimilar metals in
c
• Galvanic corrosion or electrogalvanism the oral cavity creates small currents due to
t e
which occurs when two dissimilar metals are the galvanism effect. Galvanic shock is a sharp
_
in contact. pain sensation caused by the electric current
t
• Intergranular corrosion is due to difference generated when two dissimilar metals are
n
in grain structure, e.g. impurities in alloy or brought into contact in oral environment, e.g.
e
in areas of fatigue. Amalgam corrodes and pain or shock is felt by
d
• Heterogeneous corrosion is due to the patient due to the contact of the filling with
@
heterogeneous composition of metal surface the opposite gold restoration during mastication
e.g. Solder joints may corrode. due to the passage of current. It may also lead to
• Crevice corrosion occurs in narrow spaces or sensitivity.
crevices between dental prosthesis.
• Concentration cell corrosion is due Q. 25. What is pitting corrosion?
to variation in the electrolyte or in the Ans. Pitting corrosion is highly localized
composition of an electrolyte in a system, corrosion occurring on the base metals such as
e.g. metallic restoration covered with debris. iron nickel and chromium, which are protected
• Pitting corrosion is seen in passivated metals by a naturally forming thin film of a oxide. In the
due to the use of household cleansers. presence of chlorides in the environment the
film locally breaks down and rapid dissolution
Q. 21. What is crevice corrosion or pit of the underlying metal occurs in the form of
corrosion? pits. This occurs due to different pH and O2
Ans. Crevice corrosion or pit corrosion is the concentration.
accelerated corrosion in narrow spaces caused
by localized electrochemical process and Q. 26. What is stress corrosion?
chemical changes. Crevice corrosion commonly Ans. This is corrosion occurring in a metal
occurs when micro-leakage takes place between stressed by cold working, e.g. In cast partial
a restoration and the tooth under a pellicle layer dentures.
or under other surface deposits. This is seen in Common corroding agents are water, oxygen,
pits or narrow areas of the restorations. acids, alkalis, salts, oxidants in air and earth.
Q. 22. What is wet or electrolytic corrosion? Q. 27. How will you prevent corrosion?
Ans. This type of corrosion is similar to the Ans. Corrosion can be prevented by avoiding
process that produces electricity in a storage dissimilar metals coming in contact, by proper
battery. finishing and polishing, by applying varnish
or by proper compounding of the metals. Also Q. 32. What is thixotropic?

by electroplating or by passivating effect of Ans. It is that property in which certain gels or
chromium on steel, by using noble metals, by other materials become liquefied when shaken,
homogenization treatment for an alloy, by using stirred, patted or vibrated. The viscosity of
metallic and nonmetallic coating and proper most liquids decreases rapidly with increasing
maintaining of the oral hygiene. temperature and also depends upon previous
deformation of the liquid. These liquids are
Q. 28. Which metals are highly resistances to called as thixotropic material.
corrosion?
Ans. Metals that are highly resistance to Q. 33. What is creep?
corrosion are gold, platinum, silver and copper. Ans. Time dependent plastic strain or
u
deformation of a material under a static load
_
Q. 29. What is sag?
r
or constant stress is called as creep. There is a
o
Ans. Sag is a form of creep occurring in a slow change in dimension of an object due to
f
metal at high temperature under its own weight. prolonged exposure to high temperature or
_
It is the irreversible plastic deformation of metal stress.
h
frameworks of fixed partial dentures in the firing Static creep takes place under constant load.
c
temperature range of ceramic veneers.
e
Static creep is the time dependent deformation
t
Q. 30. What is viscosity and fluidity? produced in a completely set solid subjected to
_
a constant stress.
t
Ans. Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to
Dynamic creep takes place under fluctuating
n
flow. Fluidity is the tendency to flow. Study of
e
the deformation and flow characteristics of load like masticatory load. Creep is related to
d
material or matter is rheology. marginal integrity of a restoration and marginal
leakage leading to failure of a restoration. Dental
@
Q. 31. What is pseudo plastic? amalgam has components with melting points
Ans. It is the viscous character in which rate slightly above the room temperature. Because
of flow decreases with increasing strain until of its low melting range dental amalgam can
it reaches a nearly constant value. In this the slowly creep from a restored tooth site under
viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate. periodic sustained stress.
4 CHAPTER
Mechanical Properties of
_ u
Dental Materials
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What are mechanical properties? Q. 4. What is strain?
t
Ans. Mechanical properties are defined by the Ans. It is the deformation due to stress. It is
t _
laws of mechanics, that is the physical science the change in length per unit original (initial)
n
that deals with the energy and forces and their length when stress is applied. Strain may be
e
effects on bodies and the resultant motion, either elastic or plastic or a combination of both.
d
deformation or stresses that those bodies Elastic strain is reversible while plastic strain is
experiences. permanent.
@
Q. 2. What is force? Change in length
Strain =
Ans. Force is an agency or influence that, Per unit original length
when exerted on a body tends to set the body
into motion or to alter its present state of Q. 5. What is plastic and elastic strain?
Ans. If the deformation disappears after
motion. Force when applied to any material
stress is removed it is called elastic stress. And
causes deformation of that material. The unit
if deformation remains permanent even after
of force is c/a Newton or Pound. Force is that
removal of stress then it is plastic stress.
which alter the state of rest or motion possessed Plastic strain is the irreversible deformation
by a body. It has three characteristics: that remains when the externally applied force
1. Point of application, is reduced or eliminated.
2. Magnitude and Elastic strain is the amount of deformation
3. Direction of application. that is recovered instantaneously when an
externally applied force or pressure is reduced
Q. 3. What is stress?
or eliminated.
Ans. Stress is the internal resistance or force
to an applied external load. It is equal and Q. 6. What are the types of stress and strain?
opposite of the load. It is the force per unit area Ans. Different types of stress and strains are:
within a structure subjected to an external force • Tensile stress and strain
or pressure or load. • Compressive stress and strain
• Shear stress and strain.
Force Tensile stress is the ratio of tensile force to the
Stress =
Area original cross sectional area perpendicular to
the direction of applied force. A tensile stress is Impact strength may be defined as the
caused by a load that tends to stretch or elongate energy required for fracturing a material under
a body. Strain under tensile is an elongation in an impact force.
the direction of loading. Impact force is a dynamic force in its reaction
Compressive stress is the ratio of compressive during collision with a structure.
force to cross-sectional area perpendicular It is the energy of the impact of teeth on the
to the axis of applied force. If a body is placed food bolus which determines the effectiveness
under a load that tends to compress or shorten of the mastication.
it, the internal resistance to such a load is called
as compressive stress. Strain under compressive Q. 8. What is Poisson’s ratio?
Ans. The ratio of strain in the direction
u
stress is shorting of the body.
_
Shear stress is the ratio of force to the original perpendicular to the stress. All materials change
r
cross sectional area parallel to the direction of shape in three dimensions even if the stress is
o
in one direction. The strain in the direction of
f
the force applied to a test specimen. Shear stress
_
tends to resist the sliding or twisting of one force is called as longitudinal strain and that
h
portion of a body over another. perpendicular to it is called as lateral strain. The
c
All types of stresses are accompanied by ratio between lateral strain and longitudinal
e
strain is called as Poison’s ratio.
t
strains.
_
Lateral strain
t
Q. 7. What is strength? Poison’s ratio =
n
Ans. Strength is the ability of the material to Longitudinal strain
e
resist breaking up.
d
It is the maximum stress required to fracture, Q. 9. What is flexural (bending) stress and
or cause permanent damage or deformation strength?
@
of a structure. It is the maximum stress that a Ans. Flexural stress is the force per unit area
structure can withstand without sustaining a of a material subjected to flexural loading
specific amount of plastic strain or stress at the and flexural strength or modulus of rupture is
point of fracture. the force per unit area at the point of fracture
Ultimate strength is the point at which the subjected to flexural loading. These stresses
material breaks. Materials should have strength are produced by bending forces in the dental
to withstand stresses due to the forces of appliances.
mastication.
Q. 10. What is Young’s modulus of elasticity?
Types of strength depend on the types of
Ans. Young’s modulus of elasticity (YMOE)
stress applied.
is the ratio of elastic stress to strain. Or it is
Tensile strength is the strength which resists
a measure of relative stiffness or rigidity of a
fracture when material is pulled apart.
material within the elastic range.
Compressive strength is the strength which
resists under pressing or load from above. Stress (longitudinal) F/A
YMOE = =
Flexure or transverse strength is the strength Strain (elongation) Lc/Lo
which resists bending which involves complex
F = Force, A = Area, Lc = Change in length,
stresses and strains.
Lo = Original length.
Fatigue strength is the strength which resists
repeated stresses falling on it over and over again. Q. 11. What is brittleness?
Tear strength is the capability of a material to Ans. Brittleness is the relative inability of a
withstand fracture under tearing force material to deform plastically before it fractures.
Impact strength is the strength which resists It is the tendency to fracture without appreciable
fracture under impact or motion. deformation. It is opposite of ductility.
Mechanical Properties of Dental Materials 15
Q. 12. What is proportional limit? of a test specimen. It is defined as the amount

Ans. Proportional limit is the maximum stress of energy absorbed by a structure when it is
on which stress is proportional to strain and stressed not to exceed its proportional limit.
above which plastic deformation occurs. It is the Resilience is measured in terms of modulus of
limit of stress above which stresses are no longer resilience.
proportional to strain. It is the greatest stress
P2
that a material will sustain without deviation R =
from the proportionality of stress to strain. 2E
R = Modulus of resilience, P = Proportional
Q. 13. What is elastic limit?
limit, E = Modulus of elasticity.
Ans. It is the greatest force which makes an
u
Resilience is associated with springiness.
object to go out the shape, yet shape is regained
_
Resilience of a material is usually measured
r
when force is removed. It is the greatest stress to
in terms of its modulus of resilience which is
o
which a material may be subjected and still be
f
the amount of energy stored in a body when
capable of returning to its original dimensions
_
one unit volume of a material is stressed to its
when forces are released (GPT).
h
proportional limit. It is the energy needed to
c
Q. 14. What is torsion and bending? deform the material to its proportional limit, e.g.
t e
Ans. Torsion is the twisting force while bending resilient liners.
_
is a combination of several types of stresses.
t
Q. 19. What is toughness and fracture
n
Q. 15. What is Hook’s law? toughness?
e
Ans. It is a fundamental law which states that Ans. Toughness is the property of being
d
the stress is directly proportional to the strain difficult to break. It can be defined as the energy
in elastic deformation. It states that the direct required to fracture a material.
@
proportionality between two quantities is It is the ability of a material to withstand
always a straight line graphs. stresses and strains without breaking.
Presence of cracks, defects or porosities
Q. 16. What is yield strength or proof stress?
in the material makes it to fracture easily.
Ans. Yield strength is the stress at which a test
Toughness is the ability of the material to absorb
specimen exhibits specific amount of plastic
elastic energy and to deform plastically before
strain. It is the point at which the material
fracturing. It is measured as the total area under
begins to yield and change occur. This point is
a plot of tensile stress verses tensile strain.
slightly higher than proportional limit.
Metal has high fracture toughness and glass
Q. 17. What is flexibility? has low fracture toughness.
Ans. It is the ability to bend within its elastic
Q. 20. What is transformation toughening?
limit. Maximum flexibility is defined as the
Ans. It is a method of adding zirconium oxide
flexural strain that occurs when material is
to ceramic material for increasing fracture
stressed to its proportional limit, e.g. Impression
resistance by preventing crack formation.
materials should be flexible for easy removal
from the undercut areas. Or in orthodontic Q. 21. What is stress relaxation?
appliance a spring which is bent due to stress Ans. It is slow reduction in force over a period
should be flexible. The maximal flexibility is of time.
defined as the strain which occurs when the
Q. 22. What is strain hardening?
material is stressed to its proportional limit.
Ans. Increase in strength and hardness and
Q.18. What is resiliency? corresponding decrease in ductility of metal
Ans. Resiliency is relative amount of elastic that is caused by plastic deformation is known
energy per unit volume released on unloading as strain or work hardening.
Q. 23. What is ductility? is measured. Applied for materials that

Ans. Relative ability of a material to withstand exhibit elastic recovery.
permanent deformation (to deform plastically) Micro hardness tests are—
under a tensile load before it fractures is called • Vickers test by square based pyramid shaped
as ductility. It is the property of metal which diamond.
allows it to be drawn into wires under tensile • Knoop test by rhombic shaped diamond tool.
stress, e.g. gold, silver, platinum. Ductility is
dependent upon plasticity and tensile strength. Q. 28. What is Moh’s scale?
Ans. It is the scale to determine hardness of
Q. 24. What is malleability? minerals developed by Frederick Moh in 1822.
Ans. It is the property of a metal to be
u
In the scale there are 10 minerals arranged in
_
hammered or rolled into sheets without breaking the order of increasing hardness. 01 is the smallest,
r
it under compressive load. It represents the e.g. Talc and 10 is the hardest, e.g. diamond.
o
ability of a material to sustain a large permanent
f
• Knoop hardness for enamel 300 KHN
_
deformation under a compressive load. It is • Dentine 65 KHN
h
dependent on plasticity only, e.g. gold, silver, • Amalgam 90 KHN
c
copper, stainless steel orthodontic wires and • Composite 55 KHN
e
stainless steel denture base. • Pure gold 32 KHN
t
• Acrylic resin 16 KHN
_
Q. 25. What is pressure?
t
Ans. Force per unit area acting on the external Q. 29. What is flow?
n
Ans. Flow is the deformation under static
e
surface of a material is called as pressure.
load before the material has completely
d
Q. 26. What is hardness? hardened. It is the ability of a material to
@
Ans. Hardness is the resistance of a material undergo plastic deformation by the external
to being indented, cut and scratched or it is the force or by its own weight. Factors affecting
resistance to indentation or scratching. flow are temperature, load applied and time for
Q. 27. What are the standard hardness tests? which force is applied.
Ans. Standard hardness test are the Q. 30. What is stress concentration?
indentation test. Different hardness test are: Ans. When a stress is focused around a crack
Macro hardness tests are— or defect in a material it breaks easily. Stress
• Brinell test done by steel ball for metals. Here concentration is an area or point of significantly
the diameter is measured. higher stress associated with a structural
• Rockwell test by steel ball or cone shaped discontinuity such as crack or pores or a marked
diamond point. Here the depth of indentation change in dimension of a structure.
5 CHAPTER
_ u
Biocompatibility of Dental Materials
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is biocompatibility? • It should not be harmful to the teeth or soft
t
Ans. The ability of a material to perform its tissues
t _
desired function with respect to a medical • It should not be carcinogenic
n
therapy without eliciting any undesirable • It should not be containing toxic substances
e
local or systemic effects in the recipient or • It should not be degrading or undergo
d
beneficiary of that therapy, but generating biodegradation
the most appropriate beneficial cellular or • It should not show estrogenecity
@
tissue response in that specific situation and • It should not create immunotoxicity.
optimizing the clinical relevant performance of
Q. 4. What is acute toxicity?
that therapy (Williams). Biocompatibility means
Ans. It is the adverse response to a substance
all materials that are used on human beings
that causes ill effects relatively soon after
must be accepted by the body without causing
multiple exposures over a relatively short time
ill effects, i.e. material should be nontoxic,
usually less than 2 weeks.
non-irritant, non-allergic, non-carcinogenic. It
implies that biomaterials are harmonious with Q. 5. What is iatrogenesis?
life and not having toxic or injurious effects with Ans. Doctor or dentist while treating the
the material or tissue response. patients by various procedures and materials
sometimes causes more harm rather than
Q. 2. What are the factors influencing the
good work. Such harmful action is called as
biocompatibility?
iatrogenesis. Doctor must not do more harm by
Ans. Factors influencing the biocompatibility
his action during treatment.
are: Oral health conditions, age of a person,
corrosion products or degradation of a Q. 6. What is adverse reaction?
material, placement of a restoration, surface Ans. Any unintended, unexpected and
characteristics, etc. harmful response of an individual to a treatment
or biomaterial is known as adverse reaction.
Q. 3. What are the requirements of
biocompatibility? Q. 7. What is biological evaluation of dental
Ans. Requirements of biocompatibility are: material?
• Material should not produce allergic Ans. Biological evaluation means all dental
reactions materials must undergo certain tests by
competitive authorities for biocompatibility. body surface makes direct contact with allergen.
Biological evaluation can be primary evaluation Clinical manifestations may vary between
or secondary evaluation and also it can be in 12–48 hours. In dentistry contact dermatitis
vivo test on living animals or in vitro test done is sometimes seen in distal parts of the fingers
on test tubes. due to monomer. It may cause itching, burning
While considering biological evaluation, sensation or ulcerations. This may be seen with
following aspects should be considered: other materials like chromium, cobalt, mercury,
• Location of the material eugenol, resin, latex, etc.
• Nature of the tissues, i.e. soft or hard tissues.
Q. 11. What is hypersensitivity?
• Exposure of the material to the oral structures
Ans. Objectively reproducible symptoms
u
• Type of contact
or signs initiated by an exposure to a defined
_
• Duration of contact
r
stimulus at a dose tolerated by normal person. It
• Chemical nature and its content
o
is an abnormal clinical reaction or exaggerated
f
• Physical properties
immune response to a foreign substance that is
_
• Surface treatment done if any.
manifested by one or more signs or symptoms
ch
Q. 8. What is patch test? such as breathing difficulty, erythema, itching,
e
Ans. Patch test is done by placing or injecting sneezing, swelling, vesicles, etc.
t
small quantity of material or drug under skin
_
Q. 12. What is sensitization?
t
to find out whether patient is allergic or not.
Ans. The process by which an allergy antibody
n
Allergy can be seen as simple symptoms like
is produced, which reacts specifically to the
e
rash, edema or serious symptoms like shock,
causative foreign substances.
d
chest pain and unconsciousness.
Q. 13. What is toxicity?
@
Q. 9. What are the types of biocompatibility
Ans. Relative ability of a material to cause
tests?
injury to biological tissues ranging from
Ans. Types of biocompatibility tests are:
improper biochemical function, organ damage
Cytotoxicity test and genotoxicity test.
and cell destruction to death. Chemical agent or
Group I – Primary Screening test includes
a material capable of causing injury or death is
mucus membrane irritation test.
called as toxic agent.
Group II – Secondary animal test that includes
skin sensitization test and implantation test. Q. 14. What is osseointegration?
Group III – Preclinical tests such as dentine Ans. The process of forming a direct structural
pulp usage test, mucosal and gingival usage and functional interface between live bone
test, pulp capping and pulpotomy usage test and an artificial implant surface without any
and endodontic usage test. intervening fibrous connective tissues.
Q. 10. What is allergy? Q. 15. What is bio-integration?
Ans. Allergy is the hypersensitivity Ans. It is the process of forming an interface
reaction initiated by specific immunological between bone and other living tissues and
mechanisms. Allergic contact dermatitis is one implanted material with no intervening
of the reaction diseases that occur where the space.
6 CHAPTER
_ u
Metals
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is metal? Q. 3. What is metallurgy?
t
Ans. It is a chemical element or alloy whose Ans. It is a science and technology of extracting
t _
atomic structure readily looses electrons to metals from ores and preparing them in useful
n
form positively charged ions and which exhibits form.
e
metabolic bonding (through a spatial extension
d
of balancing electrons), opacity, good light Q. 4. What is alloy?
reflexion from a polished surface and high Ans. A mixture of two or more metals or
@
electrical and thermal conductivity. Metal is metalloids that are mutually soluble in the
any strong and relatively ductile substance molten state or it is a crystalline substance
that provides electropositive ions to a corrosive with metallic properties that is composed of
environment and that can be polished to high two or more chemical elements at least one of
luster. It is characterized by metallic atomic which is metal. It is distinguished as binary,
bonding. tertiary, quaternary etc depending upon the
number of metals within the mixtures. It is
Q. 2. What are the characteristic properties also classified as base metal or noble metal.
of the metals? Alloying elements are added to alter the
Ans. Characteristic properties of the metals hardness, strength and toughness of metallic
are: element thus obtaining the properties not
• Metals are electropositive elements found in pure metal.
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
• Ductile and malleable Q. 5. What is galloy?
• Opaque Ans. It is an alloy containing silver, tin,
• Have high melting and boiling point copper, indium and gallium. It is a mercury free
• Has peculiar shine and luster alternative to amalgam.
• Has high density and are hard
• Can withstand high stresses Q. 6. What is base metal?
• Can form solid solution Ans. Base metal is a metal which is easily
• Are resistant to chemical attack oxidized when heated in air, e.g. Zn, Fe, Al, Sn,
• Can be added to alloying element Pb, Cr, Co, Ni. Base metal is any metallic element
• Metal can be a cast metal or wrought metal. that does not resist tarnish and corrosion.
Q. 7. What is noble metal? Q. 14. What is dislocation and edge

Ans. Noble metal is that metal that resists dislocation?
oxidation, tarnish and corrosion during heating, Ans. Dislocation is one type of line defect
casting or soldering. It is one whose compounds in space lattice of a metal. If this line defect
are decomposable by low heat alone. Au, Ag, Pd, in space lattice is made to move by stress, it
Pt. etc. Noble metal alloy contains a minimum reaches up to the edge of metal and disappears
of 25% by weight of Au, Pt and/or Pd. then it is called as edge dislocation.
Q. 8. What is cast metal? Q. 15. What is cooling curve?
Ans. Working on a metal may involves rolling, Ans. Cooling curve is a graph in which time
bending, pulling, pressing, hammering, heating and temperature readings are plotted to study
u
etc. Cast metal is a metal that is heated and the rate of cooling and behavior of the metal
r_
poured into a mould. as it changes from liquid to solid. Here metal
o
Cast means to produce a shape by thrusting is melted and allowed to cool and temperature
f
a molten liquid or plastic material into a mold during cooling is plotted as a function of time
_
possessing the desired shape. Cast metal thus forming a cooling curve.
ch
involves hot working, i.e. working on a metal
Q. 16. What is strain hardening, work
e
that has been heated, e.g. chromium cobalt
t
hardening or cold working?
alloy.
_
Ans. During cold working there occurs the
t
Taggort in 1907 had first used the lost wax
distortion of grains, irregularities in space lattice,
n
technique for fabricating cast metal restorations.
more dislocation at grain boundaries resulting
e
Q. 9. What is wrought metal? in hardening of metals for further manipulation.
d
Ans. It is a metal that can work into shape by Strain hardening will increase the hardness,
@
cold working with tools like hammer, etc. Cold strain and proportional limit but decreases the
working is working on metal without heating it. ductility and resistance to corrosion, e.g. wire
It is a metal that can be deformed by any method, bending, swaging of stainless steel dentures
or worked on to provide the required shape, e.g. bases, and compaction of gold foil involves cold
stainless steel wire, band and brackets. working.
Q. 10. What is forging and foundry? Q. 17. What is annealing?
Ans. Forging means where hot metal is Ans. It is a kind of heat treatment of metal to
hammered and pressed into shape. Foundry eliminate the effects of strain hardening.
where metal is melted and cast. Recovery, re-crystallization and re-growth
of crystals took place during annealing which
Q. 11. What is sintering?
results in increased ductility and resistance to
Ans. It is a method of pressing powdered metal
corrosion, decreased hardness and strain. This
into the mould of desired shape and heating to
is the effect associated with cold working. For
high temperature to cause a solid mass.
example, strain hardening lowers the ductility
Q. 12. What is solidification? and distorted grains can be eliminated by
Ans. Process of conversion of liquid metal to a simply heating the metal.
solid metal is called as solidification.
Q. 18. What is quenching?
Q. 13. What is space lattice? Ans. It is a procedure where a metal is rapidly
Ans. Basic unit of metal called as grain or cooled from an elevated temperature or below
crystal. Arrangement is called as space lattice. by immersing the hot metal in a liquid or
Types: water at room temperature. This is done so
• Body centered cubic as in iron, chromium. as to preserve at room temperature a phase
• Space centered cubic as in gold, silver, ordinarily stable only at elevated temperature or
copper. to rapidly terminate the process that only occurs
• Hexagonal in zinc. at elevated temperature.
Metals 21
Q. 19. What is alloying? mechanically separable, e.g. Au, Ag, Au-Pt,

Ans. It is a procedure where metallic element etc. Metals soluble in both solid and liquid
is formed by intimate blending of two or more state is called as solid solution.
metals. It can be done by: • Eutectic mixture: When two metals are not
• Melting together the concerned metals and completely soluble in each other and solid
cooling to solidify state is a mixture of two or more phases. In
• Sintering or powder metallurgy: eutectic alloy, the metal constituents are
Alloying is done to soluble in each other in liquid condition but
• Increase hardness and strength separate out in layers after solidification.
• Lower the melting point Thus, there is partial solubility, e.g. Ag
u
• Increase resistance to corrosion 72%, Cu 28%. Metals which are completely
_
• Change the microscopic appearance soluble in liquid state but insoluble in solid
r
• Change the color of metal state.
f o
• Increase the fluidity of liquid metal. • Intermetalic: Where two metals are
_
chemically combined, e.g. gamma 1, gamma
Q. 20. What is interstitial alloy, substitutional
h
2 phase of dental amalgam.
c
and fusible alloy?
• Peritectic alloy: When there is limited solid
e
Ans. Interstitial alloy is one where alloying
t
solubility of two metals it results in peritectic
element occupies the small places in between
_
alloy. It is an invariant reaction occurring at a
t
the atoms of main metal.
particular composition and temperature, e.g.
n
Substitutional alloy is one where alloying
Ag-Sn composition.
e
element replaces certain atoms of main metals
On the basis of nobility:
d
and occupies its place.
Fusible alloy is an alloy with low melting • High noble containing >60% of noble metals.
@
temperature. • Noble containing >25% weight of noble
metals.
Q. 21. What is alloy system? • Base metal containing <25% weight of noble
Ans. It is a blend of two or more metals in all metals.
possible percentage combination, e.g. gold,
According to the uses:
silver, system includes all possible alloys of gold
• For inlays
and silver varying from 100% gold to 100% silver.
• Crowns and bridges
Q. 22. Classify alloys? • Metal ceramic restorations
Ans. Alloys are classified as: • RPD
On the basis of number of metals in it as: • Implants.
• Binary alloy containing two chemical
Q. 23. What is coring?
elements.
Ans. Coring is a microstructural condition in
• Ternary alloy containing three chemical
which a composition gradient exists between
elements.
the center and the surface of a structural
• Quaternary alloy containing four chemical
component such as dendrite grain or particle.
elements, etc.
In coring, there is introduction of non-
On the basis of miscibility:
homogeneous structure during solidification
• Solid solution: A solid crystalline phase
of alloy and this needs to be homogenized by
containing two or more elements at least
further heating.
one of which is a metal that are intimately
combined at the atomic level. In this atoms Q. 24. What is heat treatment?
of alloying element enter directly into Ans. It is a method to cause diffusion of atoms
space lattice of parent metal and are not in a metal by heating the metal to specific
temperature for specific period of time to Q. 27. What is age hardening or precipitation
change the properties of metal. This depends hardening?
on the composition of alloy temperature and Ans. This is the final hardening treatment done
time of heating and method of cooling. It is the to maintain the quality of metal indefinitely and
controlled heating and cooling process applied is named due to its microscopic appearance
to the materials in order to get certain desirable of striations just like incremental rings of tree
properties. Heat treatment process consists of giving age appearance.
heating the metal, soaking of the metal at that Q. 28. Write the uses of base metal alloys.
temperature and cooling the metal at a specified Ans. Base metal alloys are available as cast
rate. This may harden, soften, and change the metal or wrought metal.
u
grain size or corrosion resistance of a metal. Cast metals are:
r_
By heat treatment gold alloys can be soften or • Nickel chromium alloys used for removable
o
hardened depending on the temperature up to cast partial dentures, crown and bridges and
f
which the alloy is heated. porcelain fused to metal restorations.
_
• Cobalt chromium alloys used for removable
h
Q. 25. What is softening heat treatment cast partial dentures and crown and bridges.
c
Annealing?
e
• Titanium and titanium alloys used for
t
Ans. Annealing, homogenization or softening implants, crown and bridges and partial
_
heat treatment is to heat a material followed dentures.
t
by a controlled cooling to remove internal Wrought metals are:
e n
stress and create a desired degree of toughness • Titanium and titanium alloys used for
d
or softness of material. Annealing is done to implants.
structures which are cold worked and is done • Stainless steel or iron-chromium-nickel
@
by heating the metal up to 700°C for 10 minutes alloys used for orthodontic bands, brackets
and quenching to soften the metal. and wires preformed crowns used for
deciduous teeth and temporary crowns, and
Q. 26. What is hardening? for making endodontic instruments.
Ans. Hardening is to harden the metal. Gold • Cobalt-chromium-nickel alloys used for
alloy is heated to a temperature between orthodontic wires.
200–450°C for 15–30 minutes and then rapidly • Nickel-titanium alloys for wires.
cooled by quenching to harden the metal. (For figures, see Plate 13)
7 CHAPTER
_ u
Dental Polymers
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is Polymer or synthetic resin? retained into the different shapes on
t
Ans. Polymer is a Greek word. Poly = many, cooling, e.g. Polyethylene, nylon.
t _
mer = unit, polymer = many parts. • Thermo set polymer which undergo
n
It is a chemical compound consisting of chemical change on heating to convert
e
large organic molecules formed by the union them into an infusible mass.
d
of many repeating smaller monomer units, e.g. 4. According to the method of polymerization:
polymethyl methacrylate. • Addition polymers formed from
@
Monomer + Monomer + Monomer = Polymer. monomers containing unsaturated
Polymer or synthetic resin is artificial and molecules without change in composition
synthetically produced chemical materials and no byproduct formation is formed in
which can be molded into various shape and reaction, e.g. polymethyl methacrylate,
then harden for use. addition curing silicones.
Polymers are classified on their basis as: • Condensation polymers formed due to
1. Depending on the origin: the reaction between functional groups
• Natural polymers isolated from natural of the monomer and there is byproduct
materials, e.g. Polysaccharides like starch, formation, e.g. polysulfide, condensation
cellulose, vulcanite, rubber, and gutta- curing silicones.
percha or polynucleic acids like DNA, RNA. 5. According to their ultimate form and uses:
• Synthetic polymers synthesized from • Plastic. A polymer is shaped into hard
low molecular weight compounds, e.g. tough utility article by application of heat
Polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc. and pressure.
2. Depending on the structure: • Elastomers vulcanized into rubbery
• Organic polymers which contain carbon products with good strength and
atoms. elongation, e.g. silicon rubber.
• Inorganic polymers that do not contain • Fibers. Polymers drawn into long
carbon atoms, e.g. Silicon, rubber. filaments. Nylon.
3. According to the thermal response: • Liquid resins. Polymers in liquid form
• Thermoplastic polymers that soften called as fluid resins used as adhesives
on heating and can be converted and and sealants.
Q. 2. What is thermoplastic resin? Q. 6. What is the difference between addition

Ans. Thermoplastic resins are polymeric and condensation polymerization?
material made of linear and ‘or branched Ans. In addition, polymerization monomers
chains that softens when heated above the glass are activated one at a time and add together in
transition temperature (Tg) at which molecular sequence to form a polymer or growing chain
motion begins to force the chains apart. and there is no byproducts.
Thermoplastic material softens when heated Condensation polymerization is a reaction
and harden when cooled, e.g. acrylic resins. where two dissimilar molecules are combined
plastics, and polyether. together to form a third entirely different
Q. 3. What is thermosetting polymer or product and there is release of byproduct like
u
thermohardening? water, alcohol, etc.
r_
Ans. Polymeric material that becomes Molecules + molecules = Product (no byproduct
o
permanently hard when heated above the or water) = Addition polymerization
f
temperature at which it begins to polymerize
_
Molecules + molecules = Product + byproduct
that does not soften again on reheating, e.g.
h
or water = Condensation polymerization.
Bakelite.
e c
Q. 7. What is cross linked polymerization?
Q. 4. What is polymerization?
t
Ans. A polymerization where linear chains
Ans. Polymerization is a chemical reaction in
t _
which monomers of a low molecular weight are are interlocked to form a three dimensional
n
converted into chains of polymers with a high network due to presence of third molecule with
e
molecular weight. more than two chemical bonds. Cross linking
d
Polymerization is forming of a compound is the formation of chemical bonds between
by the joining together of molecules of small linear polymer molecules that tends to infinite
@
molecular weight into compound of large network of molecules. It provides sufficient
molecular weight. Polymerization can be number of bridges to form a 3-dimensional
brought about by heat, light or chemical network, e.g. glycol dimethacrylate acts as cross
activator. Monomer + monomer + monomer = linking agent. Cross linking increases strength,
-mer-mer-mer- color stability decreases water absorption,
Q. 5. What is copolymer? Mention the types deformation, solubility, shows less crazing,
of copolymers. bleaching and becomes more resistant to
Ans. A polymer made of two or more solvent.
different monomer occurring in relatively long
Q. 8. What is the application of synthetic
sequence. Process of formation of copolymer is
polymers in dentistry?
copolymerization.
Ans. Applications of synthetic resins are:
• Block copolymer: Where an identical
• For dentures synthetic resins like acrylic
monomer unit occurs in long sequence
resins, vinyl resins, polystyrene, polyurethane
along with main polymer chain.
polyester polycarbonate esters are used.
• Graft or Branched copolymer: Where
sequence of one type of mer unit are attached Composites are used for:
as graft (branched) onto the backbone of a • Cavity filling as dental cements. Glass
second type of mer unit. ionomers, zinc polycarboxylate, polyacrylic
• Random copolymer made of two or more acid.
monomer but with no sequential order Restorative resins, e.g. bisphenol a glycyl
between mer units along polymer chains. dimethacrylate, polyurethane.
Dental Polymers 25
Bonding agents, e.g. BISGMA from light coming in contact kept. Polymer
• Cavity varnish and sealants is the powder of polymethyl methacrylate
• In impression materials, e.g. hydrocolloids, along with other ingredients. It is the blend of
elastomers monomers and or macromolecules with other
• Impression tray materials components, which forms a material with a set
• For equipments like rubber bowl, of useful properties.
toothbrushes, etc.
• As cements that are resin based Q. 13. What is the composition of heat cure
• Used for artificial teeth and temporary crowns resin?
• Orthodontic space maintainer and elastic Ans. Heat cure resin is available as powder c/s
polymer and liquid c/s monomer.
u
• Maxillofacial prosthesis, e.g. obturators
_
• Dentures relining materials Polymer contains:
r
• Implants • Polymethyl methacrylate main ingredient
f o
• Dies • Benzoyl peroxide as initiator
_
• Endodontic filling material • Dibutyl phthalate as plasticizer
h
• Athletic mouth protector • Opacifier
c
• Pattern material. • Fibers and colorants. Clear, pink, veined or
t e
Q. 9. What is free radical? translucent.
_
Ans. Free radicals are molecules that are
t
Monomer contains:
released by breaking down of inhibitors to start
n
• Methyl methacrylate
e
the process of polymerization. Free radicals • Hydroquinone as inhibitor (0.006%)
d
have unpaired electrons. Inhibitor is benzyl • Cross linking agent as glycol dimethacrylate
peroxide that initiates polymerization. (1 to 2%).
@
Q. 10. What is plasticizer? • Dimethyl para toludine (tertiary amine) as
Ans. It is a chemical added to the polymer activator in self cure, or chemically cured or
to soften the resin and to make it moldable, auto polymer or cold cure resin.
i.e. to increase the solubility of polymer in the Properties:
monomer. This can decrease the strength and • Methyl methacrylate is a clear, transparent
hardness or brittleness, e.g. dibutyl phthalate. liquid at room temperature
Material should have high boiling point, less • Boiling point of monomer is 100.8°C
volatile, compatible with polymer, chemically • Melting point is 47–48°C
inert, resistance to moisture, non-toxic and • Molecular weight is 100
non-fuming, impart flexibility, insoluble in • Heat of polymerization is 12.9 kcal/mol
water and show permanent retention. • Density is 0.945 g/mL at 20°
Q. 11. What is activator? • High vapor pressure
Ans. Activator is an agent that brings about • Excellent organic solvent.
polymerization. e.g. heat, light or chemicals. (For figures, see Plate 14)
For example, tertiary amine viz. dimethyl Q. 14. What are the methods of molding
para toludine acts as activator in self cure or acrylic resin for making dentures?
chemically cured resin. Ans. Various methods of molding acrylic resin
Q. 12. What is acrylic resin? for making dentures are:
Ans. It is a hard brittle glossy, clear, colorless • Compression molding.
or colored thermoplastic resin material. Acrylic Resin material is packed and compressed in
resin is available as monomer and polymer. between the two halves of the flask.
Monomer is methyl methacrylate and is stored • Injection molding. Resin material is injected
in dark colored bottle to prevent polymerization into a mold and cured by heating.
Fluid resin technique. Fluid resin is poured Physical stages of polymerization:

into a hydrocolloid mold to form a denture a. Wet sand or sand stage
without heating. b. Stringy and sticky
c. Dough
Q. 15. What are the steps in denture fabrication
d. Rubbery
and processing?
e. Hard or stiff.
• Preliminary impression
• Diagnostic cast Chemical stages are:
• Preparation of special tray a. Induction or initiation
• Final or wash impression b. Propagation
• Final or working cast c. Termination
u
• Record base with occlusal rims d. Chain transfer.
r_
• Jaw relations—orientation, vertical, centric – Induction or initiation: Reaction is
o
and eccentric initiated when free radicals formed on
f
• Teeth arrangement activation reacts with monomer.
_
• Trial – Propagation: Following initiation new
h
• Flasking free radicals are capable of reacting with
c
• Dewaxing further fresh monomer units.
t e
• Packing – Termination: Any further addition of
_
• Curing monomer units to the growing chain is
t
• Deflaskin stopped.
n
• Laboratory remount – Chain transfer: Growth of polymer chain
e
• Clinical remount is arrested, forming dead polymer.
d
• Finishing and polishing Resin material must be packed and pressed
@
• Denture insertion in Dough Stage which takes about 8–10
• Recall phase. minutes Dough form should be moldable
(For figures, see Plate 1) for at least 5 minutes. One can increase the
Q. 16. What is split mold? dough forming time by using cool ceramic
Ans. Mold created in conventional flask jar. By lowering the temperature working
having two halves of flask that has positive and time can be increased.
negative part of the mold. Polymer + Benzoil peroxide + Monomer +
Heat polymer + Heat
Q. 17. What is the action of cold mould seal?
Ans. Cold mould seal is water soluble alginate. Q. 19. What is flash?
It contains: Ans. Excess acrylic material found during trial
• Sodium alginate closure is called as flash. If flash is not removed
• Disodium phosphate then there will be increase in denture base
• Water. thickness and also vertical jaw relation may be
Cold mould seal acts as a separating medium increased. Flash must be removed so that there
that separates the denture from plaster. Sodium is metal to metal contact of the two halves of the
alginate reacts with calcium sulfate to form flask during final closure.
insoluble thin film of calcium alginate which
Q. 20. Name the different types of separating
separates acrylic denture from plaster.
medium used in dentistry.
Na2Alg + CaSO4 → CaAlg + Na2SO4
Ans. Different types of separating medium
Q. 18. What are the stages of polymerization? used in dentistry:
Ans. After mixing polymer to monomer in a • Cold mold seal used during final closure
ratio of 3 : 1 in volume and 2 : 1 by weight, i.e. • Tin foil cellophane sheets used during trial
21 cc of polymer and 6 cc of monomer. There are closure
following stages of polymerization. • Vaseline
Dental Polymers 27
• Soap solution Q. 24. What is pseudo polymerization?

• Cellulose lacquers Ans. Heat cure acrylic resin Dough can also
• Solutions of alginates compound become hard without heating. This type of
• Evaporated milk hardening is called as pseudo polymerization.
• Soap
Q. 25. What are the ideal requisites for resin?
• Sodium silicate
Ans. The ideal requisites for resin are as follows:
• Starches
• Should processed easily using simple
• Oil, die spacers, etc.
technique
(For figures, see Plate 1)
• No complex or expensive equipment required
Q. 21. Why separating medium is required? • Must be aesthetic
u
Ans. Any water incorporated into the resin • Economical. Cost of resin and its processing
r_
from the gypsum during processing will method should be relatively low
o
definitely affect the polymerization rate and • Biological compatibility like nontoxic,
f
color of the resin. The denture processed will nonirritant, tasteless, odorless and not
_
craze. Polymer and free monomer must be harmful to the oral tissues, etc.
ch
prevented from soaking into the mold surface. • Physical properties like adequate strength,
e
If any liquid resin penetrates into the investing resilience and resistance to biting or chewing
t
medium, portion of gypsum material will stick force and impact forces
t _
to the denture after polymerization and it will • Dimensional stability under all conditions
n
be difficult to separate denture from mould. So of service, thermal changes and variations
e
to protect and separate the denture from mold in loading. It should not expand, contract
d
separating medium is used. or wrap during processing and subsequent
use
@
Q. 22. What is curing? • Should have low specific gravity (light in
Ans. Curing is a procedure or a chemical weight)
reaction in which low molecular weight • It should have good thermal conductivity
monomer or small polymers are converted into • It should be radiopaque so as to be viewed in
higher molecular weight material to attain the X-ray if required
desired property. Curing for heat cure resin is • Ease of manipulation, i.e. easy to mix, insert
done by heating. shape cure and have short setting time
Q. 23. What is curing cycle? • Easy to finish and polish
Ans. It is the regime of heating the resin for • In case of breakage it should be able to
converting the soft acrylic dough into hardening repair
mass by polymerization. • Esthetic, i.e. exhibit sufficient transparency
Two types of curing cycles are: or translucency and should match with oral
• One step method or slow curing cycle: tissues and posses capability of tinted or
Involves heating the flask at a constant pigmented
temperature of 74°C for 8–9 hours. • Chemical and color stability in oral condition
• Two step method or fast curing cycles: Involves • It should be insoluble and impermeable in
two temperatures during curing. Initially heat saliva and other oral fluids taken into the
slowly till 65–70°C temperature and then mouth.
100°C for final boiling for half an hour. Q. 26. What is bench curing?
During caring one must maintain accurate Ans. After curing flask must be allowed to cool
temperature control, sufficient time of curing on its own on bench so as to prevent the stress
and sustained pressure during curing. and strain development in dentures.
Q. 27. How will you manipulate self cure Q. 30. Mention different types of heating
resin? processes for resins.
Ans. Self cure resin can be manipulated by: Ans. Heating processes for resins can be done
1. Sprinkle on technique and 2. Adapt on by following ways:
technique • Microwave
Sprinkle on technique: Here monomer and • Dry oven
polymer is alternatively added and sprinkled all • Autoclave
over until the entire prosthesis is fabricated. • Pressure cooker
• Heat controlled water bath.
Adapt on technique: Here required quantity
Q. 31. What is rapid heat polymerizing resin?
u
of monomer and polymer is mixed, kneaded
Ans. Rapid heat polymerizing resin contains
_
in dough stage and then adapted over the
r
cast. This method can be used for special tray special initiator due to which denture can be
o
formation and temporary record base. cured quickly within in 20 minutes.
_ f
Q. 28. What is crazing? Q. 32. What is light activated denture base
h
Ans. Development of fine cracks or mesh resin?
c
of fine cracks on the surface of the denture or Ans. Light activated denture base resin is
t e
glaze is called as crazing. This may occur due a specially formulated resin which contains
_
to certain chemicals drying from the dentures monomer, polymer, urethane dimethacrylate,
t
due to flame or excessive heat during finishing. micro fine silica and campharoquinone and this
n
Crazing may also appear if separating medium resin is cured by visible light in light chamber.
e
is not applied during packing stage of the
d
Q. 33. State the difference between acrylic
denture. teeth and porcelain teeth.
@
Ans. Differences between acrylic teeth and
Q. 29. Name the types of porosities in dentures.
porcelain teeth are as follows:
Ans. Porosity means the presence of voids or
pores within a structure. Porosity in the denture Acrylic teeth Porcelain teeth
can be seen as internal and external or surface • idge or back
R • idge surface shows
R
porosity. Porosity leads to decreased strength surface plane pinhead or hollow
and is unaesthetic and unhygienic. space
Internal porosity or granular porosity are • hemical adhesion
C • Mechanical retention
seen all over in any part of the denture and is with acrylic base with acrylic record base
mainly due to loss of monomer during mixing • Susceptible to wear • Resistance to wear
or curing. • No clicking sound • Clicking sound on
Surface or gaseous porosity is seen on • Loss of vertical contact with opposing
dimension teeth
the surface, if the flask is quickly heated and
• Dimensionally • No loss of vertical
monomer gets boiled with release of hydrogen unstable dimension
gas which produces porosities. These are seen • Less esthetic • Dimensionally stable
on the thick portions of the dentures like lingual • Poor color stability • More esthetic
surface of lower dentures and palatal surface of • Less brittle • Good color stability
upper denture. • Easy to grind • Brittleness seen
To avoid porosity exact monomer polymer • Can be used in less • Difficult to grind
ratio must be used and also proper curing interridge distance • More inter-ridge
distance required
should be done. Excess monomer can cause
surface porosity. (For figures, see Plate 12)
Dental Polymers 29
Q. 34. What is relining? Q. 38. What is the difference between heat

Ans. It is a method of adding small amount cure and self cure resin?
of new acrylic resin to the tissue surface of
the denture to improve the fit, retention and Heat cure Self cure resin
stability of denture. It is a process of replacing •
Activated by heat • Activated by chemical
the tissue contacting surface of the existing for polymerization viz. dimethyl-p-toluidine
denture. Relining can be done by lab. Reline • Decreased porosity • Increased porosity
• More color stability • Less color stable
method or chair side relines method.
• Less warpage • More warpage
Q. 35. What is denture soft liner? • Uses: Permanent • Uses: Temporary record
Ans. It is a soft resilient, cushion like liners record base base
u
used on the fitting surface of acrylic dentures – CD and RPD • Relining and rebasing
_
– Artificial teeth • Special trays, temporary
r
where the alveolar ridges are severely
crown, bridges
o
resorbed and patients are having recurrent
f
– Obturators • Orthodontic plate
ulcers and pain due to denture. Soft denture
_
– Temporary
• Temporary crown,
liners are polymeric materials placed on the
h
crown, bridges bridges
c
tissue surface to absorb some of the energy • Repair material
e
produced by masticatory impact and to act as a
t
type of “shock absorber” between the occlusal Q. 39. What is maxillofacial appliance?
_
Ans. Any prosthesis used to replace part or
t
surface of a denture and the underlying oral
n
tissues. all of any stomatognathic and/or craniofacial
e
Soft liners can be temporary for short-term structure with or without teeth in it. Materials
d
c/s Tissue conditioner and are chemically used are acrylic resin, silicones, plasticized
activated polymeric viscoelastic material. This polyvinyl chloride, synthetic latex, polyurethane
@
material tends to degrade more rapidly than polymer, etc.
heat activated resins. Tissue conditioners are Q. 40. What is functional impression material?
applied to improve the tonus and condition of Ans. It is a soft liner material used on the fitting
mucous membrane. or tissue or impression surface of a denture and
Long-term soft liners are heat activated and the materials gets molded automatically in
are more durable. Satisfactory for about 5 years, function during impression making.
e.g. silicones, acrylic resin or hydrophilic
acrylates. Q. 41. What are denture cleaners?
Ans. Variety of agents used for cleaning
Q. 36. What is rebasing? artificial dentures is k/s denture cleaners. They
Ans. It is a method in which the old base of include dentifrices, proprietary denture cleaners,
a denture is removed and replaced by a new mild detergents, household cleaners, bleaches,
acrylic resin to improve the retention and vinegar, etc. They are either powder or tablet and
stability. In rebasing, entire denture base of used either by immersion or by brushing.
existing denture is replaced by new material.
Denture cleaner of immersion agents contain:
Q. 37. What are the types of resins? • Alkaline compound
Ans. Types of resins are: • Detergents
• Acrylic resin • Sodium per borate
• Vinyl resin • Flavoring agents.
• Polystyrene A denture cleaner when immersed in
• Epoxy resin water sodium per borate decomposes to form
• Polycarbonates an alkaline sodium peroxide solution which
• Polyurethanes subsequently releases oxygen that loosens debris
• Cyanoacrylates. via mechanical means and cleans the dentures.
8 CHAPTER
_ u
Impression Materials
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is impression? Die is the positive replica of a single tooth
t
Ans. Impression is the negative likeness or or reproductions of multiple teeth with tooth
t _
copy in reverse of the object. preparations done so as to receive the restorations
n
Dental impression is an imprint of the teeth like crown, bridges, inlays, onlays, etc.
e
and adjacent structure. Cast is the dimensionally accurate positive
d
It is the negative replica of oral hard and soft reproduction of a portion or whole arch
tissues with an accurate reproduction of all the produced in a durable hard material. It is used
@
finer details maintaining the exact dimensions, for the fabrication of the prostheses.
Or Model is the positive likeness or a physical
It is an exact negative likeness or reproduction representation that shows what it looks like or
of denture bearing, denture stabilizing and how it works. The model may not of the exact
peripheral limiting areas of the underlying size.
hard and soft tissues obtained at the time of
crystallization and hardening of the impression Q. 4. What are the ideal requirements of
material. impression materials?
Ans. Ideal requirements of impression
Q. 2. What is impression material? materials are:
Ans. Any substance or combination of 1. Material should be biocompatible, i.e. non-
substances used for making an impression toxic, non irritant, and non-injurious.
or negative reproduction of the soft and 2. It should have pleasant taste and odor and
hard tissues of the oral cavity, e.g. alginate, appearance.
impression compound or zinc oxide eugenol 3. It should have adequate shelf life for storage
impression paste. and distribution.
Q. 3. What is the importance of an 4. It should produce accurate details of all the
impression? hard and soft tissues.
Ans. While fabricating prosthesis or an 5. It should have good flow to adapt all the
appliance it is difficult to work on the patient tissues and sufficient viscous enough to
for each step. So, in the absence of a patient we load the tray or syringe.
have to have a positive replica. 6. It should have setting and working time that
Impression is filled with dental plaster will meet clinical requirements. It should
or stone or other model material to obtain a set or harden at or near mouth temperature.
positive replica. Setting time <7 minutes.
Impression Materials 31
7. It should have easy and simple technique to 7. Depending upon the viscosity:
manipulate with minimum of equipment. • Low viscosity, medium viscosity, high
8. It should have adequate strength so that viscosity or putty.
it will not break, tear or distort while 8. According to Skinner:
removing from mouth. Classification of impression materials is as
9. It should exhibit dimensional stability follows:
in or outside the mouth at all degrees of
Rigid Elastic
humidity and temperature changes.
10. It should be compatible with die, cast or Set by chemical Impression • Alginate
model materials. reaction Plaster hydrocolloid
(Irreversible) Zinc oxide nonaqueous
u
11. It should be capable of compressing the
eugenol paste elastomer:
_
soft tissues to any desired degree without
r
• Polysulfide
itself being distorted.
o
• Polyether
f
12. It should be capable of additions • Silicones—
_
made and of reinsertion in the mouth addition type
h
without distortion. This will allow minor • Silicones
c
corrections to be made without remaking condensation
e
Set by temp Impression • Agar
t
new impression.
reaction compound hydrocolloid
_
13. It should be economical enough to use
t
(reversible) Impression
once only or capable of easy sterilization if
n
waxes
it is to be reused.
e
Q. 6. What is impression tray?
d
Q. 5. How will you classify impression
materials? Ans. Impression tray is a device used to carry,
@
Ans. Impression materials are classified confine and control the impression material
depending upon: while making an impression or it is a receptacle
1. Manner in which they harden or set by into which a suitable material is placed to make
chemical or thermal setting mechanism an impression or negative likeness. Impression
• Irreversible if set by chemical reaction, trays are the rigid containers for carrying the
e.g. alginate. impression material into the patient’s mouth,
• Reversible if set by physical or thermal for maintaining it in the position during setting
change, e.g. agar. or hardening and supporting it during removal
2. Depending upon thermal behavior: from the mouth and casting of the model.
• Thermoplastic and thermoset. Q. 7. Classify impression trays.
3. Depending on the capability of compressing Ans. Classified as:
the soft tissues: 1. Metallic or nonmetallic
• Muco-static and muco-compressive. 2. Stock or readymade and custom or special
4. Depending upon the clinical use of the tray
material or impression technique: • Special tray can be close fitting or spacer
• Dentulous cases and edentulous cases. tray
• For preliminary impression and for final 3. Plain tray or perforated tray
or wash impression. 4. Maxillary or upper tray and mandibular or
5. Depending upon the rigidity or elasticity or lower tray
mechanical properties: 5. Complete tray and partial or sectional tray
• Rigid and non-rigid or elastic. 6. Disposable and reusable trays.
6. Depending on the dispensing system. Stock trays are available in standard size.
• Cakes, sticks, powder, or pastes. They can be either reusable or disposable and
are available readymade, hence economical distort and can cause tissue damage if tried to
as time and money is saved. It can also be remove from undercut areas and hence used
sterilized. mostly in edentulous cases.
Custom or special trays are to be fabricated
on the cast by special materials like tray material, Q. 10. What are the elastic impression
shellac, or resin material. They cannot be used materials?
again and are made for a particular patient. Ans. Elastic is a rubber material that stretches
They cannot be sterilized and tray fabrication is when pulled and returns or recoils back to its
time consuming and costly. original size and shape when stress are released.
(For figures, see Plate 2) These are the materials that are capable of
u
sustaining significant elastic deformation under
Q. 8. What is soluble plaster? State its
_
stress. These include hydrocolloid like agar
r
ingredients. and alginate or elastomers like polysulfide,
o
Ans. It is a type of impression plaster to which polyether silicones addition curing and silicone
f
starch is added which gets dissolved during
_
condensation curing type. Elastic impression
separation of cast from the impression. Due to
h
materials can be used in undercut areas so used
presence and solubility of starch it is called as
c
both in dentulous and edentulous cases. Used
e
soluble plaster. Impression plaster is inelastic for impressions in crown and bridge cases, RPD,
t
irreversible type of impression material. Setting FPD and for orthodontic, conservative and
_
time and setting expansion are controlled and
t
pedodontic impression cases.
made suitable for impression.
e n
It contains: Q. 11. What is accelerator?
d
Calcium sulfate hemihydrates Ans. It is a compound that speeds up the
Potassium sulfate 4% to reduce setting reaction and decreases the setting time. It is also
@
expansion referred as catalyst in the chemical reaction.
Borax 0.4–1% as retarder
Coloring agents Traces for acceptability. Q. 12. What is cast?
Gum tragacanth To improve Ans. Dimensionally accurate reproduction of
cohesiveness a part or parts of the oral cavity or other and soft
Starch For solubility structure produced in a durable hard material.
Starch is added so that when plaster sets It is the life size or positive likeness or replica of
impression plaster gets disintegrated due to some desired form. Cast is formed within or in a
swelling of starch when boiling water is poured material poured into a matrix or impression of
and this helps in removing of cast from the the desired shape.
impression. Types of cast:
• Diagnostic cast or study cast used for
Q. 9. What are inelastic impression diagnosis or study purpose.
materials? • Working cast or master cast used for
Ans. Impression materials those are not fabrication of the prosthesis.
capable of sustaining significant elastic • Refractory cast made from refractory
deformation under stress. These include: material and is used in casting procedure.
a. Impression plaster (For figures, see Plate 7)
b. Impression compound
c. Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste Q. 13. What is Die?
d. Impression waxes—semi rigid. Ans. It is the positive replica of a single tooth
These impression materials are used where or it is the positive reproduction of the form of a
there is no undercut. Due to inelastic or rigid prepared tooth in any suitable material.
nature of material impression may break or (For figures, see Plate 7)
Impression Materials 33
Q. 14. What is Model? enough to resist permanent deformation, i.e.

Ans. It is a facsimile used for display purposes. the material is set. For impression materials it
It is a miniature representation of something represents the time at which the impression can
and need not be of exact life size. It can be an be withdrawn from the mouth or the impression
example for imitation or emulation. Dental is hard enough to resist penetration by a pointed
model is a full scale replica of teeth, soft tissues object under an applied load.
and restored structure used as a diagnostic aid
and for construction of a prosthesis or appliance. Q. 18. What do you mean by “set”?
Ans. It is a state of being sufficiently rigid
Q. 15. What is thixotropic? or elastic to permit removal from the mouth
Ans. It is the property of certain gels or other
u
without plastic deformation.
materials to become liquefied (less viscous)
r_
when shaken, stirred, patted or vibrated. Q. 19. What is working time?
o
Ans. The total time from the start of mixing to
f
Q. 16. What is pseudo plastic?
the final time at which an impression tray can
_
Ans. It is a characteristic of a material to
be fully seated. Working time should exceed
h
become more fluid when an applied force is
c
the time for mixing, filling the tray or syringe,
increased. This behavior involves shear thinning
e
injecting the preparation seating the tray.
t
and is strain dependent.
_
Q. 20. What is viscoelasticity?
t
Q. 17. What is setting time?
Ans. Ability of a polymer to behave as an
n
Ans. Time elapsed from the start of mixing
e
until the impression material becomes firm elastic solid (spring) and as a viscous liquid.
@ d
9 CHAPTER
Inelastic Impression Material:
_ u
Impression Compound
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is impression compound? temperature and reduce coefficient of thermal
t
Ans. Impression compound is a thermoplastic expansion.
t _
dental impression material made up of various
Q. 3. Classify impression compound?
n
synthetic resin and natural materials like wax,
Ans. Impression compound is thermoplastic
e
rosin, gutta-percha fillers e.g. chalk, resin,
muco compressive reversible type of material.
d
shellac and coloring agent, e.g. rouge.
It is classified as:
It is also called as modeling plastic, modeling
@
• Type I: Low fusing compound
or impression composition, or modeling
• Type II: High fusing tray compound.
compound, impression composite as it contain
Or depending on the fusion temperature as:
two or more macroconstituents that are
• Low fusing
insoluble in each other and differ in form.
• Medium fusing
Q. 2. What is the composition of impression • High fusing.
compound? Q. 4. What are the uses of impression
Ans. It is the trade secret. According to ADA compound?
Specification No. 3: Ans. Uses of impression compound are as
• Rosin (copal ) 30–35 parts by weight. follows:
• Waxes (carnauba wax ) 10–20% by weight. • Impression compound in cake form is used
• Stearic acid as plasticizer 3.5% by weight. for making preliminary impression of the
• Fillers about 50–55%. edentulous jaws.
• Coloring agents in traces. • Type I low fusing impression compound
• Rosin provides thermoplasticity, flow and or green stick form is used for making
cohesive property. impression of a single tooth by using copper
Waxes provide thermo plasticity, characterize band. This is called as tube impression.
the softening temperature and produces smooth • Green stick form low fusing compound is
surface. also used for border molding before making
Stearic acid, shellac or guttapurcha improves final impression.
plasticity and workability. Type II tray compound is used as tray for
Talc or diatomaceous earth is used as filler making final impression.
to increase strength, decrease flow at mouth (For figures, see Plate 2)
Inelastic Impression Material: Impression Compound 35
Q. 5. State the properties of impression 10. Material can be autoclaved.

compound. 11. Impression can be separated from cast by
Ans. Properties of impression compound are: placing it in hot water.
1. Flow: It is beneficial during impression 12. Kneading is done in hot water bath with
making but a source of error after material temperature ≥60°C for uniform softening
has set. and to increase the flow of the material.
According to ADA Specification No. 3 flow 13. Material is nontoxic and nonirritant.
should not be less than 85% at 45°C and not 14. Material is compatible with die material.
more than 06% at 37°C. 15. Setting time and working is acceptable.
2. Dimensional change can occur due to 16. Shelf life is adequate.
u
release of stress incorporated during 17. Easily available.
_
kneading and hence impression should be 18. Economical.
r
poured immediately.
o
Q. 6. How will you manipulate impression
f
3. Distortion can occur as noncrystalline
compound?
_
structure shows stressed condition and
Ans. Impression compound is thermoplastic
h
relaxation.
c
material that softens on heating.
4. Softening temperature is 55°C to 70°C.
e
For small quantity like low fusing green stick
t
5. Tempering is done at 45°C so that
compound material can be soften by holding it
_
impression compound can be placed safely
over the flame.
t
in mouth.
Large quantity of material is soften in
n
6. Glass transition temperature is 39°C.
e
temperature controlled water bath, oven
7. Thermal conductivity is very low and
d
or by placing the material in hot water at a
coefficient of thermal linear expansion is temperature of about 55°C–70°C. Kneading is
@
high. done for uniform softening of the impression
Due to low thermal conductivity during material and tray is loaded. Since 55°C–70°C is
softening outer side will soften first than too hot for oral tissues, loaded tray is dipped in
inside bulk and also during cooling outer a water bath of about 45°C which is tolerable
side will harden first than inside. So by oral tissues, and this is called as tempering.
compound should be broken into pieces After tempering loaded tray is pressed against
for maximum surface exposure during the oral tissues and impression is recorded. In
softening. any condition material should not be kept in
• Linear contraction from 37°C–25°C is boiling water above 100°C as some constituents
0.3–0.4%. like plasticizers viz. stearic acid may leach out
• Linear thermal expansion from 25°C–37°C and material may become grainy and sticky.
is 1.38–2.29%. After material sets, impression is removed
8. Impression compound is rigid and so from mouth washed under running water,
cannot be used in undercut areas. checked for its completeness. It is then
9. Material should not be placed in boiling disinfected by immersion in 02% alkaline
water as its ingredients may leach out glutaraldehyde solution for 10 minutes and
making material sticky and grainy. then poured in gypsum product to obtain a cast.
10 CHAPTER
Inelastic Impression Materials:
_ u
Zinc Oxide Eugenol Impression Paste
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. Name the different types of inelastic reaction and is widely used as wash impression
t
impression materials. material in edentulous arches. They are
t _
Ans. Inelastic impression materials includes: available as base paste (white) and catalyst
n
• Impression Plaster paste (colored).
e
• Impression Compound
They are classified as:
d
• Zinc Oxide Eugenol Impression Paste
• Type I or hard. Setting time is 10 minutes.
• Impression Waxes (Semi-rigid).
@
• Type II or soft. Setting time is 15 minutes.
Q. 2. What are the uses of zinc oxide eugenol
in dentistry? Q. 4. What is the composition of zinc oxide
Ans. Zinc oxide eugenol in dentistry is eugenol impression paste?
available in cement form and in paste form as Ans. Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste
an impression paste. is available as base paste (white) and catalyst
• Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste can be paste (colored).
used as: • Base paste (white) contains
– Final wash impression material in Zinc oxide –Main ingredient 87%
edentulous mouth Olive oil or
– Bite registration paste mineral oil –Plasticizer and
– Temporary relining and rebasing material reduce irritant effect
– Surgical dressing material. of eugenol 13%
• Zinc oxide eugenol in cement form is used for: • Catalyst paste (colored) contains
• Temporary filling material Eugenol or oil
• Temporary luting material of clove –Main ingredient 12%
• Root canal sealant material Kaolin or talc –Filler 20%
• Surgical dressing material Rosin –Smoothness 50%
• Temporary cementing and insulating Lanolin –Homogeneous mix 03%
medium. Calcium
Q. 3. What is ZOE paste? Give its classification. chloride –Accelerator 05%
Ans. Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste is Resinous balsam –Increase flow and
rigid or inelastic irreversible type of impression speed of reaction 10%
material that sets by chemical (chelation) (Canada balsam/Peru balsam)
Inelastic Impression Materials: Zinc Oxide Eugenol Impression Paste 37
Q. 5. Write about manipulation of zinc oxide byproduct of the reaction thus acting as catalytic
eugenol impression paste. agent, therefore called as autocatalytic process.
Ans. The mixing of zinc oxide eugenol
Q. 8. How will you control the setting time of
impression paste is accomplished on an oil
ZOE impression paste?
impervious paper or on a clean glass slab and a
Ans. Setting time is important as there should
flexible stainless steel spatula.
be sufficient time for mixing, loading onto the
Proper proportion of two pastes is generally
tray and seating the impression. Initial setting
obtained by squeezing two strips of equal
time is the time from the beginning of the
length of both base and catalyst paste on mixing
mixing until the material ceased to pull away
pad. Orifices of both the tubes are regulated to
or string out when its surface is touched with a
u
deliver the proper amount of the material.
metal rod of specified dimension. Impression
_
A flexible steel spatula is used to mix the
r
should be seated in the mouth before the initial
material. The two ropes are combined with
o
set. Final set occurs when a needle of specified
f
the first sweep of the spatula and the mixing
dimension fails to penetrate the surface of the
_
is continued for approximately 45 to 60 sec or
specimen more than 0.2 mm under a load of
h
as directed by the manufacture, until uniform
c
50 g.
color and homogeneous mix is obtained with
e
• Type Initial setting time Final setting time
t
no stricks of any paste seen.
• I 3–6 minutes 10 minutes
_
Material is then loaded in special tray for
t
• II 3–6 minutes 15 minutes
making final or wash impression. Setting time
n
for hard paste Type I is 10 minutes and for Type Q. 9. How will you control setting time of ZOE
e
II is 15 minutes. impression paste?
d
After the material sets impression is removed Ans. Factors controlling setting time
@
from mouth disinfected by immersion in 2% • Setting time can be shortened by:
alkaline glutaraldehyde solution and poured to – Adding a drop of water
obtain a final working cast. – Using small particle size
(For figures, see Plate 3) – Using warm glass slab
– By adding small amount of zinc acetate
Q. 6. What is chelation?
– Extending the mixing time.
Ans. It is a typical acid base type of a chemical
• Setting time can be prolonged by:
reaction to form a compound c/s chelate. When
– Using cool glass slab and spatula
zinc oxide paste is mixed with eugenol paste,
– Adding plasticizer like inert oil, waxes or
the unreacted zinc oxide particles as a core are
vaseline
surrounded by a complex matrix forming zinc
– Changing ratio of base and catalyst paste
eugenolate which is a chelate compound.
to a certain extent.
In chelation reaction central metallic ion is
attached to an organic molecule in two or more Q. 10. What is the difference between muco-
position. Water in form of moisture is present as static and mucocompressive impression?
catalytic agent. The chelate is thought to form Ans. If the consistency of the impression
as an amorphous gel that tends to crystallize material is such that it will not displace the
imparting increased strength to the set mass. mucous membrane during impression making
ZnO + H2O → Zn(OH)2 then it is referred as mucostatic impression,
Zinc oxide + water zinc hydroxide e.g. impression plaster, thin consistency of ZOE
impression paste.
Zn(OH)2 + 2HE → ZnE2 + 2H2O
If the consistency of the impression material
Base + Acid Zinc + Water is such that it will displace the mucous
eugenolate membrane during impression making then it
Q. 7. What is autocatalytic process? is referred as mucocompressive impression,
Ans. Water is essential in chelation reaction e.g. Thick consistency of ZOE impression paste,
to start the chemical reaction and also it is the impression compound.
Q. 11. What is wash impression? 10. Simple equipment and technique is easy
Ans. Final impression made with ZOE for manipulation.
impression paste in a special or custom tray 11. Economical.
is known as wash impression. This is more 12. Adequate shelf life.
accurate than preliminary impression. Due to 13. Biocompatible with cast or die materials.
thin consistency of ZOE impression paste it can 14. Setting time is under the control of operator
record the fine detail and hence also called as to a certain extent.
corrective impression. 15. Disadvantage
(For figures, see Plate 3) – It requires special tray.
– It is sticky and adheres to the tissues.
Q. 12. What are the properties of ZOE
u
– Eugenol causes burning sensation.
impression paste?
_
– Cannot be used in severe undercut areas.
r
Ans. The properties of ZOE impression paste
Undercut area is a recess under surface to
o
are:
f
leave a part over hanging.
1. ZOE impression paste is biocompatible,
_
non-toxic. But sometimes due to eugenol
h
Q. 13. What is non-eugenol paste?
c
it may be irritant, hence eugenol can be Ans. Sometimes eugenol from ZOE
e
replaced by noneugenol paste which impression paste can be irritant and can cause
t
contains carboxylic acid or ethoxybenzoic burning sensation and some patients may find
t _
acid instead of eugenol. taste disagreeable. Also some may have gastric
n
2. Consistency and flow: Consistency of the disturbances due to surgical pack. Hence
e
material mixed freshly when impressed eugenol can be replaced by carboxylic acid
d
against the tissues is of considerable clinical or ethoxybenzoic acid. Such pastes with no
importance. Material has good flow and is eugenol are called as noneugenol paste. Used
@
available with thin and thick consistency and for making wash impression of edentulous
hence it records all the fine details. According cases and as surgical paste.
to ADA Specification No. 16, the spread is (For figures, see Plate 3)
– Type I – 30 to 50 mm
– Type II – 20 to 45 mm Q. 14. What is bite registration?
3. Accuracy is good and hence used as wash Ans. It is the recording of the interocclusal
or corrective impression material. relationship between natural or artificial teeth,
4. Dimensional stability is quiet satisfactory. recorded on the acrylic base. ZOE paste can be
A negligible shrinkage less than 0.1% is used as bite registration material. ZOE records
seen during hardening. are more stable and accurate. Other materials
5. It has sufficient consistency so as to make used for bite registration are impression plaster,
up for any minor under-extensions in the wax, resin, and compound.
tray itself during impression making.
6. It has sufficient working time to complete Q. 15. What is surgical paste?
peripheral trimming or tracing. Ans. After gingivectomy ZOE paste can be
7. It can be checked in the mouth repeatedly placed over the surgical wound site to aid as
without any deformation. a medicament and promote healing. These
8. It does not require any separating media surgical pastes are less brittle and weaker after
before pouring cast. hardening setting time is longer. Paste is mixed
9. Impression if made with resin tray can be and formed into a rope that is packed into
preserved. gingival wound.
11 CHAPTER
Elastic Impression Materials:
_ u
Reversible Hydrocolloids-Agar
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is hydrocolloid? Q. 4. Name the types of hydrocolloid.
t
Ans. Colloid is a liquid or gaseous substance Ans. Hydrocolloid are of two types: Reversible
t _
made up of large molecules or masses of and Irreversible.
n
smaller molecules that remain in suspension in In reversible hydrocolloid, sol is converted
e
a surrounding continuous medium of different to gel and gel is converted to sol by temperature
d
matter. Colloid is jelly like material made up change. Thus, there is only physical change, e.g.
of very minute particles suspended in a fluid. Agar.
@
When a colloid has water as a suspension Cooled heated
medium in a dispersion phase then it is called Sol Gel Gel Sol
as hydrocolloid. 37°C–50°C Physical change 70°C–100 °C
In irreversible hydrocolloid, sol can be
Q. 2. What are the phases of colloid?
converted to gel by chemical reaction but gel
Ans. Colloids are often classed as fourth state
cannot be converted back to sol. The process is
of matter k/s colloidal state. Colloids have
irreversible, e.g. Alginate
two phases, dispersed phase is particle and
dispersion phase is medium. Chemical reaction
These phases are seen because particles in Sol Gel
the colloid possess similar electrical charges and
Q. 5. What is sol and gel?
keeps themselves apart and remain suspended
Ans. Colloids with a liquid as the dispersion
in the medium.
medium can exist in two different forms known
Q. 3. Name the types of the colloids. as sol and gel. Colloidal solution is c/s sol. Sol
Ans. Different types of colloids are is changed to semisolid network of structure or
- Lyophillic: If the dispersed particles has phase by agglomeration of particles which is
affinity for liquid. called as gel.
- Lyophobic: If the dispersed particles has no Gel is having network of fibrils that forms a
affinity for liquid. weak slightly elastic brush heap structure of
- Hydrophilic: If the dispersed particles has hydrocolloid.
affinity for water. Sol can be transformed to gel by gelatin
- Hydrophobic: If the dispersed particles has and the temperature is called as Gelation
no affinity (aversion) for water. temperature.
Gel can be changed or liquefied to sol by Q. 9. What is the composition of reversible

liquefaction temperature. hydrocolloid?
Gelation can be brought about by (1) Ans. Reversible hydrocolloid material is Agar.
Lowering the temperature or (2) By a chemical It is an organic hydrophilic colloid extracted
reaction. from certain types of seaweed.
Agar is elastic, reversible type of impression
Q. 6. What is synersis and Imbibition? material
Ans. Since hydrocolloids contain water as Composition:
the dispersion medium, they are prone for Agar 08–15% Main ingredient. Forms
dimensional changes resulting from either brush heap structure.
u
loss or gain of water. Gel may loose water by Borates 0.2–0.5% Improves strength of gel
_
evaporation from its surface or by exuding of and Retards the setting
r
fluid by a process known as ‘Synersis’. Synersis of gypsum.
o
means expression of fluid or collection of
f
Potassium
_
exudates onto the surface of gel structure. Due Sulfate 01–02% Accelerator and
h
to synersis shrinkage is seen due to loss of water Hardener. Provide good
c
by evaporation. Synersis allows hydrocolloid die/cast surface.
e
impression to achieve equilibrium through
t
Wax/silica/
stress relaxation.
_
clay earth 0.5–01% Fillers. Imparts strength,
t
Imbibition: Process of water sorption is viscosity and rigidity.
n
imbibitions. If the gel is placed in water it absorbs Thixotrophic
e
water and swells in size by a process known as Material,
d
imbibitions Due to synersis and imbibitions Thymol,
@
there is dimensional change which may lead to Glycerin 0.3–0.5% Bactericide, Plasticizer
inaccuracy or distortion of the dimension. This resp.
property occurs irrespective of the humidity of Alkyl
the surrounding atmosphere. benzoates 0.1% Acts as preservatives
Coloring
Q. 7. What is hystersis? and
Ans. In reversible hydrocolloids like Agar Flavoring
gel is liquefied at 60°C to convert it sol and sol agents Traces
is converted to gel by gelation temperature of Water 80–84% Balance acts as
40°C. Thus there is temperature lag between dispersion medium
gelation and liquefaction temperature in agar.
This temperature lag is called as Hystersis. Q. 10. Write about the manipulation of agar?
Ans. Agar requires special equipment like
Q. 8. What is agar? hydrocolloid conditioner for manipulation.
Ans. Agar is reversible hydrocolloid elastic Agar hydrocolloid conditioner has 3
type of an aqueous impression material. It is an compartments that consist of boiling section,
organic hydrophilic colloid (polysaccharide) storage section and tempering section.
extracted from certain types of seaweed. Agar is supplied in gel form, as syringe and
It is a sulfuric ester of a linear polymer of tray material, depending upon the viscosity
galactose. Used for recording maximum details and color. Agar gel must be converted to sol by
of impression required for crown, bridge, heating up to 75–100°C in a thermostatically
RPD work and as a duplicating material. In controlled water bath for loading in a Rim lock
1925, Alphous Pollor of Vienna discovered perforated impression tray, tempering it to a
hydrocolloid. lower temperature at 45–60°C in a tempering
Elastic Impression Materials: Reversible Hydrocolloids-Agar 41
bath that is tolerable to the mouth for making • Adequate shelf life.
the impression. Material is allowed to set and • Compatible with die and cast material.
then removed from the mouth with single jerk. • No separating media is required for pouring
(For figures, see Plate 4) cast.
Q. 11. Write about the properties of agar. Q.12. What is laminate technique?
Ans. The properties of agar are: Ans. It is a combination of agar alginate
• Accuracy: Most accurate impression combination technique. In this both agar and
• Dimensionally stability: Certain stresses alginate in layers is used for single impression.
are introduced during gelation which may Here after injecting syringe agar material
on the area to be recorded, an impression tray
u
show shrinkage towards center of the mass.
containing a mix of chilled alginate material
_
Also agar shows dimensional changes due to
r
Synersis and imbibition. that will bond with the syringe material is
o
• Flow: Sufficiently fluid to record fine details. positioned over syringe material. Alginate gels
f
by chemical reaction while agar gels by means
_
• Elasticity: Highly elastic in nature and elastic
of cooled alginate rather than water circulation.
h
recovery is up to 98.8%.
Thus, this technique gives accurate impression
c
• Working time and setting time: Working
e
time is 7–15 minutes and Setting time is due to syringe agar material and also alginate in
t
about is 5 minutes. Both can be controlled tray. There is quick setting of the material and
_
also it is cost effective.
t
by regulating the flow of the water through
n
cooling tubes of rim lock tray. Q. 13. What is wet field technique?
e
• Disfection: Material can be sterilized and Ans. Impression is made in presence of water.
d
disinfected by immersing in agents like The areas to be recorded are actually flooded
10% iodophor, bleach or 2% glutaraldehyde with warm water. Syringe material is introduced
@
solution for 10 minutes. quickly, liberally and in bulk to cover the occlusal
• Equipment: Elaborate equipment like and/or incisal areas of the tooth instead of at
hydrocolloid conditioner is required. the gingival end of the tooth. While the syringe
• Tear resistance: Agar has tear strength of material is still liquid the tray material is seated.
4 psi. The hydraulic pressure of the viscous tray
• Material can be reused hence economical. material forces the fluid syringe hydrocolloid
• Material can be used as duplicating material. down into the areas to be restored. This motion
• Material is biocompatible, nontoxic, displaces the syringe material, blood and debris
nonirritant. and gives uniform and accurate impression.
12 CHAPTER
Elastic Irreversible: Hydrocolloid
_ u
Impression Material-Alginate
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is alginate? Q. 3. Write the gelation process or setting
t
Ans. Alginate is elastic irreversible reaction of alginate.
t _
hydrocolloid impression material that sets by Ans. Setting reaction occurs as a typical sol gel
n
chemical reaction. It is an aqueous impression reaction, a chemical type of reaction in which
e
material extracted from certain brown seaweeds soluble sodium or potassium alginate reacts
d
known as algae. It is an hydro–B–D mannuronic with reactor calcium sulfate to form insoluble
acid or alginic acid. The term algin was coined calcium alginate gel. Formation of calcium
@
by a chemist from Scotland. It is used for both alginate is very rapid so other water-soluble
dentulous and edentulous arches. salts, i.e. trisodium phosphate is added as
retarder to prolong the working time.
Q. 2. Write the composition and role of each 1. 2Na2PO4 + 3CaSO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2 SO4
ingredient of alginate. Trisodium + Calcium → Calcium + Sodium
Ans. Composition of alginate acc. to ADA phosphate sulfate phosphate sulfate
Specification No. 20. 2. K2nAlg + nCaSO4 → Nk2SO4 + CaAlg
Ingredients % Weight Function

• S odium or potassium or triethanolamine 15 Main ingredient. Dissolves in water and
alginate reacts with calcium ions
• Calcium sulfate 16 Reactor. Reacts with sodium alginate and
forms insoluble calcium alginate
• Trisodium phosphate 2 Retarder. Reacts with calcium sulfate
• Potassium titanium fluoride 3 Accelerator and gypsum hardener
• Zinc oxide 4 Filler. Increase strength and modify
physical properties
• Diatomaceous earth 60 Filler. Provides stiffness and smoothness
• Coloring, flavoring agent Traces Acceptability of patient
Elastic Irreversible: Hydrocolloid Impression Material-Alginate 43
When supply of trisodium phosphate is synthetic phenols. Immersion should not be for
exhausted calcium ions reacts with potassium more than 10 minutes. Impression should be
alginate to produce calcium alginate gel. The covered with damp napkin to prevent synersis
structure of set gel is made up of febrile a and should be poured immediately as soon as
network that gives the appearance of brush possible upto 15 minutes. Else wrap it in a wet
heap. paper towel and keep it in a plastic bag.
Q. 4. Name the types of alginates.
Ans. Various types of alginates are: Q. 6. Write about the properties of alginate.
• Type I: Fast setting alginate with ST 1–2 Ans. The properties of alginate according to
minutes. ADA Specification No. 18 are:
u
• Type II: Normal setting alginate with ST 2–4 • Working time for: Fast setting:1–2 minutes
r_
minutes. Regular setting : 2–4 minutes
o
• Chromatic alginate: Which can change color • Elasticity: Elastic (less than agar) hence can
f
during setting. be used in undercut areas for dentulous and
_
• Dustless alginate: Powder contains glycerin edentulous arches.
ch
to avoid dust of alginate. • Flexibility: About 14% at a stress of 1000
e
• Modified alginate available as two g/cm2-
t
component system in the form of paste • Accuracy: It records fewer details as
t _
one containing alginate sol and other paste compared to agar.
n
containing calcium reactor. • Strength: Less. Compressive strength range
e
• Siliconized alginate that contains silicones. from 5000–8000 g/cm2. Tear strength vary
d
(For figures, see Plate 5) from 350–700 g/cm2.
• Dimensional stability: Unstable due to
@
Q. 5. Write about the manipulation of
synersis and imbibitions. Alginate loose
alginate.
water by evaporation and shrink in size.
Ans. Manipulation of alginate is simple. No
Alginates absorb water and swell. Therefore
elaborate equipment is required. It is relatively
impression should be poured immediately.
inexpensive and comfortable for the patient.
If storage is unavoidable keep it in a humid
Clean rubber bowl and curved stainless
atmosphere of 100% relative humidity.
steel spatula is used. Correct powder and
• Shelf life: Short shelf life. Alginate deteriorates
water is taken according to the manufacture’s
rapidly if stored at elevated temperature.
direction. Water is taken in rubber bowl and
• Biocompatibility: Non-toxic, non-irritant
preweight powder is added to the water.
but sometimes silica due to fluffing of the
Vigorous mixing in figure of ‘8’ motion is
container can cause health hazard.
carried out by placing material at the sides
• Economy: Economical.
of the bowl with intermittent rotation of the
spatula to press out the air bubbles. Mixing is Advantages
done until homogenous smooth creamy mix is • Easy to mix
obtained. Mixing time is about 45 to 60 seconds. • Requires minimum instrument, no elaborate
Mixed material is loaded in perforated tray for equipment is required
mechanical retention, carried to the mouth, • Low cost
allowed to set and then removed in single jerk • Comfortable for the patient
by sudden quick pull. Impression is checked • Hygienic as fresh material for each
for completeness. Washed with cold running impression
water to remove saliva. Disinfection is done by • Records good surface details
household bleach, 1:10 dilution iodophor or • Accuracy good if properly handled.
Disadvantages • For impressions for study models and

• Electroplating is not possible orthodontic cases
• It cannot be corrected • Duplicating material
• Tearing and distortion is seen • For impression in undercut areas
• Dimensional instability due to the synersis • For impression in mouth with excessive
and imbibitions. saliva
• For dentulous and edentulous arches
Q. 7. Write uses of alginate • For impression of sport people for preparing
Ans. Uses of alginate are: athletic mouth protectors.
• Preliminary impression for complete dentures (For figures, see Plate 5)
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
nt _
d e
@
13 CHAPTER
_ u
Elastomeric Impression Materials
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is elastomer? release of stress. This coiling and uncoiling gives
t
Ans. Elastomer is a lightly cross linked material the property of elasticity. Elastomers deform
t _
that exhibit elastic behavior after setting. It is elastically when it is removed over an undercut
n
a polymer whose glass transition temperature so that it will spring back to its original position.
e
is below its service temperature, usually room Q. 4. What is vulcanization?
d
temperature. These material are characterized Ans. Vulcanization is a reaction of changing soft
by low stiffness and extremely large elastic
@
rubber into hard rubber by heating with sulfur.
strains. Elastomers or elastomeric impression
Q. 5. Which is the most ideal impression
material refers to a group of rubbery polymers,
material?
which are either chemically or physically cross
Ans. Elastomers represent the most near ideal
linked. They can be easily stretched and rapidly
impression material related to dimensional
recover their original dimensions when the
accuracy, tear resistance, ability to be repour
applied stress is released.
two or more times and is hydrophilic, more
Four kind of elastomers used for impressions
elastic and has elastic recovery. They are soft and
are:
rubber like. According to ADA Specification No.
• Polysulfide
19 they are called as nonaqueous elastomeric
• Polyether
dental impression materials. These are liquid
• Silicones addition polymerizing
polymers and can be converted to rubber at
• Silicones condensation polymerization.
room temperature by mixing with suitable
catalyst by polymerization and the process is
Q. 2. What is dashpot? called as vulcanization.
Ans. It is a phase of a viscous liquid which does
Q. 6. Classify elastomers.
not respond instantly to any sudden external
Ans. Based on selected properties and
load but deforms as the load is applied over
dimension change elastomers are classified as:-
time. The dash pot continues to deform at a rate
Type I, Type II, Type III:
proportional to the duration of loading until the
load is removed. Type Maximum Maximum flow Maximum
permanent in compression dimension
Q. 3. What is the nature of elastomer? deformation change in 24
Ans. It is like a spring. The long chain polymer hours
made up of simple molecules are tied together I 2.5 0.5 0.5
to form a three dimensional network which on II 2.5 0.5 1.0
stretching the chains uncoil and they go back on III 5.5 2.0 0.5
Each type is further classified depending on Catalyst paste

their consistency and viscosity • Alkyl silicate and its polymer—colored oily
• Light body liquid
• Medium or regular body • Tin octate compound—reaction catalyst
• Heavy body Hydrophobic and byproduct formation is
• Putty. ethyl alcohol and shrinkage takes place.
Elastomers are of different types:
Q. 9. What is the composition of silicones
• Polyether
addition polymerization elastomer?
• Polysulfide
Ans. Composition of silicones addition
• Silicones addition polymerizing
polymerization elastomer is available as:
u
• Silicones condensation polymerization
_
(For figures, see Plate 6) Base paste contains:
r
• Liquid silicones prepolymer polymethyl
o
Q. 7. What is the composition of polysulfide
f
hydrogen siloxane
elastomer?
_
• Fillers.
Ans. Available as base paste and catalyst paste.
h
Reactor paste
c
Base paste (white color) • Platinum salt.
e
• Polysulfide
t
polymer 80–85% Q. 10. Which gloves are used with elastomers
_
(silicones addition polymerization)?
t
• Thikol or mercaptan is a
Ans. Sulfur from elastomers reacts and causes
n
substance like alcohol with
contamination from natural latex gloves and
e
sulfur instead of O2
inhibits the setting of the silicones addition
d
• Titanium dioxide 16–18%
– Filler for strength, viscosity polymerization material. Vinyl gloves are
@
and to modify the physical preferred but may show effect hence avoid
properties touch with gloves.
• Dibutyl pthalate as plasticizer Q. 11. What is the composition of polyether?
Catalyst paste (dark brown color) Ans. Polyether is the first elastomer used for
• Lead dioxide impression
(PbO2) 60–68% Reactor Available as base paste (large) and catalyst
• Dibutyl pthalate 30–35% Plasticizer paste (small).
• Sulfur 03% Facilitates Introduced in Germany in 1960
reaction Base paste
• Inert oil, e.g. • Unsaturated polyether polymers with imine
oleic/paraffin 02% Paste group for cross linking to form rubber
formation • Silica as - filler
Q. 8. What is the composition of silicones • Dibutyl pthalate as - plasticizer that
condensation polymerization elastomer? aids mixing.
Ans. Available as base paste and catalyst paste Catalyst paste
or as base paste and catalyst liquid: • Aromatic sulfonate ester - reactor, initiates
Base paste cross linking
• Silicone polymer, viz. dimethyl siloxane • Silica as - filler
with hydroxyl group for cross linking to form • Pthalate as - plasticizer
rubber • Oil to form - paste.
• Silica as filler for strength, viscosity, and Q. 12. Which is the latest elastomer?
modify physical properties Ans. Visible light cure (VLC) polyether
• Dyes or pigments urethane dimethacrylate is the latest elastomer.
Elastomeric Impression Materials 47
Q.13. What is optical impression? • Disinfection: By immersion in 2%

Ans. It is the impression taken with an glutaraldehyde for 10 minutes.
intraoral camera for CAD-CAM. • Shelf life: Adequate.
Q. 14. What are surfactants? Q. 16. What is multiple mix technique?

Ans. Surfactants are the substances added to Ans. In multiple mix technique both thin
silicon so as to make pouring the gypsum model consistency material in syringe and thick
easier and decrease air bubbles by making it consistency material in tray are used for making
hydrophilic. an accurate impression.
Q. 17. What is two stage putty wash or reline
Q. 15. Write the properties of elastomers?
u
technique?
Ans.
_
Ans. First impression is made with putty
r
• Dimensional stability
material and then space is created in it by
o
– All rubbers contract during curing causing
f
cutting away some of the tray putty and thin
shrinkage
_
consistency light body wash material is used to
– Silicones loose alcohol during setting.
h
make final wash impression.
c
– Rubber may absorb water (polyether are
Q. 18. What is gun and cartridge system?
e
hydrophilic)
t
– Shows incomplete recovery after Ans. Silicones are supplied in cartridge and
_
automatic mixing and dispensing is done by gun.
t
deformation due to viscoelastic nature
n
– Dimensional stability is better than Q. 19. What is hydrogen absorber?
e
hydrocolloid but changes do occur with Ans. Hydrogen absorber is a substance that is
d
time added to silicon to prevent hydrogen gas bubbles
– Contraction also occurs on cooling from forming during pouring gypsum material.
@
mouth temperature to room temperature
– Coefficient of thermal expansion is in Q. 20. What is impregum clones?
following order. Polyether > Silicone > Ans. Impregum is one of the types of
Polysulfide. polyether elastomers. The clones have the same
• Flow: Elastomers are available in range of viscosity, stiffness and color as polyether. Single
viscosity and can be used in syringe and consistency (monophase) material is used in
tray. syringe and in tray.
• Elasticity: Good but elastic recovery is not Q. 21. What is antiexpansion solution?
complete due to viscoelastic nature. Ans. It is a solution containing potassium
• Setting Time: S.T. is 8–10 minutes. sulfate and borax in appropriate quantity and
• Working time depends upon temperature it prevents expansion and is used for mixing
and quantity of paste. impression plaster. Water powder ratio for
• Biocompatible: Elastomers are nontoxic and impression plaster is 0.6, i.e. 60 mL of water and
nonirritant. 100 g of powder and setting time is 3.5 minutes.
14 CHAPTER
_ u
Gypsum Products
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is gypsum? on method of crystallization different forms of
t
Ans. Gypsum is a natural mineral i.e. pure hemihydrates can be obtained.
t _
calcium sulfate dihydrate with chemical
Q. 4. What is plaster of Paris?
n
formula (CaSO4.2H2O) or also as an industrial
Ans. Plaster of Paris is white colored powder
e
by product. Varieties of gypsum are alabaster,
of calcium sulfate hemihydrates which when
d
satin spar, selenite, etc.
mixed with water forms a paste which can
@
Q. 2. Classify gypsum products used in be molded or shaped to a required form and
dentistry. hardens to form a hard stable set solid. During
Ans. According to ADA Specification number the early periods of Renaissance the artisans
25 gypsum products are classified as: and sculptors found this gypsum product in
• Type I Impression plaster mines near the city of Paris and hence it is called
• Type II Model or dental plaster or beta as plaster of Paris
hemihydrate Setting reaction is as follows:
• Type III Dental stone with normal strength CaSO4.1/2 H2O+1½H2O → CaSO4.2H2O+Heat
or alpha hemihydrates (Exothermic)
• Type IV Dental stone with high strength
Q. 5. Write about manufacture of gypsum
• Type V Dental stone with high strength,
product.
high expansion investment.
Ans. The process of heating gypsum for
• Synthetic gypsum waste or byproducts
manufacture of gypsum product or plaster is
or process products of phosphoric acid
called as calcination depending on the method
production.
of calcinations different forms of hemihydrates
are formed like beta hemihydrate or dental
Q. 3. What is calcinations? plaster, alpha hemihydrates or dental stone or
Ans. Production of dental plaster or stone from hydrocal and improved stone or densite.
calcium sulfate dihydrate or gypsum is done by Commercially gypsum is ground and
a process known as calcination, where water of subjected to the temp. of 11°C to 120°C in an
crystallization is removed by heating gypsum in open container. This derives of the water of
a vat or rotary kiln open to air and accordingly crystallization forming beta hemihydrates. As
it is called as dry or wet calcinations depending the temperature is further raised remaining
Gypsum Products 49
water of crystallization is removed forming • Supersaturated solution is unstable, and

product of different crystal size. dehydrate crystals precipitates out to
form stable solution.
• As hydrate precipitates out more calcium
sulfate hemihydrates is dissolved.
• Reaction is continuous and repeated
until all hemihydrates is converted to
dihydrate. Thus, plaster sets forming thick
and hard mass.
2. Colloidal gel theory: This theory proposes
u
When gypsum is heated under steam pressure that when water is mixed with plaster, plaster
_
in a closed container at a temperature of 130°C– particles enters into the colloidal state
r
200°C then it forms alpha hemihydrates, i.e. through a sol-gel mechanism. In sol state
f o
stone. hemihydrates particles are hydrated to form
_
dihydrate. As the measured amount of water
h
is consumed the mass converts to a solid
c
gel.
t e
3. Hydration theory: This theory suggest that
_
rehydrated plaster particles join together
t
through hydrogen bonding to the sulfate
n
group to form the set material.
d e
Q. 7. What are the stages during
Crystallization Theory of setting?
@
Ans. Stages during Crystallization Theory of
Q. 6. What are the theories of setting plaster setting are:
of Paris? 1. Dissolution
Ans. Theories of setting of plaster of Paris 2. Suspension
mentioned are: 3. Saturation
1. Crystalline theory 4. Super saturation
2. Gel theory and 5. Nuclei formation
3. Hydration theory 6. Growth of nuclei
1. Crystalline theory: In 1885, this theory was 7. Crystallization
proposed by a chemist Henry L Chatelier and 8. Spherulite formation.
later supported by German Chemist Van’t Spherulite: The set plaster consist of long
Hoff. needle like crystals which are intermeshing and
This theory is based on the dissolution of intertwining and are called as spherulite.
plaster and instant recrystallization followed Q. 8. What is the difference between die, cast
by interlocking of the crystal to form the set and model?
solid.
• Hemihydrate mixed with water forms Ans. Die: It is a positive reproduction of a single
suspension [fluid]. prepared tooth made from a gypsum product,
• Hemihydrate dissolves until it forms a epoxy resin, metal or refractory material. It
saturated solution. is required for fabrication of wax pattern for
• Solubility of dehydrate is less than making inlays, crowns and bridges.
hemihydrates. Saturated hemihydrates is Cast: It is the exact reproduction of the
supersaturated with respect to dehydrate. shape and features of a surface made from an
impression of the surface. It is exact life size high strength improved or die stone or densite.
positive replica of oral hard and soft tissues of Used for making dies.
the jaw and used for the construction of a dental
prosthesis or appliance. Q. 11. What is the difference between normal
setting expansion and hygroscopic setting
Model: It is a positive replica of an object expansion?
which is used for study purpose or for patient Ans. Normal setting expansion is the amount
education. It may not be of exact life size. of setting expansion that occurs when gypsum
Q. 9. State the difference between alpha and bonded casting investment is allowed to set in
beta hemihydrates. air.
Hygroscopic setting expansion is the
u
Alpha hemihydrates Beta hemihydrates
_
increased expansion of setting plaster in the
r
• Known as dental stone • Known as dental plaster presence of water. It can be double the amount
o
of normal setting expansion. It is required
f
• O
btained by wet • O
btained by dry
during casting procedure to compensate for the
_
calcinations, heating calcinations, heating
casting metal shrinkage.
h
gypsum in close gypsum in open
c
container under container at a Factors that reduce setting expansion are
e
steam pressure at temperature of potassium sulfate, borax and high W/P ratio.
t
temperature of 110°C–130°C Factors that increase setting expansion are
_
110°C–130°C
t
hygroscopic expansion, thermal expansion and
n
• C
rystals smaller • C
rystals large irregular, low W/P ratio.
e
regularly shaped rods/ orthorhombic Controll of setting expansion:
d
prism • Increased spatulation increases setting
• S low careful and • D
irect and rapid expansion
@
controlled heating heating shatters the • Increase in W/P ratio reduce the setting
• S trengthened by 30% crystals expansion. Modifiers reduce the setting
CaCl2solution, die expansion
stone • Potassium sulfate reduces setting expansion
• W
/P is 0.3, i.e. 30 mL /P is 0.5–50 mL water
• W • Sodium chloride and ground gypsum
water and 100 g stone and 100 g plaster increases S.E.
• Stronger and hard • Weak and less hard Q. 12. What is setting time and how it is
• U ses—working/master • Diagnostic/study cast, measured?
cast and models flasking and mounting Ans. Time that elapses from the beginning of
• Mainly colored mainly white mixing until the material harden is k/a setting
time.
• C
ompressive strength • C
ompressive strength is
is 3000 psi 1300 psi Setting time can be measured:
• By loss of gloss method [initial set] or
• S etting expansion • S etting expansion
0.2%–0.3% • By penetration set using instruments [final
0.08–1%. Expansion
due to outward thrust set] like Gilmore needle, Vicat needle or
of crystals Penetrometer.
Initial setting time [working time] is the time
(For figures, see Plate 7) during which the mix is changing from semisolid
Q. 10. What is densite? fluid to semi hard stage. It is 5–7 minutes.
Ans. When gypsum product, i.e. dental stone Initial setting time can be measured by loss
is made by boiling gypsum in a 30% aqueous of gloss method of by penetration of ¼ pound
solution of calcium chloride or magnesium Gilmore needle.
chloride, then it yields smoothest and denser Final setting is the length of time from the
particle sized powder which is known as Type IV beginning of mixing until the mix becomes
Gypsum Products 51
hard and rigid. It is 30–45 minutes for dental There will be high expansion, more strength
plaster. and more hardness to the set solid.
Identification is when finger, nail or knife High W/P ratio will have more water and
does not penetrate and is measured by 1 pound hence produce thin mix which will set slowly
Gilmore needle, Vicat needle. and will have low expansion, low strength and
Following factors affect the setting time: low hardness to the set solid.
• Manufacturing process
• Mixing and spatulation time Q. 17. What is divestment?
• Water/powder ratio Ans. It is the mixture of die stone and one of
• Temperature the investment materials. It is used to make a
u
• Modifiers. die which is more surface resistance to abrasion
_
during carving of wax patterns. Abrasion
r
Q. 13. Name the accelerators and retarders in resistance can also be increased by applying
o
plaster? polymer to the die surface or by electroplating.
f
Ans. Accelerators are the substances that
_
speeds the reaction and decrease the setting Q. 18. What is electroplated or electroformed
h
time. die?
e c
• For example, Low W/P ratio [thick mix] Ans. It is a die whose surface has been metal
t
• Adding potassium sulfate alum. [copper or silver] coated by electro deposition
_
Retarders are the substances that slow down to make it resistance to abrasion during
t
the chemical reaction and increase the setting preparation of wax pattern.
n
time.
e
Composition of electrolytic solution for
• High W/P ratio [thin mix]
d
copper plating contains copper sulfate,
• By adding borax, acetic acid, gelatin, glue, sulphuric acid, potash alum and distilled water.
@
etc. by nuclei poisoning Electrolytic solution for silver plating
• Mixing for longer time contains alkaline solution of silver cyanide.
• NaCl more than 20% acts on the nuclei and
their growth and thus acts as retarder. Q. 19. What is terra alba?
Gypsum is hygroscopic, i.e. it takes up water Ans. It is the set fine ground substances of
from moisture, and may set fast or may not set at gypsum which is used to control the setting
all. Hence, it must be stored in air tight container time of Plaster. Terra alba acts as an accelerator
to prevent moisture contamination. by providing additional nuclei of crystallization.
Q. 14. What is gauging water? Q. 20. How will you disinfect gypsum
Ans. It is excess measured water added to the products?
plaster to produce workable mix which is more Ans. Disinfectants used for gypsum
than the theoretical quantity of water. products are spray disinfectants, hypochlorite,
Q. 15. What is dry strength and green strength? iodophors, overnight gas sterilization. It can
Dry strength is the strength when the set mass be done by immersing cast in disfection
has no excess water and the specimen is dry to solution or by addition of disinfectant into the
touch. gypsum material or using ethylene oxide gas
Green strength is the wet strength when the sterilization.
set mass still contains excess water and the Q. 21. Describe the methods of making cast.
specimen is wet to touch. Ans. Cast is an accurate life size positive
Q. 16. What are the effects of low or high W/P replica of the oral tissues. It is obtained by
ratio? pouring gypsum product like dental plaster or
Ans. Effects of low or high W/P ratio are: dental stone. Methods employed for making
Low W/P ratio, i.e. less water used in mixing a cast is (a) Inversion method and (b) Boxing
will produce thick mix which will set quickly. method.
In inversion method cast material is poured Q. 24. What are die spacers?
in the impression and some amount of the Ans. Die spacers are the materials that are
material is placed on the tile or floor surface applied on the die surface to alter the dimensions
and poured impression is inverted on it and of die and to compensate for casting shrinkage
molded to give the form of the base. In boxing of the metal and also to provide space for luting
method impression is converted in a box the restoration to the prepared tooth.
form by attaching a strip of wax all around the For example, resin, paint, nail polish, etc.
impression and then pouring cast material. In
this method anatomical portion is down and Q. 25. What is W/P ratio for gypsum product?
base is on the top so anatomical portion is Ans. W/P Compressive
u
slightly hard and this method does not require strength
_
trimming. Type I Impression 0.40–0.75 580 psi
r
plaster
o
Q. 22. What are the recent gypsum products?
f
Ans. Recent gypsum products include: Type II Model Plaster 0.45–0.50 1300 psi
_
• Synthetic gypsum obtained from the waste Type III Dental stone 0.28–0.30 3000 psi
h
products of phosphoric acid Type IV Dental stone 0.22–0.24 5000 psi
c
• Fast setting dental stone. Time savers. high strength
t e
(setting time about 5 minutes) Type V Dental stone 0.18–0.22 7000 psi
_
• Color changing dental stone to denote when high strength,
t
it is ready to use. high expansion
n
• Plastic or resin reinforced dental stone which
e
reduces brittleness and improves resistance Q. 26. How will you manipulate dental plaster
d
to abrasion during carving of wax patterns. or stone?
@
• Cast surfaces may be treated with soap for Ans. Dental plaster or stone is mixed in
added sheen to have longer working time. a flexible rubber or plastic bowl with stiff
Q. 23. What are the requisites of die materials? bladed plaster spatula. Take correct amount of
Ans. The requisites of die materials are: measured water as specified by W/P ratio in the
• Increased Strength rubber bowl and add pre weighted quantity of
• Increased hardness powder. Spatulate with stirring motion for 45–60
• Increased abrasion resistance seconds. Tap the bowl or keep it on the vibrator
• Minimum setting expansion to avoid air bubbles. And immediately pour it in
• Color contrast the impression by inversion or boxing method.
• Electroplating possible. (For figures, see Plate 7)
15 CHAPTER
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Dental Waxes
f o r
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e
Q. 1. What are dental waxes? Q. 4. Classify dental waxes.
t
Ans. Wax is a solid substances made up of Ans. Dental waxes are classified as:
t _
esters of higher alcohol and fatty acids. Dental • Pattern wax: Inlay waxes, base plate wax and
n
wax is a low molecular weight ester of fatty acids casting wax.
e
derived from natural and synthetic components • Processing wax: Sticky wax, boxing wax,
d
such as petroleum derivatives that soften to a carding wax.
plastic state at a relatively low temperature. It is • Impression wax: Registration wax, corrective
@
easy to mold but are unstable and can distort. wax.
Dental waxes have blends of waxes developed (For figures, see Plate 9)
having special properties for special use.
Q. 5. Describe inlay wax in detail.
Q. 2. What is the composition of dental Ans. Inlay wax is a type of pattern wax which
waxes? is used to make wax patterns, i.e. shape of a
Ans. According to ADA specification number restoration in a wax. Inlay waxes are classified
4, composition of dental wax is a trade secret according to ADA specification number 4 as:
but it approximately contains: Type I (medium) for direct wax pattern
1. Natural wax, e.g. bees wax technique done on prepared tooth directly in
2. Synthetic wax – paraffin wax mouth.
3. Natural and synthetic resins Type II (soft or regular) for indirect wax
4. Oils technique prepared on a die.
5. Gums Inlay wax is a specialized dental wax that
6. Coloring agents. can be applied to dies to form direct or indirect
patterns for the lost wax technique used for
Q. 3. What are the sources of the wax?
casting metal or hot pressing of ceramics.
Ans. The sources of the wax may be natural
Direct wax technique is a method by which
from plant or animal or produced synthetically.
pattern is made directly on the prepared tooth
• Insect gives bees wax
in the mouth.
• Plants Candelilla wax and carnauba
Indirect wax technique is a method by which
wax
pattern is prepared on a die.
• Petroleum Paraffin wax
• Mineral Ceresin wax Q. 6. What is the composition of inlay wax?
• Synthetic Polyethylene Ans. Composition of inlay wax is as follows:
Natural wax, paraffin wax, carnauba wax, contouring of the dentures. Available as soft
candelilla wax, bees wax, gum dammer. Type I, Type II medium and Type III hard
• Paraffin wax: 40 –60% obtain from distillation • Carding wax is used to attach artificial teeth
of crude, petroleum, coal, wood, etc. on a narrow strip which are to be marketed
• Gum dammer: Natural resin for luster and • Utility wax is used for building the borders of
smoothness and toughness and render impression tray
resistance to cracking and flaking. • Sticky wax is used to hold the broken parts
• Carnauba wax: To decrease flow at mouth together during denture repair a soldering good
temperature and contribute glossiness. adhesive to dry clean surface when heated
• Candelilla wax: Lower the melting point. • Bite registration wax is used to make occlusal
u
• Ceresin: Modify toughness and carving bite
_
properly. • Beading wax applied around the periphery of
r
the tray
o
Q. 7. What are the desirable properties of
f
• Inlay wax is green or blue
inlay wax?
_
• Sticky wax is yellow
Ans. Desirable properties of inlay wax are:
h
• Utility wax is dark red
c
• Soften uniformly
• Boxing wax is green or black
e
• Color should be contrast with die materials
t
• Base plate wax is pink.
• No flakiness or chipping during carving
t _
• It should be able to carve to a very thin layer Q. 10. What is paraffin wax?
n
• Elimination of wax completely from the Ans. It is a white transparent or colored
e
mould during burnout crystalline substance obtained from distillation
d
• Completely burnout when heated without of crude petroleum, coal, wood, etc.
leaving any residue
@
Q. 11. What are the causes of distortion of wax
• Wax pattern made should be rigid and
pattern?
dimensionally stable at all times
Ans. • Improper manipulation
• Flow: Maximum flow 37°C is 1%, minimum
• Pour quality wax
flow of 70% up to 90% at 45°C
• Improper storage of wax pattern before
• Thermal expansion 0.7% and contraction
investing, etc.
0.35%.
Q. 12. What are preformed plastic patterns?
Q. 8. What is elastic memory? Ans. These are ready shaped plastic pattern
Ans. Tenancy of a solid wax form to partially used for the framework of removable cast partial
return to its original shape when it is stored at denture wax patterns.
a temperature higher than that to which it was
cooled is called as elastic memory. Q. 13. What is composition of sticky wax
(adhesive wax)?
Q. 9. Write the uses of dental waxes. Ans. Exact composition is trade secret; it
Ans. The uses of dental waxes are: contains bees wax, resin and gum dammer.
• Inlay wax is used for making wax pattern
Type I, II Q. 14. What is composition of Base plate wax?
• Casting wax is used for making pattern for Ans. Paraffin wax, bees wax, synthetic resin,
cast RPD etc.
• Base plate wax is available in sheet form and Q. 15. What is composition of synthetic wax?
is used for recording jaw relations, making Ans. Synthetic waxes are the nitrogen
occlusal rims, bite rims and for waxing derivatives of higher fatty acids.
16 CHAPTER
_ u
Casting Investment Material
f o r
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e
Q. 1. What is investment material? • Quartz containing
t
Ans. It is the type of refractory material which • Cristoballite containing
t _
is capable of sustaining to a high temperature – Gypsum bonded is used for
n
without significant degradation and it is used to casting gold alloys
e
form a mould for casting liquid metal in it after – Silica bonded is used for casting
d
burned process. (For figures, see Plate 7) for high fusing base metal alloys
– Phosphate bonded is used for
@
Q. 2. What is the composition of investment
casting chrome cobalt alloys,
material?
higher melting gold alloys and for
Ans. The composition of investment material
casting titanium alloys.
is:
• Refractory material mainly silica which can Q. 4. What is burnout process?
withstand high temperature and compensate Ans. It is a process of heating an invested
for casting shrinkage. Silica is in the mould to eliminate the embedded wax or plastic
polymorphic form of quartz or cristoballite via sprue which is mold channel through which
• Binder material may be dental stone, Silica wax will be eliminated and through which
gel or phosphate. Binder helps to bind the molten metal or ceramic flows into the mold
particles of silica together cavity by centrifugal force under pressure or
• Chemical modifiers. under vacuum and pressure. Burnout process is
done at 250°C for half to one hour.
Q. 3. Classify investment material and write
their uses. Q. 5. What are the ideal properties of
Ans. I. Depending on the binder used: investment material?
• Gypsum bonded Ans. The ideal properties of investment
– Type 1 giving thermal expansion material are:
– Type II giving hydroscopic • Should be refractory to withstand at high
expansion temperature
– Type III both giving thermal and • Should be strong
hygroscopic expansion • Should be porous to get rid of air or gases
• Silica bonded from mold so that liquid metal can enter into
• Phosphate bonded. the mold
II. Depending on the form of silica: • Should set quickly
• Should compensate for casting shrinkage. Q. 9. What is ethyl silicate bonded

For gold alloy casting shrinkage is 1.25% and investment?
for chromium cobalt alloys is 1.8 to 2.2% Ans. Ethyl silicate bonded investment is a type
• Thermal expansion is 0.75 to 1.4% of investment material which contains:
• Hygroscopic expansion is 1.2 to 2.2%. • Refractory material is silica in the form of
cristobalite
Q. 6. What is green shrinkage and green
• Binder is also a form of silica like ethyl silicate
strength?
gel
Ans. Silica bonded investment when heated
• Magnesium oxide to strengthen the gel
looses alcohol, water and shrinks which is
• Ammonium chloride as accelerator.
called as green shrinkage.
u
They are used in the construction of high
Phosphate bonded investment gain strength
_
fusing base metal alloys.
r
during heating and this is green strength.
o
Q. 10. What is casting procedure?
f
Q. 7. What is gypsum bonded investment?
_
Ans. It is one of the types of investment Ans. It is a procedure by which an object is
h
material in which the binder is dental stone, up formed by the solidification of a fluid that has
c
to 25–35%, refractory silica is up to 60–70% and been poured or injected into a mold. Casting
e
means the act of forming on an object in the
t
chemical modifiers like boric acid and coloring
mold. It is a method in which molten metal is
_
agents. Binder binds the refractory silica
t
particles. poured into a mold and is allowed to harden to
n
This material is used for casting gold preformed shape of the mold.
e
alloys with melting range below 1000°C. At
d
Q. 11. What are the steps involved in the
higher temperature during shrinkage of metal casting procedure?
@
decomposition of material and release of sulfur Ans. Steps involved in the casting procedure
gases such as sulfur dioxide is seen which are:
contaminates the castings called as black • Tooth preparation
castings. To avoid this material should not be • Impression
heated above 65°C. • Die preparation
According to ADA specification number 2: • Wax pattern making
• Setting time should be not less than 5 • Spruing of wax pattern
minutes and not more than 25 minutes • Casting ring liner
• Setting time is 9–18 minutes • Investing the pattern
• Setting expansion in air is 0.6% maximum • Wax eliminating by burn out procedure
• Hygroscopic expansion is 1.2% and • Casting molten metal
maximum is 2.2% • Quenching
• Thermal expansion is 0–0.6% at 500°C. • Recovery of casting
• Sand blasting
Q. 8. What is phosphate bonded investment? • Pickling and cleaning of casting
Ans. Phosphate bonded investment material • Finishing and polishing.
is a type of investment material in which (For figures, see Plate 7)
refractory material is silica about 80%. Binder is
magnesium oxide and ammonium phosphate Q. 12. What is lost wax process?
20%. Ans. Wax pattern of a restoration to be made
Silica is in the form of quartz and cristobalite is done on a die or cast. It is the sprued and
and it renders the refractory property and high invested by investment material in casting ring
thermal expansion. They are used for casting having ring linear. This casting ring is then
chrome cobalt alloy, high melting gold alloys heated to remove the wax and form a channel
and casting platinum and titanium alloys. through which molten metal can be introduced
Casting Investment Material 57
into the mold and occupy the space of initial water instead of immersing the ring in the water
wax and allowed to harden to form the shape of bath.
an object. This process was introduced by Dr,
Q. 15. What is heat soaking?
William Taggart of Chicago in 1910.
Ans. Heating the ring at 500°C for 1 hour is
Q. 13. How will you invest the wax pattern for called as heat soaking. This is done to obtain
casting? the thermal expansion and proper condition to
Ans. Wax pattern is first prepared either by receive the hot molten metal.
direct method in mouth or by indirect method
Q. 16. What is hygroscopic low heat technique?
on the prepared die. Wax pattern is made in
Ans. This obtains its compensation expansion
inlay wax. Sprue is attached to the wax pattern.
u
from three sources:
In indirect method there is better access to
_
• 37°C water bath expands wax pattern
r
work, improved carving and accuracy with
• Warm water entering into investment aids
o
better marginal fit. Spruing is done. Sprue forms
f
hygroscopic expansion and
a channel or in gate for the entry of molten metal
_
• Thermal expansion at 500°C.
to mould. It varies in size from 1.5 and 2.4 mm
h
Thus here first hygroscopic expansion is
c
depending upon the size of the pattern. Length
obtained and then the ring is heated to 500°C
e
of the sprue former depends upon the length
t
to obtain some more thermal expansion.
of casting ring and within 6 mm of the trailing
t _
end. Sprue is generally formed from plastic. Q. 17. What is high heat thermal expansion?
n
Reservoir is a piece of wax attached to the sprue Ans. This method depends entirely on using
e
forms about 1 mm from the pattern is attached high heat burnout to obtain the required
d
so as to provide additional material during flow expansion. Here hygroscopic expansion is
and prevent localized shrinkage porosity. Sprue not done but the ring is heated up to 700°C for
@
former is placed on crucible former, which is 1 hour to obtain maximum thermal expansion.
a stand to hold the sprue along with pattern
Q. 18. Name the various types of casting
within the casting ring.
machines.
Casting ring encircles the wax pattern
Ans.
and rest on the crucible former. It is lined by
• Centrifugal casting machine/torch melting
ring linear like cellulose paper or aluminum
• Vacuum pressure assisted casting machine
silicate glass so as to allow the expansion of the
• Electrical heated casting machine
investment.
• Induction melting machine
Water or soapy solution is applied to the wax
• Direct current arc melting machine.
pattern and then investment material is poured
and allowed to set. Q. 19. How do you melt the alloys?
Investing can be done by hand investing or Ans. Blow torch using compressed air and
vacuum investing. natural gas is used to melt the gold alloy. Oxy
Vacuum investing is preferred as it eliminates acetylene flame is used to melt the chrome-
gas bubbles and air and provides smooth mix so cobalt alloy.
as to provide casting with surface free defects
and porosities. Q. 20. What is pickling?
Ans. Pickling is a process of cleaning the
Q. 14. What is controlled water added technique? casting in 30–50% hydrochloric acid or sulfuric
Ans. The shrinkage compensation is acid to remove the oxides coating and get back
controlled by the addition of water during the the original color of the metal.
setting of investment. This method is referred to
as the controlled water added technique. Q. 21. What is casting crucible?
This is done to get the hygroscopic expansion Ans. Casting crucible is a device in which the
of the investment by adding specific amount of alloy is melted either by blow torch or by oxy
acetylene flame. Four types of casting crucible be prevented by providing reservoir,

are available: i.e. flaring the point of sprue and
• Clay, carbon, quartz and zirconics alumina providing sufficient material.
crucibles Also if there is low casting
• Clay crucible is used for crown and bridge temperature then it can be seen as
• Carbon crucible is used for higher fusing micro porosity.
gold alloys. Suck back porosity is a localized
Alumina or quartz crucible is used for alloys shrinkage seen possibly due to
having high melting temperature like base turbulent flow of alloy into mold.
metal alloys or platinum silver alloys. This occurs near the area of sprue.
u
Porosities due to absorbed gases in
Q. 22. What is broken arm in casting machine?
_
the mould: causes pinhole porosity,
r
Ans. In centrifugal casting machine centrifugal
gas inclusion porosity, sub surface
o
force is generated by an object moving over a
f
porosity
turned path and thus putting the object away
_
- Pinhole porosity is due to dissolved
from the center of motion.
h
oxygen and hydrogen gases in the
c
In the machine the rotating arm of the
liquid metal getting expelled during
e
machine is in two parts connected by a pivoted
t
solidification
points which keeps the arm at the proper angle
_
- Gas inclusion porosity: Here
t
so that the molten metal flows into the mold.
oxygen and hydrogen gases are
n
Broken arm accelerates the initial rotational
not dissolved in the molten metal
e
speed thus increasing the linear speed of the
but simply present in it in the mold
d
liquid casting alloy during flow.
causing porosity
@
Q. 23. What are the defects in the casting? - Sub surface porosity is due to the
Ans. Defects can be classified as: gas bubbles present at the sides
• Distortion or walls of the mold and occur just
• Surface roughness and irregularities beneath the surface hence called as
• Porosities subsurface porosity.
• Incomplete or missing detail casting: – Incomplete casting or missing details in
– Distortion may be due to distortion of wax casting mainly if the molten alloy has not
pattern or of the investment mould flown into the mold. This defect may be
– Surface roughness and irregularities may due to:
be due to air bubbles in the mix - Improper or insufficient venting of
- Not using wetting agent mold
- Too rapid heating - Insufficient venting is directly
- Under heating or over heating related with back pressure exerted
- Improper water powder ratio by the air in the mold which does not
- High casting pressure allow to molten alloy to fill the mold
- Coarse investment powder - Incomplete casting is also due to
- Incorporation of impurities or incomplete elimination of wax
foreign bodies residues from the mold during burn
- Improper mixing. out procedure
– Porosities can be due to: - Also if the temperature is low during
- Solidification shrinkages melting of alloy then viscosity and
- Entrapped air in the mould surface tension of the alloy will not be
- Adsorbed gases in the mould. sufficient for proper flow and hence
Solidification shrinkage causes it will result in incomplete casting or
localized shrinkage porosity and can casting with details missing.
17 CHAPTER
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Finishing and Polishing Material
f o r
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e
Q. 1. What is finishing? grinding or scrapping for providing a final shape
t
Ans. Finishing is a process of removing and contour to restoration or appliances.
t _
surface defects or scratches created during the
Q. 4. What is buffing?
n
contouring process through the use of cutting
Ans. Buffing is a process of producing a
e
or grinding instruments or both. It is a method
lustrous surface through the abrading action
d
of producing a final shape and contour to the
of fine abrasives bound to a non abrasive
restoration or appliance by abrasion using an
@
binder medium. Polished glossy layer is called
abrasive agents.
as Beilby. This is named so because such a
Q. 2. What is polishing? microcrystalline surface layer after polishing
Ans. Polishing is process of providing luster or was first noted by a scientist named “Beilby”.
gloss on a material surface usually by friction. It is probable that the rapid movement of a
This is done so as to make the surface of an polishing agent across a surface heat the top
object scratch free, so as to render smooth, layer of the material and causes it to flow and fill
shiny and mirror like finished surface by using the scratches producing Beilby layer.
polishing agents like pumice, chalk, rough, tin Q. 5. What is contouring?
oxide, chromium oxide, etc. Ans. It is a process of producing a desired
In dentistry it is an act or process of making a anatomical form by cutting or grinding away
denture, casting or ceramic restorations smooth excess material.
and glossy (GPT).
Polish is the luster or gloss produced on a Q. 6. What is cutting?
finished surface. Ans. It is a process of removing material from
Polisher is the material used to polish and is the substrate by use of a bladed bur or an abrasive
softer than the material to be polished. embedded in a binding matrix on a bur or disk.
Q. 7. What is grinding?
Q. 3. What is abrasive and abrasion?
Ans. It is a process of removing excess material
Ans. Abrasive is a hard substance used for
from a substrate by abrasion with relatively
abrasion, grinding, finishing or polishing a less
coarse particles.
hard substance. It is the material to polish and is
softer than the material to be polished. Q. 8. What is bulk reduction?
Abrasion is to remove a material from Ans. It is a process of removing excess bulk
the surfaces of material by rubbing, cutting, material by cutting or grinding a material with
rotary instrument to provide a desired anatomic Q. 13. What are the biological hazards of
form. finishing process?
Ans. Some particles are released in breathing
Q. 9. What do you mean by finished and spaces which are called as aerosols that may be
polished restoration? a source of infections for eyes, lungs, etc.
Ans. A prosthesis or direct restoration whose • Silicosis—called as Grinder’s disease occurs
outer surface has been progressively refined to due to aerosol of silica based materials,
a desired state of surface finish. causing fibrotic pulmonary disease.
Q. 10. What is the difference between natural • This can be prevented by using water sprays
glaze and over glaze? or high vacuum suctions.
u
Ans. Natural glaze is a vitrified layer that • Personal protection by using safety glasses,
_
face mask, aprons and using entire facility
r
forms on the surfaces of a dental ceramic
having adequate ventilation system is
o
containing a glass phase when the ceramic is
f
heated to a glazing temperature for a specified recommended.
_
time. Q. 14. What is two-body and three-body
h
Over glaze is a thin surface coating of glass
c
abrasion?
formed by fusing a thin layer of glass powder
e
Ans. If the abrasion particles are firmly
t
that matures at lower temperature than that bonded to the surface of abrasion instrument
_
associated with ceramic substrate.
t
and no other abrasion particles are used then
n
Q. 11. What are the benefits of finishing and it is called as two-body abrasion or wear, e.g.
e
polishing a restoration? a diamond bur abrading on a tooth where two
d
Ans. They provide mainly three benefits of bodies involved are bur and tooth.
Three-body abrasion or wear occurs when
@
dental care:
1. Oral health abrasive particles are free to translate or rotate
2. Function between two surfaces, e.g. in dental prophylaxis
3. Aesthetic. three bodies are involved like surface of teeth,
Oral health is maintained by resisting the brush and third abrasive paste.
accumulating of food debris and pathogenic Q. 15. What is erosion?
bacteria. Less retention is seen in areas having Ans. Erosion means eating away.
smooth surface and hence easy for cleaning and In dentistry erosion is the progressive loss
to maintain the hygienic state. of tooth substance by chemical process that do
• Better resistance to tarnish and corrosion not involve bacterial action producing defects
• Enhance the oral functions during that are sharply defined like wedge shaped
mastication depression in facial and cervical areas. Erosion
• Minimizes wear rate of opposing and is the result of hard particles impacting a
adjacent teeth substrate surface, e.g. hard particle erosion and
• Improved esthetic as it prevents adhesion of chemical erosion.
food debris, saliva, plaque, etc.
• Prevent irritation to the soft tissue. Q.16. How do you measure the hardness of
abrasives?
Q. 12. What is the goal of finishing and Ans. German mineralogist, Friedrich Mohs in
polishing? 1820 ranked 1–10 materials for hardness.
Ans. To obtain the desired anatomy, proper No. 1 Talc is the least scratch resistance, i.e.
occlusion and the reduction of roughness, soft, and No.10 Diamond is the most scratch
gouges and scratches produced. resistance, i.e. hardest
Finishing and Polishing Material 61
Knoop and Vickers hardness test based nonabrasive device like rubber, felt or chamois
on identification methods are employed to cloth.
quantify the hardness of the materials. The abrasive can be dispersed in a water
soluble medium.
Q. 17. What is abrasive grits?
Ans. Abrasive grit describes the size of the Q. 23. What are the types of abrasives?
abrasive particle that are obtained from the Ans. The types of abrasives are:
minerals that have been crushed and passed • Natural abrasive include:
through a series of mesh screen to obtain Arkansas stone, chalk, corundum, diamond,
different particle size range, like coarse, emery, garnet, pumice, quartz, sand, Tripoli
medium coarse, fine and superfine. and zirconium silicate.
u
• Manufactured abrasives are synthesized and
_
Q. 18. What is bonded abrasive?
r
include:
Ans. Bonded abrasives consist of abrasive
o
Silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, rouge
f
particles that are incorporated or attached
(kiesel guhr), tin oxide, synthetic diamond
_
through binders to the abrasive or grinding
abrasives.
h
tools like points, wheels, separating disks, burs,
c
Arkansas stone: It is a silicones rock mined
stones etc. Particles can be bonded by:
e
in Arkansas, USA. It is used for grinding
t
a. Sintering (ceramic)
enamel and metal.
_
b. Vitreous bonding (glass or ceramic)
t
Chalk: It is a mineral calcite viz. calcium
c. Resinous bonding (phenolic resin)
n
carbonate used as mild abrasive and a
b. Rubber bonding (silicon based rubber).
e
polishing agent.
d
Corundum: It is a natural aluminum oxide
Q. 19. What is truing? Al2O3 used as an abrasive to grind metal.
@
Ans. Truing is a procedure through which the Diamond: It is transparent, colorless mineral
abrasive instrument (bur) is run against a harder composed of carbon. Hardest known
abrasive block until the abrasive instrument substance therefore called as super abrasive
rotates in the hand piece without run out or used for ceramic and resin based composite
shaking when placed on the substrate or hand materials.
piece. Emery: Mixture of granular grayish black
For example, Burs rotates smoothly without corundum and magnetic iron coated on disks
shaking in hand piece by truing instrument. and used for finishing metal and acrylic.
(For figures, see Plate 11) Garnet: It is a dark red mineral composed
Q. 20. What is dressing procedure? of silicates of aluminum, cobalt, iron,
Ans. It is a method to shape the instrument magnesium and manganese. It is available
to its correct working size and to remove the on coated disks and used as hard abrasive for
clogged debris from the abrasive instrument metal, acrylic and composite of arbor bond.
during cavity cutting. It is abrasive blinding. Pumice: It is a volcanic activity product and
is light gray silicon material used to polish
Q. 21. What is a coated abrasive? enamel, gold foil, amalgam, and acrylic resins.
Ans. Coated abrasives are fabricated by Quartz: It is hard colorless transparent
securing abrasive particle coated to flexible mineral used as abrasive to finish metal
backing material like paper, metal or Mylar with alloys.
a suitable adhesive material.
Sand: Mixture of small mineral particles
Supplied as paper disks or finishing strips.
mainly silica used by coating on paper to
Q. 22. What is nonbonded abrasive? grind alloys and resins.
Ans. Nonbonded abrasives are polishing paste Tripoli: It is derived from light weight friable
which needs to be applied to the substrate with silicone porous rock found near Tripoli
(Libya) used to polish gold alloys and acrylic • Size of particle

resin. • Pressure applied
Zirconium silicate: Zircon—It is off white • Speed and duration of abrasion
mineral used in dental prophylaxis paste. • Medium used for lubricant, i.e. water,
Cuttle: It is a white calcareous powder of glycerin or alcohol
pulverized internal shell of marine mollusk • Patient’s coordination and mental status.
used for polishing metal margins and
Intraoral or internal:
amalgam restoration.
• Saliva consistency
Kiaselguhr: It is derived form aquatic plants
• Pathology or radiation therapy
called as diatoms and is used as filler in
• Quality and quantity of deposits
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hydrocolloids and as polishing agent.
• Presence of restoration
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Silicon carbide: Green or blue black in
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• Material used
color. It is extremely hard type of synthetic
o
• Exposure of tooth and root surface.
f
abrasive where particles are coated on disk
Abrasion produces scratches on the surface
_
and as vitreous bonded and rubber bonded
of material.
h
instruments. Used for metal alloys ceramic
c
and resins. Q. 26. What is synthetic diamond?
e
Ans. It is produced by compressing graphite
t
Aluminum oxide: Synthetic aluminum
_
abrasives available as white/pink stone under pressure of 8,00,000–18,00,000 psi at a
t
abrasive for tooth, metal, composites and temperature above 5000°C.
n
ceramic. Q. 27. What is crocus cloth?
e
Rouges: Fine red abrasive blended with soft Ans. Rouge in which iron oxide is impregnated
d
abrasions into a cake form used to polish on cloth is called as crocus cloth.
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noble metal alloys and gold alloys.
Tin oxide: Fine abrasive used as polishing Q. 28. What is lava soap?
agent for tooth and metallic restorations Ans. It is pumice stone used to remove dried
mixed with water alcohol or glycerin to form skin and to rub the body parts in the bathrooms.
paste. Q. 29. What is electrolytic polishing?
Q. 24. What is abrasive paste? Ans. It is a method of smoothening and
Ans. Abrasive paste contains either aluminum brightening a metal surface by electrolysis. This
oxide or diamond particles mixed with water, is used to polish stainless steel and chrome
alcohol or glycerin. They are used with rotary cobalt alloys. Electrolytic polishing makes the
instrument and water. Ribbed prophy cups, surface tarnish and corrosion resistant.
brushes, felt wheels are used with rotary Q. 30. What is dentifrice and state its
instrument. composition?
Disadvantages: Pastes tends to splatter off of Ans. Dentifrice is a substance which is used to
the instrument and since it is thick it cannot clean the tooth. Available either as tooth paste
enter the embrasure space and also heat is and tooth powder and gels.
generated. Composition of tooth paste:
• Abrasive and polisher: 20–25% whiting
Q. 25. What are the factors that affect rate and
hydrated silica. CaCO3,CaPO4, Al2O3.
effectiveness of abrasion?
• Detergent: Soap - 1–2% sodium lauryl sulfate.
Ans. Factors that affect rate and effectiveness
• Flavoring agents: 1–2% oil of peppermint,
of abrasion are:
wintergreen cinnamon.
Extra oral or external: • Coloring agent: 1–2% Food colors.
• Hardness of abrasion • Binder: 1–3% Carboxyl methyl cellulose,
• Amount of abrasive used carrageen an, natural gum.
Finishing and Polishing Material 63
• Humectants: 20–35% sorbitol, glycerin and • Tarter controlling agent: 0–1% Disodium
propylene glycol. pyrophosphate, Tetra potassium
• Thickening agent: Traces, starch. pyrophosphate.
• Drugs: Traces.
• Fluorides: 0–1%. Sodium fluorides, stannous In tooth powder :
fluoride. • Abrasive is 90–98%
• Water: 15–25%. • Detergent is 1–6%
• Desensitization agents: 0–5% Potassium • Coloring agents: 1–2%
nitrate, Strontium chloride. • Flavors: 1–2%.
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18 CHAPTER
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Direct Restorative Material
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Q. 1. What is bonding or adhesion? collagen mesh that allows infiltration of an
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Ans. Bonding is joining together securely with adhesive resin.
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an adhesive substance such as cement or glue.
Q. 6. Which are the different ways of
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In dentistry bonding is an adhesive technique
e
involving conditioning of enamel or dentine bonding?
d
so as to create tags in the tooth structure for Ans. Bonding or adhesion can be done by:
mechanical retention of restorative material. • Mechanical bonding by means of undercuts
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and using rough surface
Q. 2. What is bonding agents? • Chemical bonding by means of chemical
Ans. It is a material used to promote adhesion reactions at atomic level
or cohesions between two different substances • Wetting
or between a material and natural tooth • Interpenetration by formation of hybrid
structure. zone.
Dentine bonding agent is a thin layer of resin In mechanical bonding there is micro
between conditioned dentine and the resin mechanical and macromechnical bonding.
matrix of a composite, e.g. 3 M single bond. In micromechanical bonding the roughness
of the surface is not seen. Acid etching is done
Q. 3. What is adhesive? prior to the use of composite resin material.
Ans. It is a substance that promotes adhesions In macromechanical bonding the roughness
of one substance or material to other. of surface is seen with naked eye, e.g. luting
It is any substance that creates close cement used to fix crown or bridge. If fused
adherence to or on adjoining surfaces (luting porcelain is able to wet the metal rough surface,
agents). it will flow into the surface irregularities on the
Q. 4. What is adhesive bonding? surface resulting in mechanical interlocking.
Ans. It is a process of joining two materials Sand blasting is also a used to roughen the
by means of an adhesive agent that solidifies surface.
during bonding process. Chemical bonding is due to the direct
electron transfer that occurs between oxide of
Q. 5. What is dentin conditioner? glass and metal in the coping alloy.
Ans. It is an acidic agent that dissolves the Wetting is the property in which for adhesion
inorganic structure in dentin resulting in a the liquid flows over the entire surface and
Direct Restorative Material 65
adhere to the solid. Here the contact angle is strength and durability. This is usually done to
zero between adherent and adhesive. fill the cervical eroded areas like class II and V
caries cases.
Q. 7. What is micro leakage?
Ans. It is the flow of oral fluid and bacteria into Q. 13. What is acid etch technique and where
the microscopic gap between a prepared tooth it is used?
surface and a restorative material. Ans. Acid etch technique is one of the type of
The degree of micro leakage can be intra oral adhesion. First reported in 1955 by
monitored by the penetration of traces and Micheal Bonocore to seal the pits and fissures.
staining agents. It is a method of making enamel surface rough
by using 37% phosphoric acid which removes
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Q. 8. What is the difference between smear
calcium salts from the enamel surface.
_
layer and hybrid layer?
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This is done to improve mechanical bonding
Ans. Smear layer is a poorly adhesive layer
o
with restoration and seal the interfacial gaps
f
of ground dentin produced by cutting a dentin
thereby reducing micro leakage postoperative
_
surface. During cavity cutting the debris of
sensitivity, reduce stain at the margins and thus
h
dentin left at the surface is smear layer.
c
make the surface less recurrent to decay
Hybrid layer is an intermediate layer of resin
e
Acid etching is done in following conditions
t
collagen and dentin produced by acid etching of
during:
_
dentin and resin infiltrating into the conditional
t
• Application of pit and fissure sealant
dentin.
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• Composite filling
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Q. 9. What is resin tag or enamel tag? • Direct bonding of orthodontic brackets to
d
Ans. It is the extension of resin that has the tooth surface
penetrated into etched enamel or dentin. • Luting of crown and bridge
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Restorative resin that flows into the irregularities • Veneering porcelain or composites is used
created by acid etching brings about more to close the diastema or modify the tooth
bonds between tooth enamel and resin. pattern for esthetics
• Bonding of teeth together for splinting.
Q. 10. What is primer?
Ans. It is a hydrophilic, low viscosity resin that Q. 14. Describe the method of acid etching?
promotes bonding to a substrate such as dentin. Ans. Clean and dry the tooth surface.
Phosphoric acid at a concentration between
Q. 11. What is preventive resin restoration
30–50%, but typically 37% available as aqueous
(PRR)?
gel is applied with brush to the surface for 15
Ans. A conservative sealed resin based
seconds, so that they yield acceptable bond
composite restoration usually placed in a
strength. Concentration greater than 50% result
minimally prepared occlusal fissure area with
in the deposition of an adherent layer at mono
the solvent extending into the continuous
calcium phosphate monohydrate on the etch
uncut fissure sealant and composite resin
surface which inhibits further dissolution. Then
restoration done on molars to prevent caries. It
acid is rinsed away thoroughly with a stream of
is a combination of pit and fissure sealant and
water for 20 seconds and allowed to dry it. Dried
composite resin restoration done on molars to
surface should have white frosted appearance.
prevent the caries.
Q. 15. What is enamel bonding agent and
Q. 12. What is sandwich technique?
dentin bonding agent?
Ans. The process of restoring a prepared
Ans. Enamel bonding agent is derived from
tooth by initially placing a layer of type II glass
resin matrix diluted by other monomers to lower
ionomer cement for fluoride release followed
the viscosity and enhance wetting. They are the
by an over layer of resin based composite for
liquid form of organic matrix of the composite
resin used as fillings, e.g. Bis GMA and TEGMA • Fourth generation dental adhesive.
made by combining different dimethacrylates. 3rd generation dental adhesive opening of
Dentin bonding agent means direct the dentinal tubules which is done by etching
restoration reliably bonded without using results in pulpal irritation, inflammation
retentive features. The intermediate link and potentially death of pulpal tissues.
between dentin and/or enamel and unfilled Hence they are modied in the form of fourth
resin is k/a dentinal bonding. It is infact the generation.
extension of enamel acid etching to dentin. Fourth generation dental adhesive includes
The relatively thin resin layer is referred to as following steps:
dentine bonding agent. – Etch dentin and enamel
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– Rinse to remove etchant and tooth
Q. 16. Which are the different generations
_
minerals
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dental adhesives?
– Dry with air
o
Ans. The different generations Dental
f
– Slightly moisten the surface
adhesives are:
_
– Absorb excess water with a cotton pellet
• First generation dental adhesives are based
h
– Apply primer
c
on silane coupling agents.
– Dry thorough to remove primer solvent
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• Second generation dental adhesive are two
t
– Apply adhesive in a layer of about 50 µm
step dentin bonding used in 1960 to 1970.
_
– Light cure the adhesive
t
– Primer and adhesive is combined as one
– Apply composite resin over adhesive
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product or
– Cure the matrix resin of the composite.
e
– It is available as self etching primer that
• Fifth generation dental adhesive:
d
acts as primer and etchant.
This was developed to achieve the clinical
Use of dentin bonding can reduce the size of
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success of bonding agent in few steps.
cavity preparation, e.g., NPG-GMA (N-phenyl
– Steps were reduced by combining the
glycine-glycidyl methacrylate). These agents
conditioner and primer (self etching
lack in significant chemical bonding.
primer) or the use of primer and adhesive
• Third generation dental adhesives are three
(self etching primer adhesive or one bottle
step dentinal bonding system.
system)
– Application of dentin conditioner, a
• Sixth generation involves single step bonding
type of acid to remove smear layer. Etch
by combining primer, conditioner and
dentin and enamel with 37% phosphoric
adhesive all three components in one bottle
acid, to remove smear layer. Surface layer
only.
is decalcified and dentinal tubules are
opened. Q. 17. How dentin bonding adhesive works?
– Application of primer (dentin bonding Ans. There is formation of resin tags in the
agent) such as HEMA (hydroxyl ethyl dentinal tubules by forming hybrid layer of resin
methacrylate). Primer flows into the open and decalcified dentine. Hydrophilic nature of
tubules and decalcified dentin. Primer primer helps in wetting the etch dental surface.
acts as wetting agent. Thus there exists both micromechanical
– Application of dentin adhesive viz an bonding and secondary atomic bonding.
unfilled resin bonding agent such as
NPG-GMA N-phenyl glycine-glycidyl Q. 18. What are pit and fissure sealants?
methacrylate) and HEMA. The adhesive Ans. These are resins used to block or seal off
sets and covers the primer and hybrid the pits and fissures on the surface of posterior
layer which is decalcified dentin. teeth against the entry of micro-organisms
– Placement of resin based composite thereby preventing decay.
Direct Restorative Material 67
For example, Resins based on BIS-GMA Q. 19. What is biofilm?

(bisphenol glycidyl methacrylate) Ans. Biofilm is a film of saliva, blood or
• Polyurethane resins crevicular fluids on the surface of teeth, that
• Cyanoacylates forms enamel pellicle which prevents bonding
• Glass ionomer cements. of dental adhesive.
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19 CHAPTER
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Restorative Resins
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Q. 1. What is restoration? • Anterior (esthetic) restorative materials
t
Ans. Tooth structure is mainly lost due to caries • Posterior restorative resins materials.
t _
or trauma. The lost tooth structured can be Restorative resin:
n
restored by restorative material. The damaged Unfilled [no fillers], e.g. acrylic resin
e
natural tooth is reconstructed so as to restore Filled resins, e.g. composite
d
or replace the lost tooth structure or tissue in its • Preventive, e.g. pit and fissure sealants.
form and function by using an artificial material (For figures, see Plate 10)
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called as restorative material and the restored Q. 3. What is GV Black’s classification of
tooth structure is called as restoration. cavities for caries?
(For figures, see Plate 10) Ans. GV Black’s classification of cavities for
Q. 2. Classify restorative materials. caries is:
Ans. They can be classified as: Class-I : Occlusal surfaces of premolars and
• Temporary restorative materials. molars involving only one surfaces
– Zinc oxide eugenol cement. of tooth.
– IRM (intermediary restorative materials Class-II : Involving two surfaces of posterior
like polymer reinforced ZOE cement) teeth, i.e. occlusal and inter proximal
– Temporary crown and bridge material, surfaces.
e.g. self cure resin and heat cure resin. Class-III : On the interproximal surface of
• Permanent restorative materials. anterior tooth without involvement
– Amalgam of incisal angle.
– Gold and gold alloys Class-IV : On the interproximal surface of
– Composite resins anterior tooth with involvement of
– Chromium cobalt alloys incisal angle.
– Ceramic Class-V : On the gingival 1/3rd of buccal, labial
– Compomer or palatal surface of any tooth.
– Zinc polycarboxylate cements. Class-VI : On the cusp or incisal edge of any
• For intermediate bases and liners tooth.
– Zinc oxide eugenol cement Q. 4. What are the esthetic restorative
– Zinc phosphate cement materials?
– Calcium hydroxide. Ans. These are tooth colored materials that are
OR used to beauty or for attractiveness with respect
Restorative Resins 69
to the appearance of a dental restoration, as Fillers give strength and wear resistance.
achieved through its form and/or color. Particle size of filler determines the roughness
Silicates were used for initial half of 20th or smoothness of finish restoration and makes
century. But due to its disadvantage of erosion it abrasive resistance, decrease shrinkage. For
they were replaced by PMMA resin. They are example, ceramic materials like quartz, glass,
highly irritant to the pulp and also discoloration e.g. boro silicates and strontium glass.
is seen in mouth breathers that may affect Coupling agent have different chemical
esthetics. groups at both ends of the molecules where one
Resins had poor wear resistance and end react with filler and other end react with
shrinkage and were replaced by composite and matrix thus forms the bond between organic
u
ceramic materials. Restorative materials are and inorganic part.
_
used for restorations, pit and fissure sealants,
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Q. 7. What is chemically activated resin?
bonding of ceramic veneers and fixed prosthesis.
o
Ans. A resin system consists of two paste one
f
Q. 5. What is composite? containing a benzyl peroxide as initiator and
_
Ans. Dental composites are highly cross- other an aromatic tertiary amine activator, i.e.
ch
linked polymeric materials reinforced by a N-N-dimethyl-t-toluidine, which when mixed
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dispersion of amorphous silica glass crystalline together releases free radicals that initiate
t
or organic resin filler particle and/or short fibers polymerization. These are used for restorations
t _
bound to the matrix by silane coupling agent. and large foundation structure (build-ups) that
n
These are three-dimensional combination of are not really cured with light source.
e
two chemically different materials insoluble in
Q. 8. What is chemically cured composite?
d
each other but held together by coupling agent.
Ans. It is a particle filled resin that is polyme
Dr Roy L Bowen in 1962 developed the
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rized through a chemically activated process.
composite resin, which is combination of
several monomer molecules to form a molecule Q. 9. What is light cure composite?
and it is biofunctional, i.e. BIS-GMA. Ans. It is a particle filled resin consisting of a
single paste that becomes polymerized through
Q. 6. What is the composition of composite
the use of a photosensitive initiator system.
resin?
Camphorquinone 0.2% by weight is a
Ans. There are three structural components:
photosensitizer that absorbs blue light.
• Organic matrix: A plastic resin material that
An initiator system via DEAEMA, i.e. dimethyl
forms a continuous phase and binds the filler
amino ethylmethacrylate 0.15% by weight.
particles.
Light source activator is tungsten halogen
• Inorganic filler: Reinforcing particles and/or
bulb of blue light with wavelength between
fibers that are disperse in matrix.
400–500 nm.
• Coupling agent: It is a binding agent that
Advantages of light cured composite:
promotes adhesion between filler and
• Long working time.
matrix.
• Restorations can be done in increments.
• Activator: It is a source of energy used
• Insertion and contouring is possible before
to activate an initiator and produce free
curing.
radicals.
• Syringe can be used.
• Inhibitor: It is a chemical added to resin
• Quick cure with no air bubbles.
systems to provide increase working time
• Laboratory procedures reduced.
and extended storage life by minimizing
• Patients’ appointments reduced.
spontaneous polymerization.
Organic matrix polymerizes and forms a solid Q. 10. What are the different types of curing
mass and bonds to tooth structure. They are method for resin based composites?
weak and wear out, e.g. Bis-GAMA (bisphenol- Ans. The different type of curing resin based
A-Glycidyl methacrylate). composites is by:
• Chemical activation: Polymerization is by Q. 12. What is depth of cure?

adding a chemical as activator to one of Ans. The thickness of resin that can be cured or
the paste. In this during mixing there is no converted from monomer to polymer depends
control over working time and also chances under a specific light curing condition. Depth of
of air incorporating which decreases the cure implies the thickness of composites cured
strength and thus weakens the material. by light cure. Curing depth is limited to 2–3 mm.
• Light activation: To overcome the problem of These vary considerably according to the type
chemical activation, light source of activation of composites, opacity, filler concentration,
is done by using a photosensitive initiator. pigments shade and intensity of light. Darker
Light cure materials allows the operator to shades with more opaque resins require longer
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complete insertion and contouring before curing time.
_
curing by light for about 40 seconds for
r
Q. 13. What is Dual Cure Resin?
2–3 mm layer, placed incrementally due to
o
Ans. A dual cure resin is a type of restorative
f
limited depth of light penetration.
composite that contains both chemically acti
_
Disadvantages are that they are more time
vated and light activated components to initiate
h
consuming and costly.
c
polymerization and potentially overcome the
• Photo curing with visible blue light: Cross
e
limitations of the chemically cure or light cure
t
linked resin is produced when a diacrylate
systems. Limitation mainly includes porosity
_
monomer having photo initiator is irradiated
t
that is incorporated during mixing and also the
with a blue light.
n
limits on depth of cure respectively.
Advantages of light cure resins are:
e
Dual cure resin consists of two light curable
• Less porous,
d
pastes:
• Has controlled working time and One contains benzyl peroxide and other
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• Has good color stability. contains aromatic tertiary amine.
This can be cured by extra oral heat or light
Q. 11. Which types of lamps are used for
for making composite inlays on tooth or on die.
photo initiator curing?
Ans. Four types of lamps are used for photo Q. 14. What is degree of conversion?
initiator curing. They are as follows: Ans. Degree of conversion is a measure of
• LED lamp: Blue part of visible spectrum the percentage of carbon-carbon double bonds
between 440–480 nm ranges is used. Low that have to be converted to a single bond to
wattage battery operated, generates no heat form a polymeric resin and also the percentage
and is quite safe with low intensity radiation. of polymerized methacrylate groups. Higher
• QTH lamp: Quartz bulb with a tungsten the degree of conversion better is the strength,
filament. Violet blue spectrum between wear resistance and other properties of the
400–500 nm ranges is used. material.
• PAC lamps: Xenon gas is used, which is Degree of conversion depends on resin
ionized to produce plasma. High intensity composition, transmission of light, concentra
white light filter to allow blue light spectrum tion of sensitizer, initiator and inhibitor.
between 400–500 nm range are used. Q. 15. What are the problems associated with
• Argon laser lamps: Highest intensity and restorative resins ?
emit a single wavelength of 490 nm. Ans. Problems associated with restorative
Disadvantages or preventive measures: resins are:
• High intensity can cause retinal damage, so • Polymerization (setting) shrinkage leading
protective eyeglasses and shields should be to micro leakage.
used. Also direct look at the beam should be • Coefficient of thermal expansion leading to
avoided. percolation.
Restorative Resins 71
• Lack of strength and abrasion resistance There is marginal leakage due to polymeri
leading to fracture and rough surface. zation shrinkage.
These problems can be overcome by: Percolation is seen due to coefficient of
• Reduction in volume concentration and thermal expansion.
• Clinical techniques designed to offset the Occlusal wear due to lack of strength and
effects of polymerization shrinkage. abrasion resistance leading to fracture or
roughness.
Q. 16. What is configuration factor or
Leakage at margins leading to secondary
C–factor?
caries, poor proximal contacts.
Ans. Configuration factor or C–factor is a ratio
Radiolucent and so wear of proximal surfaces
between the bonded surface area of a resin
u
are difficult to detect on radiograph easily.
based composite restoration to the unbonded
_
• Indirect posterior composite can be used in
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or free surface area.
the form of inlays or crowns which are luted
f o
Q. 17. What is Nealon or Brush Bead to the teeth by using resin bonded cement.
_
technique? This requires tooth preparation, impression
h
Ans. Brush Bead Technique and laboratory procedure by heat or pressure
c
A layering technique in which restoration for fabrication of restoration.
e
is build up in increments, curing one layer
t
Q. 19. What is hybrid composite?
_
at a time reducing polymerization stress by
t
minimizing C–factor. Ans. A particle filled resin that contains
n
Layering technique overcomes both limited a graded blend of small and colloidal silica
e
depth of cure and residual stress concentration. micro filler particles to achieve an optimal
d
This technique was introduced by Dr Nealon balance among the properties of strength,
and hence c/a Nealon technique. polymerization shrinkage, wear resistance and
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In this technique during manipulation small polishability. They are used in Class-III and
beads of polymer are formed clinging to the end Class-IV cavities and on posterior teeth.
of brush or wire loops and so also c/a brush or Q. 20. What is flowable or fluid composite?
bead technique. Ans. A hybrid composite with reduced filler
Q. 18. Which are the posterior restorative content and a narrower particle size distribution
materials? that increases flow and promotes intimate
Ans. Amalgam is direct filling material. adaptation to the prepared tooth surface.
Advantages are ease of manipulation, • Filler content is 30–40% and therefore they
placement with good mechanical properties, are less viscous and hence flow into the
excellent wear resistance and unique properly cavity.
of self-sealing which reduces leakage within the • No pressure is required.
marginal gaps as restoration ages. • Used as a initial increment to be covered
Disadvantages are that it is unesthetic and with hybrid composite.
has potential toxicity of mercury. And hence for • As a base for Class-I, II, III, and class V
esthetic purpose composite preferred. restoration.
• Packable composite is a hybrid resin • For repair of fractured amalgam margin.
composite designed for use in posterior • As pit and fissure sealant.
areas. They have a stiffer consistency and so • As a surface layer to Class-I composite
facilitates condensation in posterior teeth. fillings.
Disadvantages are: Q. 21. What is micro filler?
Method is time consuming and demanding, Ans. Micro filler is colloidal silica filler of
cannot be packed vertically, c/a condensable 0.04 um in size which reinforce the resin
or compactable composites. material and form a composite that can be
polished to a highly smooth surface. It can be 7. Homogenous 0.04 um silica Low stress and
used in Class III, IV and V cases. microfill small 80–90% subgingival area
Q. 22. What is oxygen inhibitor layer? particle
Ans. The thin surface region of a polymerized 8. Heterogenous 0.04 um silica Subgingival
resin that contain unreacted methylacrylate microfill 0.04 um resin area and low
shrinkage
groups associated with exposure to oxygen. In
required
composites smoothest surface on a restoration
can be obtained by curing composite against a
Q. 24. What is percolation?
smooth matrix strip that minimizes this layer.
Ans. Percolation is a process in which there is
Q. 23. Write the uses and classification of resin
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repeated ingoing and outcoming of oral fluids at
_
based compositions. the margins of a restoration every times due to
r
Ans. Based on filler particles size and size the opening and closing of the gap because of
o
distribution.
f
variation of coefficient of thermal expansion of
_
Sr. Class of Particle size Use rough tooth and resin.
h
No. composite + filler surface
c
Q. 25. What is estrogenicity?
e
1. Traditional/ 1.50 um High stress area
Ans. It is the potential of synthetic chemicals
t
(large particle) glass,
with a binding affinity for estrogen receptors to
_
70–80%
t
2. Hybrid 1–20 um High stress area
cause reproductive alterations.
n
(conventional glass 0.04 with >polished Estrogenicity of resin compounds are mainly
e
or macrofilled) um silica i.e. Class I, II, III, IV associated with monomers like Bisphenol A
d
3. Hybrid 0.1–10 um Class III, IV cases (BPA) and Bisphenol A Dimethacrylate (BPA-
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(Midfiller) glass DM). This is one of the chemical toxicity of
0.04 um silica resins.
4. Hybrid 0.1–2 um Moderate stress
(Minifiller) glass Class III, IV Q. 26. What is pressure or bulk technique?
0.04 um silica Ans. It is a technique of manipulation of
5. Packable Midfiller + Improved acrylic resin in which mixed resin in dough
hybrid Minifiller condensation stage is inserted into the cavity in one mass and
Condensable/ 70–80% required Class, II, held under pressure.
compactable I Posterior teeth
6. Flowable Midfiller Flow and where Q. 27. What is the importance of finishing and
hybrid 30–40% access is difficult polishing?
(reduced class II Ans. Rough surface of composite can
filler cont) Base – class encourage bacterial growth, secondary caries,
II, I, III, V
gingival inflammation and surface staining.
Pit and fissure
sealants Finishing and polishing is done to provide
Surface layer smooth surface and also to reduce the porosities
class I composite and oxygen inhibited layer. This is done not
Amalgam by directly polishing but by curing composite
margin repair against a matrix strip.
20 CHAPTER
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Dental Cements
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Q. 1. What is cement? Base is also the portion of denture that
t
Ans. It is the binding element or agent used supports the artificial dentition and replaces the
t _
as substances to make objects adhere to each alveolar structures and gingival tissues.
n
other. It is a material which on hardening will fill Zinc phosphate cement. Zinc oxide eugenol
e
a space or bind the adjacent objects. cement, zinc polycarboxylate and GIC cement
d
In dentistry cement is a substance that can be used as base.
hardens to act as a base, liner, filling material or Q. 4. What is restoration?
@
adhesive to bind devices and prosthesis to tooth Ans. Restoration means filling material or
structure or to each other. It can be a restorative prosthesis used to restore or replace a tooth,
material as well as luting material. portion of tooth or teeth and/or oral tissues.
Q. 5. What is luting agent?
Q. 2. What is acid base reaction? Ans. A viscous material placed between
Ans. Acid base reaction is a chemical reaction tooth structure and a prosthesis that hardens
between a compound with replaceable hydro through chemical reactions to firmly attach the
gen ions (acid) and a substances with replace prosthesis to the tooth structure. Film thickness
able hydrogen ions (base) that yields water and of 25 um is required for luting. It is applied on
a salt for aqueous cements. Liquid is acid and the inner surface of prosthesis and seated.
powder is base. Luting agent must be sufficiently fluid to flow
into a continuous film of 25 um thickness or less
Q. 3. What is base? without fragmentation.
Ans. Base is a layer with thickness more than Completely filling of the restoration with
0.75 mm that acts as of insulating and sometimes luting agent is avoided for:
medicated cement placed in the deep portion of a. Risk of air bubbles
the preparation to protect pulpal tissues from b. Increased time for seating
thermal and chemical injury and galvanic shock c. Requires increased pressure and
It is the act of placing a lining material under d. Requires increased time for removal of the
a dental restoration or any substances placed excess material.
under a restoration that blocks out undercuts in Q. 6. What is cavity liner?
the preparation, acts as a thermal or chemical Ans. Cavity liner is a thin layer of cement that
barrier to the pulp, and/or controls the thickness is used as a chemical barrier to protect the pulp
of the overlying restoration. from irritating base, liner or restoration.
It is mainly a thin layer of calcium hydroxide • Depending on the mode of use

suspension (pH 11) in an aqueous or resin – Temporary filling/intermediate perma-
carrier (after evaporation) used for protection of nent
the pulp by the formation of reparative dentine. – For pulp capping
Low viscosity ZOE cement and Glass Ionomers – For root canal therapy
are used as cavity liners. – For pit and fissure sealant
Functions of cavity liner: – For surgical dressing or pack
• To maintain adhesion at the tooth restoration – For core build up
interface. – For base or liners
• Sealing the dentine from an influx of – For luting restorations or orthodontic
u
microorganism and irritants resulting from bands and brackets
_
restorative products. • Depending upon the composition
r
• Applied on the floor of the cavity in thin layer – Zinc phosphate
f o
to protect pulp from chemical barrier and – Zinc oxide eugenol—conventional,
_
stimulate dentine formation, e.g. Ca(OH)2, polymer reinforced (IRM—intermediary
h
ZOE and GIC. restorative material)
c
– Zinc oxide eugenol + EBA = Ethoxy
e
Q. 7. What is cavity varnish?
t
benzoic acid alumina reinforced
Ans. It is a solution of natural gum, synthetic
_
– Zinc polycarboxylate
t
resin or rosin dissolved in a volatile solvent such
– Glass ionomer
n
as acetone, ether or chloroform.
– Resin modified glass ionomer
e
They form a coating on the tooth by
– Compomer
d
evaporation of the solvent and reduce the pulpal
– Resin cement
irritation.
@
• Depending upon the chemical reaction
They prevent penetration of corrosion
– Acid base reaction
products of amalgam, i.e. micro leakage
– Polymerization reaction
reducing unsightly tooth discoloration.
• Depending upon the curing method
Thin layer of varnish is required.
– Chemical cure
Varnish is not required in case of adhesive
– Light cure
cement like GIC or composites.
– Dual cure—Chemical + Light
Q. 8. Which agents are used for Pulp – Tri cure—Chemical + Light + Acid base
protection? reaction
Ans. Metallic restoration is having good – Water settable—Powder + Water.
thermal conductivity and hence can cause
thermal sensitivity with hot or cold foods/ Q. 10. What are the mixing consistencies of
beverages. Also acid containing cements, resins cements?
can cause chemical irritation. Shrinkage of Ans. Mixing consistencies of cements are:
material can cause interfacial leakage. • Thin consistency for luting
So cavity varnishes, liners or bases are used Material forms a string from a spatula to mix,
to protect pulp. when material is lifted with spatula
• Thick consistency for filling and base
Q. 9. Classify dental cements. This material can be rolled into rope or ball
Ans. Dental Cements are classified as:
• According to the use (Main or Secondary) Q. 11. What is film thickness?
– Restorative cement, e.g. GIC, Silicate Ans. It is the height or amount of space
– Luting cement—zinc phosphate between the two surfaces that are separated by a
– Base and Liner—ZOE cement, calcium cement, e.g. Distance between the tooth surface
hydroxide. and a cemented prostheses.
Dental Cements 75
It refers to the thinness of mixed cement aqueous based cement as a result of rapid
suitable for luting that may vary from 25 um to dehydration.
40 um. Craze means to produce a crack in a surface
It is a property of luting cement and is or coating.
measured after pressure is applied between two
Q. 16. What is demineralization and
flat surfaces that are separated by the cement
remineralization?
layer.
Ans. Demineralization is the loss of mineral,
Q. 12. What is cermet? typically calcium and phosphate ions from
Ans. Cer = Ceramic. Met = Metal. It is metal tooth structure caused by exposure to organic
modified GIC cement where GIC is reinforced acids produced by oral microorganism.
u
with filler particles by fusing silver particles to Remineralization is a process of restoring
r_
glass by sintering process at high temperature. mineral content in demineralized tooth structure.
o
GIC though esthetic but lack in strength and
f
Q. 17. What is dew point?
toughness and hence cannot withstand high
_
Ans. Temperature at which moisture in air
stress concentration that promotes crack
h
begins to condense, i.e. the temperature at
c
propagations. Therefore ionomer and metal
which dew deposits on a cooled glass mixing
e
particles are fused at high temperature to form
t
slab.
metal reinforced GIC that are called as Cermet.
t _
For example, Miracle mix—a metal modified Q. 18. What is fluoride recharging?
n
GIC in which spherical silver (Ag) amalgam Ans. It is a phenomenon in which glass
e
alloy is mixed to GIC powder. ionomer cement absorbs fluorides from a
d
Cermet cements are used for occlusal surface solution with a high fluoride concentration.
of primary molars and core build up as they
@
Q. 19. What is Flux?
are adhesive and carries resistance. They also
Ans. Flux = flow.
release appreciable amount of fluoride initially
It is the Rate of flow of liquid particles/
but magnitude increases overtime.
energy.
Q. 13. What is compomer? It is a substance that reduces the fusing
Ans. Compo = Composites, Mer = Ionomer temperature of minerals during the melting of
Compomers are also k/s polyacid modified glass.
resin based composites, i.e. combination of GIC It is applied to the surfaces to be joined by
and composite resin, containing silicate glass soldering, brazing or welding to clean and free
filler particles and methacrylate and acidic them from oxides and promote union of the
monomers as matrices. joining adjacent parts.
They have the advantages of that they release
Q. 20. What is glass?
fluoride and are easy to manipulate, place,
Ans. Glass is a hard brittle amorphous, non-
finish and are stronger and tougher than GIC.
crystalline material typically made by fusing
Used in Class III and V cavities.
silicates with various types of mineral oxide.
They are available as one paste light curable
material or two components of powder and Q. 21. What is dual cure?
liquid or in paste form. Ans. Dual cure is a method pertaining to
setting of a mineral via two mechanisms.
Q. 14. What is geomer?
For resin modified GIC there is both acid-
Ans. Geomer is a new type of hybrid GIC base
base reaction, a chemical reaction and Light
on prereacted glass ionomer (PRG).
activated polymerization process for resin
Q.15. What is craze? cement. Thus both light cure and chemical cure
Ans. Craze is a network of fine, interconnected components are present and hence dual cure
cracks formed within or on the surface of mechanism.
Q. 22. What is condensable GIC? • Removing the carious tissues with an

Ans. It is a type of GIC material that is thick excavator
and viscous and which can be just packed in • Placing the highly viscous GIC restorative
a cavity and condensed as a direct restorative material
material. • Removing excess cement
Q. 23. What is Tri-Cure? • Ideally before placing GIC, tooth surface
Ans. Tri-Cure is a method pertaining to should be prepared with a week acid to
the setting reaction of GIC cement via three enhance chemical bonding
mechanisms. • Advantages—maximum prevention due to
1. An acid base reaction between the powder no cutting
u
particles and acid • Minimum surgical intervention
_
• Minimum tooth preparation.
r
2. A chemically activated polymerization
o
reaction. Q. 28. Write classification, composition and
f
3. A light activated polymerization process. setting reaction of zinc phosphate cement.
_
Ans. Zinc phosphate cement is the oldest
h
Q. 24. What is Sandwich technique?
c
Ans. Process of placing GIC as an intermediate cement having longest clinical tract record.
e
layer between the tooth structure and a resin It is classified as Type I - For luting and
t
Type II - For restoration or
_
based composite. This restoration design bene
t
fits from the adhesive quality and fluoride base.
n
releasing ability of glass ionomer cement and It is available as Powder and Liquid in 2
e
aesthetic quality and durability of resin based separate bottles.
d
composite material. Composition:
• Powder contains
@
Q. 25. What is frozen slab method? – Zinc oxide 90%
Ans. It is a method of mixing zinc phosphate – Magnesium oxide 10%
cement on a glass slab which has been frozen Powder is sintered at 1000–1400oC into cake
to between 6–10oC to get more working time and then ground into fine powder.
during luting procedures, e.g. Cementing • Liquid contains
orthodontic bands and brackets. – Orthophosphoric acid - 33 +/- 5%
Q. 26. What is ART in relation to GIC Cement? – Water
Ans. ART is atraumatic restorative treatment. – Aluminum phosphate
This is a clinical procedure performed with – Zinc phosphate in some brands.
out dental burs, air/water sprays or anesthesia Setting reaction:
that consists of manual excavation of carious ZnO + 2H3PO4 = Zn(H2PO4)2 + H2O + Heat
tissues and restorations of the tooth cavity with
When powder is mixed with liquid, phos
a type II fluoride releasing cement.
phoric acid attacks the surface of the particles
These are suitable in Class III and V cavities
and releases zinc ions into the liquid. Aluminum
in children and old people. Highly viscous
reacts with zinc and phosphoric acid and forms
conventional GIC cements are used.
zinc aluminophosphate gel.
Q. 27. Write about the clinical procedure of Water is critical to the reaction and for the
ART? proper consistency.
Ans. Clinical procedure of atraumatic resto Setting time is between 2.5–8 minutes
rative treatment involves following steps: according to ADA Specification Number 96.
• Isolation of the tooth with cotton rolls S.T. can be extended by (ANSI):
• Obtaining access to the carious lesion with • Reducing the powder/liquid ratio will pro
hand instruments duce thinner mix and thus increase the S.T.
Dental Cements 77
• Mixing cements in increments and introduc Good thermal insulator.

ing smaller quantities of powder increases Good luting agent due to low film thickness.
ST.
• Regulating the temperature of glass slab and Q. 30. Write composition, manipulation,
spatula. Cooling the glass slab will increase properties and uses of zinc polycarboxylate
the S.T. cement.
• P/L ratio. Approximately 1.4 g of powder and Ans. Zinc Polycarboxylate cement is an
0.5 mL of liquid. adhesive luting agent that bonds strongly to the
(For figures, see Plate 8) tooth structure by chemical bonding.
Q. 29. Write about the manipulation and Composition:
u
Available as powder and liquid.
_
properties of zinc phosphate cement.
r
Ans. Manipulation. Powder is similar to zinc phosphate cement
o
1. It is not always necessary to use a measuring containing
f
device. According to the manufacture’s direc • Zinc oxide
_
tion the proper proportioning of the powder • Magnesium oxide/stannic oxide
h
• Bismuth and aluminum
c
and liquid is taken as per the direction and
• Stannous fluoride (traces).
e
desired consistency. The ratio may vary with
t
the use in clinical situation. Liquid contains:
t _
2. Cool mixing slab should be used. Liquid • Aqueous solution of polyacrylic acid 32–42%
n
should not be dispensed onto the slab until • Itaconic acid.
e
mixing is to be initiated because water will be Manipulation of zinc polycarboxylate cement:
d
lost by evaporation. P/L ratio is 1:5 to 1 part by weight.
3. Powder should be divided into increments
@
Glass slab and plastic spatula is used.
as per instruction. Smaller increments are Powder is placed in 2–3 increments on glass
added to liquid with brisk spatulation on slab and liquid dispensed just at the time of
wider area for 15–20 seconds before adding mixing, as water loss from the liquid results
new increment in a marked increase in viscosity. Powder
4. Mixing time is 1.5–2 minutes depending on is rapidly incorporated into liquid in large
the consistency quantity and mixed for 30 seconds till it has
5. Use the material before matrix formation. smooth and glossy appearance which is best for
6. Remove excess cement after it sets. luting. If good bonding to tooth structure is to
Properties: Mechanical be achieved, cement must be adapted against
Compressive strength of the zinc phosphate tooth before it looses its glossy appearance.
cement Glossy appearance indicates sufficient number
– After 7 minutes is 6.9 MPa or 1000 psi. of free carboxylic acid groups on the surface that
– After 30 minutes is 86.9 MPa or 12,600 psi are vital for bonding.
– After 24 hours is 119.3 MPa or 17,300 psi
Tensile strength is up to 5.5 MPa after 24 Properties and uses
hours. Uses: For luting inlays, crown and bridges.
Elastic modulus is 13.5. • As cavity bases
Solubility in water is about 0.06% by weight. • As temporary fillings
Pulp response is mild. Initially pH is 2 at • And direct cementation of orthodontic
insertion then 5.5 after 24 hours. bands and brackets.
Cement is not adhesive and so retention is by Properties
mechanical interlocking. • Truly adhesive cement that bonds to the
Cement is brittle and irritant to the pulp. tooth structure in chemical bonding
• Film thickness up to 25 micrometers or less • Compressive strength is 55–67 Mpa < ZnPO4
• Working Time: Working time is 2.5 min, • Tensile strength is 2.4–4.4 GPa > ZnPO4
shorter than zinc phosphate with W.T. of • Low solubility in water
5 minutes. • pH of liquid is 1.7 but it is neutralized by
• Setting time ranges from 6–9 minutes powder.
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nt _
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21 CHAPTER
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Glass Ionomer Cement
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Q. 1. Write classification and uses of GIC. Q. 2. What are different names of GIC?
t
Ans. Classification: Ans. GIC-Glass ionomer cement or ASPA-
t _
According to ADA Specification as Aluminum silicate polyacrylate.
n
Type 1 : for luting (For figures, see Plate 8)
e
Type 2 : for restoration
Q. 3. Write composition, properties and
d
Type 3 : for base and liner
manipulation of GIC:
Type 4: ART (atraumatic restorative
@
Ans. Composition of GIC:
treatment). Available as powder and liquid or
Depending or based on curing method: Premeasured or preproportioned powder/
• Chemical cure liquid in disposable capsule and dispensed with
• Light cure gun cartridge.
• Tricure
• Dual cure Powder Liquid
• Water settable. SiO2 : 35–42% Aqueous solution of
Based on varieties: polyacrylic acid 40–50%
• Chemical cure GIC
Al2O3 : 20–29%
• Metal modified GIC-cermet –Miracle mix
• Resin modified GIC AlF3 : 01–04%
– Resin ionomers CaF2 : 16–20%
– Compomers NaF : 03–09%
– Hybrid ionomers (goemer).
AlPO4 : 03–12%
Uses:
• For luting
• For restoration Properties
• For base and liner Biological:
• For core build up • Releases fluoride therefore inhibits caries
• For pit and fissure sealant • Biocompatible
• For cementation of orthodontic bands • Adhesion by chelation method
• For retrograde root canal filling. • Compressive strength is 150 MPa
• KHN is 48 Uses: This is used in posterior restorations and

• Solubility is 0.4 core builds up with pins.
• Anticariogenic Cements harden rapidly so must be finished
• Pulp response is mild. in a short time.
This cement has potential for adhesion and
caries resistance.
Manipulation
Considerations:
Q. 5. What is hybrid ionomer?
• Surface of tooth prepared must clean and dry
Ans. It is one of the resin modified GIC with
• Thin consistency and complete coating of
HEMA (hydroxyethyl methacrylate).
u
surface irregularities
Liquid contains polyacrylic acid modified
_
• Accurate and complete seating of prosthesis
r
with methacrylate along with water and HEMA.
• Excess cement removed at appropriate time
o
Powder consist of ion leachable fluora-alumino
f
• Surface finished without excess drying
silicate glass particles and initiators for light or
_
• Protection of the restoration.
chemical curing.
ch
Moisture sensitivity and low early strength of
Manipulation
e
GIC is overcome by hybrid ionomers.
_ t
Powder/liquid ratio recommended by manu Q. 6. Write composition, properties and uses
t
facture must be taken. of ZOE cements.
n
Mixing is done on paper pad or glass slab and Ans. Composition, properties and uses:
e
by using plastic spatula. Available as zinc oxide powder and eugenol
d
Powder or liquid should not to be dispensed liquid.
@
until just before mixing. They have pH 7 and so least irritation of all
Powder is taken in 2–3 increments and materials.
added to the liquid and mixed for 45–60 sec Zinc oxide reacts with eugenol and chelation
till it has smooth and glossy appearance (dull reaction takes place forming zinc euguelate a
appearance indicates inadequate free acid for chelate compound. Water is needed to initiate
bonding). the reaction and is also a by product of the
Mix is inserted with a plastic instrument to reaction.
overfill the cavity and then covered with plastic According to ADA specification no. 30
matrix for at least 5 minutes. Upon removal of Classified as
matrix, surface is protected by Vaseline and Type 1: for temporary cementation
finishing is delayed up to 24 hours. Type 2: for long term cementation of fixed
Care should be taken regarding: prosthesis
• Conditioning of tooth surface Type 3: for temporary filling and thermal
• Proper manipulation insulating bases.
• Protection of cement during setting. Type 4: for intermediate restoration.
Q. 4. What is metal reinforced GIC?
Ans. GIC lacks toughness and so it cannot
Properties
withstand high stress concentration that
promotes crack propagations. • Acts as sedative, i.e. pain killer and so used
GIC is reinforced by incorporating metal like for removing tooth ache.
silver alloy powder mixed with glass and this is • Bacteriostatic: pH is 7 and therefore least
called as Miracle mix or irritant to pulp.
Fusing of glass powder and silver alloy • Less strong. Compressive strength is 6–28 MPa
particle by sintering process at high temperature after 24 hour with range of 3–55 MPa.
is called as Cermets. • Setting time 4–10 minutes.
Glass Ionomer Cement 81
• Film thickness up to 25 micrometers. Powder is divided into 3–4 increments and big
• Water solubility 0.04. portion is added first and mixed until thick,
• Not adhesive. shiny and smooth consistency is obtained.
Agate is hard, precious stone with colored
Uses lines.
• Temporary filling If steel spatula is used, its surface will be
• Temporary luting eroded due to hard particles of alumina present
• Cavity bases and liner in the powder, and that may get incorporated
• Root canal filler into the mix affecting esthetic value of cement.
• Periodontal dressing
u
• Pulp capping.
_
Uses
r
Kalsogen is a quick setting ZOE cements.
o
For anterior restoration as permanent filling
f
Q. 7. Write in detail about calcium hydroxide.
material.
_
Ans. Calcium hydroxide is used as a cavity
Main advantage of silicate cement is its anti-
h
liner, cement base and mainly for pulp capping.
cariogenic property due to fluoride content.
c
Calcium hydroxides is suspended in a solvent
e
Contraindicated in mouth breathing patients
when it is placed on the pulpal floor, solvent
t
as it may affect esthetics due to discoloration
_
evaporates and leaves a thin film of calcium
also it is highly irritant to pulp.
t
hydroxide.
n
Stein cement is a type of zinc silicophosphate
Main purpose of calcium hydroxide is to
e
cement used as luting agent for ceramic
neutralize acid that migrates towards the pulp.
d
restorations and orthodontic appliances.
It has less strength and less thermal insulating
@
capacity. Q. 9. What is copper cement?
Advantage: It can induce generative of Ans. This is germicidal cement, which was
reparative dentin, i.e. formation of secondary used in children’s teeth as temporary filling
dentin. material to arrest dental caries. They are irritant
Dycal is a type of calcium hydroxide cement to pulp.
available in paste form. One paste is base paste
and 2nd is catalyst paste that contains salicylates Q. 10. What is gutta purcha? Write its
and titanium oxide as filler. composition and uses?
Ans. Gutta purcha is a product of tropical tree
Q. 8. Write in detail about silicate cement. available in the form of latex which is boiled and
Ans. Silicate cement is tooth colored molded into block or sticks.
restorative material. It was introduced by Composition of dental gutta purcha is:
Steenbock and Asher 1903. It is available as Gutta purcha -20%
powder and liquid. Zinc oxide -60%
Powder is acid soluble glass powder. Barium sulphate -11%
Liquid is orthophosphoric acid. Waxes or resin -3%
Aluminum silicate + phosphoric acid –> silica acid
+ aluminum phosphate = Aluminosilicate gel.
In setting mechanism ion migration from Uses
acid to base and from base to acid is seen.
• Used as gutta purcha point in root canal
therapy
Manipulation
• To test the vitality of the pulp
On paper pad or glass slab with agate or plastic • As a filler component in impression
spatula by folding method. compound.
22 CHAPTER
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Dental Amalgam
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Q. 1. What is amalgam? Hand trituration is done with mortal and
t
Ans. It is the mixture of mercury and alloy, a pestle. In hand mixing when smooth and shiny
t _
mixture of metals. mix sticks to the side wall of mortal then it is
n
Q. 2. What is dental amalgam alloy? judged as correct trituration
e
Ans. Dental amalgam alloy is an alloy of silver, Mechanical mixing is done in an
d
copper, tin, zinc and other elements that is amalgamator, which is a machine to mix alloy
and mercury so as to give quick and uniform
@
formulated and processed in the form of powder
particles or as a compressed pellet. It is mixed mixing and it is more convenient.
with mercury to form dental amalgam which Undertrituration mix will have less strength,
is mainly used as a posterior teeth restorative rough surface leading to quick corrosion and
material and for making amalgam dies. increase expansion.
Overtrituration of amalgam will show high
Q. 3. What is dental amalgam? contraction, quick setting and more creep.
Ans. It is an alloy of mercury, silver, copper, Final finishing of the amalgam can be done
and tin which may also contain palladium, after 24–48 hours.
zinc, and other elements to improve handling Mercury in amalgam can be replaced by
characteristics and clinical performance. Gallium or Indium.
Q. 4. What is amalgamation? (For figures, see Plate 13)
Ans. It is the process of mixing, blending Q. 6. What is creep?
or merging liquid mercury with one or more Ans. Creep is the time dependent strain or
metals or alloy to form amalgam. It can be done deformation (flow) that is produced by stress,
by hand mixing using mortar and pestle or by causing a dimensional change in a hard set
mechanical device called as amalgamator. mass.
Q. 5. What is trituration? And how will you Creep process can cause an amalgam
judge exact mixing? restoration to extend out of the cavity depression
Ans. It is the process of grinding powder thereby increasing its susceptibility to marginal
especially within liquid or a process of mixing breakdown.
the amalgam alloy particles with mercury Creep for different amalgam alloy is:
which is liquid at room temperature. Objective • Lower copper >> admixed > single
of trituration is to remove the film of oxide composition
covering the alloy particles so that the mercury • Creep value for lower copper alloy is 1–2.5%
reacts with the alloy constituents. • High copper alloy is 0.5–1%.
Dental Amalgam 83
Q. 7. What is marginal breakdown? Zinc: Acts as a scavenger. Can cause delayed

Ans. The gradual fracture of perimeter or expansion. Mercury: Cause setting reaction and
margin of a dental amalgam restoration that gives plasticity to mix.
leads to the formation of gaps or ditching at the Copper amalgam composition:
external interfacial region between the amalgam Copper amalgam is an antiseptic amalgam
and the tooth is called as marginal breakdown containing 70% mercury and 30% copper in
Q. 8. Classify or state main types of amalgam pellet form.
alloy? Zn containing amalgam contains more than
Ans. A. Depending upon the copper content: 0.01% Zinc.
• High copper alloy – Copper content—6–30% (For figures, see Plate 13)
u
• Low copper content—0–6%.
_
Q. 10. Write in detail about setting of amalgam.
r
B. Types: Ans. The stages during setting of amalgam are
o
• Admixed, blended dispersion alloy.
f
1. Dissolution
Admixed is a combination of spherical and
_
2. Crystallization of gamma 1 and gamma 2
lathe cut low copper. Ag—72% + Cu—28%
h
phases
c
• Single or unicompositional alloy. Single 3. Little contraction
e
composition—High copper spherical alloy of • Setting reaction for low copper alloy
t
silver, tin, and copper having one shape and
_
Ag3Sn + Hg = Ag2Hg3 + Sn7Hg8 + Ag3Sn
t
composition of particles throughout. Gamma + Mercury = Gamma 1 +Gamma 2+ Gamma
n
C. Depending on zinc content: Gamma 2 phase is weakest phase and easily
e
– Zinc containing alloy: Zinc greater than corrodes and shows high creep value.
d
0.01% • Setting reaction for high copper alloy
– Non zinc or zinc free alloy with zinc less Ag3Sn + Hg = Ag2Hg3 + Sn7Hg8 + Ag3Sn
@
than 0.01%. Gamma + Mercury = Gamma1 + Gamma 2 + Gamma
D. Depending on number of metals: Silver, tin = Mercury = Silver mercury
• Binary: Silver + tin + Tin mercury
• Tertiary: Silver + tin + copper Sn7Hg8 + Ag3Cu = Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5
• Quaternary: Silver + tin + copper + zinc. (Gamma 2 + Eutectic = Gamma 1 + Eta)
E. Depending of shape of particle size: • Setting reaction for single composition:
• Lathe cut Ag3Sn + Cu6Sn + Hg = Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5
• Atomized spherical. Gamma Gamma 1 + Eta.
Q. 9. Write composition of amalgam alloy No gamma 2 phase.
and role of ingredients Q. 11. What are the advantages and
Ans. Composition of amalgam alloy and role disadvantages of high copper alloy?
of ingredients: Ans. High copper alloy is a dental alloy with
G.V. Black in 1896: has first introduced copper content from 6–30%.
amalgam alloys.
Advantages of high copper alloy are:
Silver-65% range 65–74%
• They have high strength and hardness due to
Tin-29% 25–27%
elimination of gamma 2 phase
Copper-6% 0–30%
• Low creep value
Zinc-0.01% 0.01–2%
• Resistance to corrosion
Silver: Increase strength, corrosion resistance • Better marginal integrity
and cause setting expansion. • Better clinical performance
Tin: Decreases setting expansion and corrosion • Simple technique of manipulation
resistance. • Good wear resistance.
Copper: Increases strength and hardness and • Self sealing property
can cause setting expansion. • Economical.
Disadvantages of silver amalgam are: Q. 15. What is plashy?

• Potential for galvanism Ans. Excess mercury that appears on the
• Poor esthetic surface of a restoration during condensation is
• Microleakage can cause secondary caries called as plashy.
• Thermal conductivity is good and hence Q. 16. What is the importance of condensation?
pulp protection is necessary by insulating Ans. Condensation is done to produce
base or liner a highly compact, dense and strong filling
• Delayed expansion may cause pain—repair with minimal voids and residual mercury.
of the restoration is not always possible. Technique, pressure and particle shape of the
Tooth colored amalgam is a new adhesive alloy affect the properties of amalgam. High
u
system designed to enable the dentist to veneer condensation pressure will decrease porosity
_
new or existing amalgam restoration with
r
and express mercury (plashy) making it strong.
o
composite. Recommended force of condensation is 10–15
f
pounds per square inch with the condenser
_
Q. 12. What is mercury alloy ratio in amalgam? point of 2 mm in diameter. The average force
h
Ans. employed without patient discomfort is 3–4
c
• For low copper alloy it is 8:5 (8 parts of pounds per squar.
t e
mercury and 5 parts of alloy by weight).
Q. 17. What is burnishing?
_
• For spherical type it is 42% mercury 58% alloy.
t
Ans. Burnishing is spreading the metal
• For high copper alloy ratio is 1:1 (1:1 for lathe
n
towards the enamel margin to improve marginal
cut, i.e. 50% alloy and 50% mercury)
e
integrity. This is done with a round ended ball
Dr Eames or minimal mercury technique
d
burnishes.
makes use of 1:1 ratio of mercury and alloy.
@
If mercury is excess then: Q. 18. Write about the dimensional change in
• It imparts less strength amalgam restoration.
• May cause marginal failure Ans. Dimensional change in amalgam
• Fracture of the filling restoration:
• Leads to corrosion and discoloration Amalgam can expand or contract, depending
• Recurrent caries on its manipulation.
• Pain, etc. Severe contraction can lead to micro leakage,
• Mercuoroscopic expansion occurs due to plaque accumulation and secondary carries.
Excessive expansion can produce pressure
release of mercury as byproduct of corrosion
on pulp and postoperative sensitivity.
in low copper alloy.
According to ADA specification number:
Q. 13. What is the effect of moisture • Dimensional change should not be more
contamination or what is delayed expansion? than 20 um at 37°C between 5 minutes and
Ans. Zinc from the alloy reacts with water 24 hours.
from moisture to produce hydrogen gas causing • Compressive strength for low copper is
expansion. This is seen in zinc containing alloy 145–343 MPa between 1 hour–7 days.
if they are condensed in presence of moisture. • Compressive strength for single composition
265–510 MPa 1 hour–7 days.
It is felt as pain due to pressure on pulp.
• Tensile strength–24 hours is 60–64 minutes
This is seen after 4–5 days of filling the
tooth with silver amalgam and hence called as Q. 19. What is self sealing restoration?
delayed expansion. Ans. Amalgam restoration often tarnishes and
corrodes in the oral environment.
Q. 14. What is amalgam war? The build up of corrosion product gradually
Ans. Amalgam was introduced in 1833 but seals the space between the alloy and tooth, and
some opposed it for using and some were using due to this property of sealing the space it is
it. This was verbal war. called as self sealing restoration.
Dental Amalgam 85
Corrosion products in amalgam alloys are expansion resulting from zinc has led to the
oxides and chlorides of tin and copper. use of zinc free alloys. These are used for those
Amalgam restorations can last for more than cases where it is virtually impossible to keep the
12–15 years. (90%). operative field dry such as in children.
Q. 20. What is galvanism? Q. 25. What are the side effects of mercury or
Ans. Galvanism is the accelerated corrosion of
dental amalgam?
a metal due to the electrical contact with a more
Ans. Side effect of mercury or dental amalgam
noble metal in corrosive electrolyte.
can be seen in the form of:
Whenever gold restoration is placed in
contact with an amalgam restoration, wet Allergy: Antigen-Antibody reaction marked by
u
corrosion of the amalgam can be seen as a result itching, rashes, sneezing, difficulty in breathing,
r_
of the large difference in electromotive force of swelling or other symptoms.
o
the two materials. The corrosion process can • Contact dermatitis is reported in less than
f
liberate free mercury, which can contaminate 01% cases of treated population
_
and weaken the restoration. Also the resulting • Sclerosis, epilepsy and arthritis is also seen
h
current flow can produce nerve stimulation,
c
• Hyperemia, edema, vesicle formation and
unpleasant taste and other physiological
e
etching has been reported.
t
reaction like sudden pain or sensitivity. • Indigestion, blurred vision, headache,
t _
Q. 21. What should be the condensation irritability, fatigue, depression, redness of
n
pressure? eyes has also been reported. Mercury can be
e
Ans. Condensation pressure forces are in replaced by gallium or indium.
d
the range of 13.3–17.8 N, i.e. about 3-4 lb.
This represents the average force employed Q. 26. What are the advantages of silver
@
according to the study done. For better amalgam restoration?
adaptation condensation pressure or force Ans. Advantages of silver amalgam
should be as great as the alloy will allow, restorations are as follows:
consistent with the patients comfort. • Less technique sensitive
Shape of the condenser point should • More durable. Restoration can last for 12–15
conform to the area under condensation. Round years in 90%
and rectangular point condenser are used with • Economical as compared to the composite
2 mm diameter. restorations
Mechanical condensation is done by impact • Less time is required for placement of the
or vibratory type by machine. restoration
• Has got excellent wear resistance
Q. 22. What is the use of Matrix Band and
Retainer? • Abrasiveness against enamel is negligible
Ans. Matrix Band and Retainer is an instrument • Corrosion tends to seal itself against the
which is used while restoring Class II cavities and leakage and bacterial invasion so called as
it is necessary to build the inter proximal walls. ‘self sealing restoration’
• Less food and bacteria adherent to the
Q. 23. What is direct silver method? amalgam restorations as compared to the
Ans. Direct silver method is a method in composites
which there is a direct filling of cohesive pure • Amalgam is still the material of choice for
silver that can be condensed like amalgam. more than 50 % of the restorations
Q. 24. What are zinc free alloys? • Most reliable direct filling restorative
Ans. Zinc from the amalgam alloys can cause material for posterior restorations.
delayed expansion, and so to avoid this delayed (For figures, see Plate 13)
23 CHAPTER
_ u
Direct Filling Gold
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. Write about pure gold. I. According to the microstructure of the pieces:
t
Ans. Pure gold 1. Gold foil ka fibrous gold
t _
• It is a noblest metal, chemically inactive,
2. Electrolytic precipitate ka crystalline
n
not affected by air, heat, moisture or most
gold
e
solvents and will not tarnish and corrode.
3. Granular gold ka powdered gold
d
• It is most ductile and has the ability of 29 g
cylinder to be drawn into a wire 100 km in 1. Foil is available as:
@
length. a. Sheet: 1. Cohesive and 2. Noncohesive
• It is most malleable and can be rolled to a b. Ropes
thickness of 0.00013 (13 micrometers). c. Cylinders
• It allows cold welding, i.e. welding of d. Laminated foils
increments together under pressure at e. Platonized foil
mouth temperature rather than melting due 2. Electrolytic precipitate:
to cohesive property. a. Mat gold
Properties of gold: b. Mat foil
• Knoop hardness number (KHN) varies from c. Gold calcium foil
52–75 (Mat foil) 3. Granular gold, powder gold or encapsulated
• Strength is from 161–227 MPa. gold powder.
• Restoration made from direct filling gold do
not exhibit the high strength and hardness to II. According to the surface condition of the
those made from dental casting alloy. Hence, material:
cannot be used for large stress bearing areas. a. Cohesive
• Brennel’s hardness number (BHN) is 25 and b. Noncohesive
is extremally soft. III. According to the geometric form in which it is
• Metallic and has high thermal conductivity. supplied:
• Nonesthetic restorative material with yellow a Sheets
color (For figures, see Plate 13). b Ropes
Q. 2. Which are the forms of direct filling c Strips
gold? d Pellets
Ans. Direct filling gold (DFG) may be divided All forms of direct filling gold has the purity
into three categories: value of 99.99% or higher.
Direct Filling Gold 87
Q. 3. What is difference between cohesive It can be produced in two ways:

and noncohesive gold? • Two sheets of number 4 pure gold foils and
Ans. Difference between cohesive and non a layer of pure platinum foil sandwiched
cohesive gold: between them is hammered until a thickness
• Cohesive means pertaining to the force of of a No 4 sheet is obtained.
attraction of atoms or molecules of the single • Layers of platinum and gold can be bonded
phase. together by a cladding process during the
• Cohesive gold has no surface contaminants rolling operation and thus sandwich is
and is clean and pure. welding before hammering.
• Ability of the two gold surface to cohere or
Q. 5. What is corrugated or carbonized gold?
u
adhere by welding depends on the clean
Ans. These are preformed gold foils. When the
_
surface of the sheet or foil form of the gold
r
gold foil is heated between special papers, then
during cold welding.
o
the gold foil becomes corrugated because of the
f
• Gold or other metals can attract gases to its
shriveling of the paper during carbonizing in
_
surface and any adsorbed gas film prevents
the air-tight container. These ropes or cylinders
h
the intimate atomic contact required for
c
forms can be used in increments for filling the
cold welding and hence foil which is free of
e
prepared tooth cavity.
t
surface contaminants, i.e. cohesive form is
_
provided. Q. 6. What is Electra alloy or alloyed
t
• Noncohesive is pertaining to an inadequate electrolytic precipitate?
n
force of attraction between molecules or Ans. It is a form of electrolytic gold which
e
atoms of a single phase. Gold sheets are consist of microcrystalline gold powder formed
d
provided with an adsorbed protective gas by electrolytic precipitation and also containing
@
films such as ammonia which minimizes 0.1–1.5% of calcium, silver, or platinum to
adsorption of other less volatile substance increase strength and hardness.
and prevents premature cohesion of sheets
Q. 7. What is the difference between mat gold
that may come in contact.
and mat foil?
• Surface of gold foils or sheet must be clean
Ans. Mat gold is also called as sponge gold. It
without any impurities to provide proper
is a porous form of gold with rough surface. Mat
cohesion and compaction during working
foil is a layer of mat gold, sandwiched between
or restoration. Gold foils have a tendency
layers of smooth gold foil. It is used for external
to adsorb gases like oxygen, nitrogen, etc
surface of restorations.
which prevents the cohesion between two
layers during cold working. These forms of Q. 8. What is granular or powdered gold?
ammonia treated gold foils with adsorbed Ans. This is precipitated gold powder supplied
gases are called as noncohesive foil. These as irregular shaped, pre-condensed pellets or
gold foils can be heated to remove the clumps of particles that can be produced by
adsorbed layer of gases by a process known chemical precipitation or atomization from the
as desorption and make its surface clean and molten state.
free from impurities. This clean gold foil is Particle size is about 15 micrometer to
called as cohesive gold. 74 micrometer, which is mixed with wax to form
wax gold pellets, e.g. Goldent.
Q. 4. What is platinized gold foil?
Ans. Platinum foil is sandwiched between two Q. 9. What is annealing?
gold foils to increase the hardness and wear Ans. Controlled heating and cooling process
resistance. This laminated form of gold foil is designed to produce the desired properties
called as platinized gold foil. in a metal is called annealing. This is done to
remove the volatile protective covering and Q. 13. What is gold beating?
is accomplished by holding individual pellets Ans. It is a method of producing gold foil by a
over an open flame of pure alcohol or by placing skilled gold beater.
group of pellets or other forms of gold on a
Q. 14. How will you manipulate direct filling
annealing plate that is heated by electricity, gas
gold?
or a burning alcohol flame with the temperature
Ans. Direct filling gold is used for Class I, Class
range from 650–700°C.
III, and Class V cavities.
Q. 10. What is cold welding? This is achieved in two steps:
Ans. It is a process of plastically deforming 1. Degassing to remove the surface gases and
a metal usually at room temperature and is 2. Compaction or condensation done by hand
u
accomplished due to strain hardening. pressure or by a hand mallet or by a mechanical
r_
device that is activated by a spring, pneumatic
o
Q. 11. What is welding? pressure or by electro-mallet.
f
Ans. Welding is the process of fusing two or Direction and amount of force application
_
more metal parts through the application of and compaction pattern are critically important
h
heat, pressure or both with or without a filler
c
as it controls the quality of gold restoration.
metal to produce a localized union across an
e
Also Operator’s skill and dry field during
t
interface between the parts. manipulation is important for the success of the
t _
Q. 12. What is work hardening or strain direct filling gold restoration.
n
hardening? Size of condenser tip for effective
e
Ans. It is a process in which the hardness of a condensation of gold foil is about 0.5–1 mm.
d
metal increases during cold working. It is usually Q. 15. What is gold foil book?
@
accompanied by an increase in strength and Ans. Gold foil book weighs 48 grains. Each
hardness and a decrease in percent elongation. sheet is 10 cm2 and weighs 2, 3 or 4 grains.
24 CHAPTER
_ u
Dental Casting and Soldering Alloys
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is casting? prosthesis before a ceramic veneer is fired or
t
Ans. It is the act of forming an object in a mold, hot pressed on the structure.
t _
by the solidification of a fluid (metal) that has
Post-soldering: Process of soldering or brazing
n
been poured or a cavity in which a substance is
two or more metal components of a prosthesis
e
shaped.
after the metal sub-structure has been veneered
d
Q. 2. What is cast joining? with a ceramic.
@
Ans. Process of joining two components of a
fixed partial denture by means of casting molten Q. 6. What is lost wax process?
metal into an interlocking region between the Ans. Process in which a wax pattern prepared
invested components. in a shape of missing tooth structure is
Q. 3. What is soldering? embedded in a casting investment and burned
Ans. Process of building up a localized area out to produce a mold cavity into which molten
with a filler metal or joining two or more metal metal is cast. It is introduced by WH Taggart in
components by heating them to a temperature 1907.
below their solidus temperature, i.e. 450°C Q. 7. Which are the steps involved in casting
(840°F). Bonding of the molten solder to the
procedure?
metal parts results from flow by capillary
Ans. Steps involved in casting procedure are:
attraction between the parts without appreciably
• Tooth preparation
affecting the dimensions of the joined structure.
• Impression
Q. 4. What is brazing? • Preparation of removable die
Ans. Process of building up a localized area • Preparation of wax pattern
with a filler metal or joining two or more metal • Spruing of wax pattern
parts by heating them to a temperature below • Investing of the wax pattern
their solidus temperature and filling the gap • Burnout
between them with a molten filler metal that • Casting
has a liquidus temperature above 450°C (840°F). • Deinvesting
In dentistry, many metals are joined by • Recovery of the restoration
brazing. • Finishing and polishing
Q. 5. What is pre-soldering or post-soldering? • Cementation of the restoration on the
Ans. Pre-soldering: Process of soldering or prepared tooth.
brazing two or more metal components of a (For figures, see Plate 14)
25 CHAPTER
_ u
Casting Gold Alloys
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. Classify gold-based casting alloys. – Type 4: Extra hard strength for castings
t
Ans. In 1932, National Bureau of Standards subjected to very high stress, e.g. saddles,
t _
surveyed and later by ADA specification no. 5 bar, clasps, thimbles, certain single units
n
and American National Standard Institute and partial denture frameworks.
e
(ANSI) has classified Gold Based Casting Alloys. – Type 1 and 2 are called as Inlay alloys.
d
• Depending on the hardness as: – Type 3 and 4 are called as Crown and
– Type 1: Soft. VHN between 50–90 low Bridge alloys.
@
strength. • Depending on their nobility:
– Type 2: Medium. VHN between 90–120 – Noble
medium strength. – Base metal.
– Type 3: Hard. VHN between 120–150 high • Depending on the functions:
strength. – Crown and bridge alloys
– Type 4: Extra hard. VHN between >150 – Base metal alloys
extra high strength. – Removable partial denture alloys
– Type 1: Soft or low strength alloys are used – Based on color yellow metal and white
for castings subjected to very slight less metal containing gold, silver, platinum or
stress bearing areas, e.g. inlays. Minimum palladium (For figures, see Plate 13).
yield strength is 80 MPa and VHN 50–90
Q. 2. Name the types of noble metal?
minimum percent elongation 18%.
Ans. Noble metals are precious metals. They
– Type 2: Medium strength alloy is used for
are less reactive in oral cavity and have high
casting subjected to moderate stress, e.g.
resistance to tarnish and corrosion. Gold,
inlay, onlaysand full crowns. This has
platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
minimum yield strength 180 MPa and
iridium, osmium. Silver is reactive in oral cavity
varies from 90–120 VHN and minimum
therefore not considered as a noble metal.
percent elongation is 10%.
– Type 3: Hard strength for castings Q. 3. What are Base metal alloys?
subjected to high stress, e.g. onlays, thin Ans. These alloys are based on more than
copings, pontics, crown and saddles. 75% base metal elements and 25% or less by
Minimum yield strength is 270 MPa weight of noble metals. These are non precious
minimum percent elongation is 5%. or non noble alloys. They are reactive with
Casting Gold Alloys 91
the environment and are referred as base • Allergic component in alloys: It should not
metal alloys. They are used mainly by casting, cause adverse health consequences during
e.g. chromium, cobalt, nickel, iron, copper, fabrication and subsequent usage.
manganese, etc. Act RTK (Right to know): Law states that
• Low cost patient must have knowledge of what is
• Low weight being placed into their bodies.
• Strength • Aesthetics.
• Stiffness • Thermal properties: It must have closely
• Oxide formation that helps in bonding to matching thermal expansion to bee
porcelain compatible with given porcelain and also
u
• Reactive with their environment must tolerate high processing temperature.
_
• Corrosion resistance due to passivating effect • Melting range: It must be low enough to form
r
of chromium (For figures, see Plate 13). smooth surface with mold walls of casting
f o
investment. Posses good fluidity when
_
Q. 4. What is karat and fineness? molten during casting.
h
Ans. Karat specifies the gold content of an • Compensation for casting solidification:
c
alloy based on the parts of gold per 24 parts of the Casting shrinkage from the solidus
e
alloy. 24 karat no indicates pure gold, i.e. 100%
t
temperature to room temperature achieved
where as 22 karat gold is an alloy containing
_
through either computer generated
t
22 parts pure gold and 2 parts of other metals. oversized dies or through controlled mold
n
Fineness is the unit that describes the gold expansion.
e
content in noble metals alloy by the number of Also fit of a cemented prosthesis must
d
parts of gold per 1000 parts of alloy, e.g. pure be tailored to accommodate the layer of
gold (100%) has a fineness of 1000 and 650 fine
@
bonding adhesive or cements.
alloys has 65% of gold content. • Strength requirement: Must have sufficient
Fineness rating is 10 times the gold strength and also sufficiently ductile and
percentage in an alloy. resilient according to application.
18 karat gold contains (¾) 75% gold and is • Fabrication of cast prosthesis and fame work
750 fine. and the ease which the material is fabricated
determines its ultimate success.
Q. 5. What are the requirements of dental • Castability: Molten metal must be able to
casting alloys? wet the investment mould material and
Ans. According to ADA specification number also flows into most intricate region without
5, the requirement of dental casting alloys are: any appreciable interaction and forming
• Biocompatibility: It must be non-toxic, porosities. Castability should be with
non-irritant and non-carcinogenic. It must minimum or zero percent shrinkage.
tolerate oral fluids and not release any • Finishing of cast metal: It should posses
harmful products into the oral environment. sufficient hardness for grinding and finishing
• Corrosion resistance: Corrosion is a physical so as to produce satisfactory surface finish of
dissolution of a material in a environment. the restoration.
This is mainly due to passivating surface • Porcelain bonding: To have a sound chemical
film of chromium in nickel-chromium and bond to ceramic veneering material, a
cobalt-chromium alloys and also due to substrate metal must be able to form a thin
titanium in commercially pure titanium adherent oxide and it should interfere with
(CPT) and Ti-6Al -4V alloys. the aesthetic potential of the ceramic.
• Tarnish resistance: Tarnish is a thin film of • Economy.
surface deposit or an interaction layer that is • Dimensionally stable.
adherent to metal surface. • Ease of laboratory works and soldering.
Q. 6. Classify dental casting alloy? • Zinc: 0–2% acts as scavenger by removing

Ans. Dental casting alloys are classified as: unwanted oxides, decreases melting
• High nobel, e.g. gold, platinum and temperature and increases fluidity of the alloy.
palladium
Q. 10. What is softening heat treatment of gold
• Nobel
casting alloy?
• Predominantly base metal
Ans. Casting is placed in an electric furnace
– Nobel contains more than 25% weight
for 10 minutes at a temperature of 700°C and
of Nobel metal elements with or without
then it is quenched in water.
gold
Tensile strength, proportional limit and
– High nobel metal contain more than 40%
hardness are reduced and ductility is increased
u
Gold, and 60% other metal like silver,
by this softening treatment. Softening heat
_
palladium, platinum
r
treatment is indicated for structures that are to
– Predominantly base metal contains less
o
be ground, shape or cold-worked either in or
f
than 25% weight of nobel metal elements.
out of the mouth.
_
Nobel metal alloys are classified as:
h
Q. 11. What is hardening heat treatment of
c
• Type 1: High Nobel = Soft
gold casting alloy or age hardening?
e
• Type 2: High Nobel = Medium
t
Ans. Age hardening or hardening heat
• Type 3: High Nobel = Hard
_
treatment of dental alloy is a type of heat
t
• Type 4: High Nobel= Extra hard. Metal
treatment done by soaking or aging the casting
n
ceramic alloy.
at temperature between 200 – 400°C for about 15
e
Q. 7. What is the difference between Yellow minutes (Temperature and time are considered
d
Gold and White Gold? as specified according to manufacturer’s
@
Ans. Yellow gold contain more than 60% gold. direction).
White gold contains less gold but more silver Age hardening reduces percentage
and palladium. elongation (ability of metal to burnish margin
of restoration) and it prevents deformation of
Q. 8. What is Japanese gold?
appliance during its use.
Ans. It is the technique alloy that contains
In heat treatment of cast partial denture and
copper, zinc, and aluminum. It does not contain
bridge.
gold (For figures, see Plate 13).
First softening treatment is done before
Q. 9. Write about the composition of gold adjustment and 2nd softening treatment is
alloy and role of its ingredients. done after adjustment final hardening is done
Ans. Composition of gold alloy and role of its after adjustment.
ingredients:
Q. 12. Which alloys are used for metal
• Gold: 50–90% to resist tarnish and corrosion
ceramics?
and provide ductility.
Ans.
• Silver: 0–20% to increase strength, hardness
• High nobel alloy with gold (Au)—88%,
and whitens the alloy.
platinum (Pt)—04%, palladium (Pd)—6%
• Copper: 0–17% to increase strength and
• Nobel alloy with less or no gold contains
hardness, decrease the melting point of
palladium (Pd)—60%, silver (Ag)—30%
the alloy, impart red color and form solid
• Base metal alloys which contain nickel—
solution.
80%, chromium 10%, or
• Palladium: 0–20% whitens the alloy and
• Chromium—65% and cobalt 25%.
increases the resistance to corrosion.
• Platinum: 0–12% whitens the alloy, increases Role of ingredients:
the hardness and resistance to corrosion and • Gold: to resist tarnish and corrosion.
also increases the melting temperature. • Silver: to increase strength and hardness.
Casting Gold Alloys 93
• Palladium or Platinum: whiten the alloy and Uses:

increase the resistance to corrosion. • For denture bases
• Nickel, chromium and cobalt provides • For dental wires
passivating surface film and thus resists • For implant dentures.
tarnish an corrosion. Advantages:
• Tin is used to produce tin oxide film on • High resistance to tarnish and corrosion.
the metal surface of alloy for adherence of • More hard and stiff
porcelain to the metal. Ceramic conditioner • Light weight
can also be fired on metal surface as a barrier • High resistance to abrasion.
between the alloy and porcelain.
u
Disadvantages:
Q. 13. What is greening effect or yellow
_
• Complicated technique
r
discoloration? • Expensive equipment needed
o
Ans. Green or yellow discoloration of porcelain • High melting point
f
is due to silver in Palladium-Silver alloy.
_
• Difficult to grind, finish and polish.
Greening effect is attributed to the
h
• Low flexibility.
c
vaporization of silver from walls of
Q. 16. What is the CPT?
e
contaminated furnace and also due to silver
t
oxide gas vaporization. Ans. Commercially pure titanium (CPT) is
_
purest, softest, and most biocompatible and
t
Intensity of discoloration is usually increased
has light weight and also posses high resistance
n
near the cervical margin because surface
to corrosion. It is used for dental implants and
e
diffusion of silver from marginal metal produces
orthodontic wires (For figures, see Plate 13).
d
higher localized silver concentration.
This effect can be reduced by firing pure gold Q. 17. What is burnishing?
@
film on metal substrate. Ans. It is a method of pushing a margin of soft
Ceramic conditioner can also be fired on metal restoration towards the tooth to close
metal surface as a barrier between alloy and the gap between tooth and restoration, thus
Porcelain. preventing recurrence of carries.
Q. 14. What is composition of base metal Q. 18. What is Sag resistance?
alloys for CRPD? Ans. It is the resistance to bending under
Ans. Composition: its own weight due to high temperature as in
Chromium 25–30% porcelain backing of metal ceramic restoration.
Cobalt 35–60%
Nickel 0–30% Q. 19. What is casting shrinkage?
Calcium 2–04% Ans. Metal and alloys shrink when they
Molybdenum 5–06% change from liquid to solid state.
This is important during dental casting
Q. 15. What is stellite and vitallium? procedure.
Ans. Stellite is the chrome-cobalt alloy. It
looks bright and shines as a Star. Shrinkage occurs in three stages during:
Vitallium is the Chrome: Cobalt alloy without 1. Thermal contraction of the liquid metal
nickel in it. between the temperature to which it is
Chrome: Cobalt alloys— heated and the liquidus temperature.
Melting point: 1250–1450°C 2. Contraction of metal inherent in its change
Oxy Acetylene gas flame is used to melt the from liquid to solid stage.
alloy. 3. Thermal contraction of solid metal
Investment material used is silica bonded or that occurs on further cooling to room
phosphate bonded. temperature.
Q. 20. What is CAD-CAM processing? a prosthesis can be fabricated and placed in

Ans. CAD-CAM is Computer Aided Designing patient’s mouth.
and Computer Aided Machining, milling Optical scanning eliminates the need for an
or manufacturing. This system provides an impression.
alternative method to produce metal, ceramic
Q. 21. What is soldering flux?
or composite restorations without the need for
Ans. Latin word flux means flow.
procedures that require two or more patients
Soldering filler metals are designed to melt,
appointments for a given type of restoration or
wet the surfaces or parts to be joined and flow
prosthesis.
across the clean metal surface. They cannot wet
This technology allows technician and dentist
the oxidized surfaces without the use of a flux.
u
to use higher quality ceramics having improved
Purpose of flux is to eliminate any oxide coating
_
properties like homogeneous with minimal
r
on the substrate metal surface when the filler
porosity or other defects as compared with
o
metal is molten and ready to flow into place.
f
conventional sintered or hot-pressed ceramics.
_
In this, there is as an alternative to metal Fluxes are of three types according to their
h
casting procedure. The metal can be milled or primary purpose:
c
ground from a metal block using CAD-CAM 1. Type1: Surface protection—covers the metal
t e
process. CAD-CAM system electronically or surface and prevents access to oxygen so that
_
digitally records surface coordinates of the no oxide can form, e.g. Borax flux.
t
prepared tooth and stores, these retrieved data 2. Type 2: Reducing agent—reduces any oxide
n
in the memory of a computer. This image data present and exposes clean metal, e.g. Copper
e
can be retrieved immediately to mill or grind a oxide.
d
metal ceramic, ceramic or composite prosthesis 3. Type 3: Solvent type—dissolves any oxides
@
by computer control from a solid block. By this present andcarries them away, e.g. Fluoride
technique within minutes (10 min–01 hours), flux.
26 CHAPTER
_ u
Wrought Alloys
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is wrought alloy or wrought plastic deformation below the recrystallization
t
metal? temperature is called as strain hardening or
t _
Ans. Cold-worked metal that can be plastically work hardening.
n
deformed to alter the shape of the structure and
Q. 3. What is Vacancy?
e
certain mechanical properties like strength,
Ans. It is the imperfection in a crystal lattice
d
hardness and ductility are called as wrought
consisting of an unoccupied atom site or it is a
alloys or wrought metals.
@
vacant atom site in crystalline lattice that may
Wrought alloys or metals are used for: occur at a single site in the atomic arrangement.
• Orthodontic wires Point defect is the lattice imperfection of
• Clasp for removable partial dentures atomic size in three dimensions such as vacancy
• Temporary crowns divacancy, trivacancy or interstitial atoms.
• Root canal file and reamers and other RC
Q. 4. What is recrystallization temperature?
instruments
Ans. It is the lowest temperature at which total
• Crowns for pediatric cases
recrystallization of work hardened structure
• Surgical instruments.
occurs within a specified period (usually 1
for example, Stainless steel, Co-Cr-Ni, Ni-Ti,
hour).
and beta–Titanium alloys.
In cold working, the metal is hammered, Q. 5. What is twinning?
drawn or bent into desire shape at room Ans. It is one of the method or mode of
temperature. permanent deformation in metals in which
Metals or alloy structures produced in this there are small atomic movements on either
way are said to have wrought structure and side of a twinning plane that results in the
often rely for their special properties on work atoms having a mirror relationship. Twinning
hardening which takes place during shaping. is a mechanism for reversible transformations
It is the mechanical deformation below between austenitic and martensitic structures.
recrystallization temperature.
Q. 6. What is the difference between brittle
Q. 2. What is strain hardening or work fracture and ductile fracture?
hardening? Ans. Brittle fracture is a rupture of solid
Ans. Increase in strength, hardness and structure with little or no fractographic evidence
decrease in ductility of a metal that is caused by of plastic deformation.
Ductile fracture is a rupture of solid structure Q. 11. What is stress relief?

that results in measurable plastic deformation. Ans. Reduction or elimination of residual
stresses by heat treatment is called as stress
Q. 7. What is precipitation hardening?
relief.
Ans. It is the process of strengthening and
hardening of a metal by precipitating a phase or Q. 12. What is the difference between steel
constituent from a standard solid solution. and stainless steel wire?
Ans. Steel is an alloy of an iron and carbon in
Q. 8. What is annealing? which carbon is less than 2% (1.2%).
Ans. Annealing is a type of heat treatment that When chromium (>11% = 12–30%) is added
involves heating steel to red hot and cooling to steel so as to improve its properties and make
u
slowly so as to makes it soft and malleable. it corrosion resistance due to the passivating
_
Or it is the controlled heating and cooling
r
effect of the chromium, then it is called as
process designed to produce desired properties
o
stainless steel. It contains iron, carbon and
f
in a metal. It is usually done to soften the metals chromium.
_
to increase their plastic deformation potential, Amount of carbon content decides the
h
to stabilize shape and to increase machinability. hardness of the alloy.
e c
This takes place in 3 stages: Advantages of stainless steel:
t
Recovery, recrystallization and grain growth. • Heat and corrosion resistance.
t _
• Increase ductility.
Recovery: It is a stage of heat treatment
n
• Can be welded
that result in the partial or total regaining of
e
• Cold worked and swaged
properties of a metal that were altered by work
d
• Stabilized against corrosion.
hardening (cold working) without a change in
@
grain structure.
Q. 13. What is passivating effect?
Recrystallization: It is a process of forming new Ans. The effect of providing resistance to
stress free crystals in a work hardened metal tarnish and corrosion is called as passivating
through a control heat treatment process. effect of chromium. A very thin transparent,
Grain growth: In this stage, there is increase adherent layer of Cr2O3, Chromium oxide is
in mean crystal size of a polycrystalline metal formed on the surface of stainless steel when
produced due to heat treatment process. it is exposed to an oxidizing atmosphere such
as room air and this protective layer provides a
Q. 9. What is spring back? barrier to oxygen diffusion and other corrosive
Ans. Spring back is the amount of elastic environments and prevents further corrosion of
strain that a metal can recover when loaded to the underlying alloy.
and unloaded from its yield strength.
Q. 14. Which are the different types of the
Q. 10. What is superelasticity? stainless steel?
Ans. Superelasticity is the ability of certain Ans. There are three major types of stainless
Nickel-Titanium alloys to undergo extensive steel.
deformation resulting from a stress assisted 1. Ferrite stainless steel
phase transformation, with the reverse 2. Martenstic stainless steel
transformation occurring on unloading. 3. Austenitic stainless steel
It is called as pseudoplasticity. It is the large • Ferrite stainless steel: It is a very ductile solid
amount of elastic deformation in an alloy which solution of carbon in body centered cubic
generates a constant stress. This has long- phase stable to temperature not exceeding
working range, e.g. orthodontic arch wire. 912°C.
Wrought Alloys 97
• BCC iron: Pure iron at room temperature is Used for surgical and cutting instruments.
called as ferrite stainless steel. This is a BCC They are less resistance to corrosion.
phase stable to temperature not exceeding
Q. 15. What is sensitization or weld decay?
912°C.
Ans. Loss of corrosion resistance due to loss
This provides good corrosion resistance
of chromium from stainless steel due to heat
at low cost, provided that high strength is not
welding and soldering is called as sensitization
required.
or weld decay.
They can not be hardened by heat
Stain steel may loss its resistance to
treatment.
corrosion, if it is heated between 400–900°C
They have very little application in
during soldering and welding. The decrease in
u
dentistry.
corrosion resistance is caused by precipitation
_
• Austenitic stainless steel: It is also called as
r
of chromium iron carbide at the grain
18-8 steel.
o
boundaries at high temperature, thus steel
f
It is a face-centered cubic phase, stable
become susceptible to inter-granular corrosion,
_
between 912°C and 1394°C in which carbon
partial integration and weakening of the alloy.
h
atom are located interstitially between the iron
c
atoms. Sensitization can be reduced by:
e
• Reducing carbon contain and heating up to
t
These are the most corrosion resistance alloy
_
of three major types. sensitization temperature or
t
• Used for orthodontic wires and bands • By stabilization.
n
• Endodontic instruments and
e
Q. 16. What is stabilization?
• Crowns in pediatric dentistry.
d
Ans. This is done to prevent sensitization.
This is produced by adding Nickel to Iron, This is done by adding titanium to stainless
@
Carbon-Chromium composition. steel. Due to addition of titanium, chromium
In this type of steel when there is 18% is saved during welding and thus resistance to
Chromium and 8% Nickel and 0.25% Carbon corrosion is maintained.
and then they are referred as 18-8 Stainless
steel. Q. 17. What is swaging?
Ans. It is a method is which sheet metal (steel)
Advantages
is confined to a die under pressure to form a
• Greater ductility and ability to cold work.
desire shape.
• Substantial strengthening during cold work.
• Greater ease of wielding Q. 18. What is nickel chromium alloy?
• Ability to overcome sensitization. Ans. It is an alloy of nickel 80% and chromium
• Less critical grains growth 20%. This is used for orthodontic arch wire and
• Comparative ease in forming. has highest corrosion resistance.
• Economical.
• Martensitic stainless steel: It is a solid solution Q. 19. What is tempering?
of carbon in distorted BCC iron. Ans. It is a type of heat treatment where
If stainless steel alloy is heated above critical hardened steel, if heated once again up to 200-
temperature and is quenched, i.e. rapidly 450°C and cooled slowly in air, then the steel
cooled from elevated temperature to room retains its hardness but losses its brittleness.
temperature, then a very hard, strong and Q. 20. What is pearlite?
brittle steel is produced which is c/a martensitic Ans. During heating of steel two phases of
stainless steel that has body centered cubic steel, i.e. ferrite which is soft and ductile and
lattice form. other form, i.e. cementite which is hard and
brittle is formed. The two phases together is c/a press. Stainless steel denture bases are thin,
pearlite. light and conducts heat rapidly, i.e. thermal
stimulus retaining normal reflex action. They
are strong, resistance to tarnish and corrosion,
tasteless, odorless and dimensionally stable.
Disadvantages are that they lack minute
details, requires special equipment and much
time and extra work, lacks color harmony, cannot
be relined and rebased. They are expensive and
are mechanically retentive with teeth.
u
Q. 28. What is welding?
r_
Q. 21. What is elgiloy? Ans. Welding is a procedure of uniting or
o
Ans. Alloy of chromium 20%, cobalt 40%, fusing two pieces by hammering, compression
f
nickel 15% and molybdenum 70%. This is used or by rendering soft by heat with the addition
_
for orthodontic wire. of a fusible material. In this procedure, the
ch
Q. 22. What is Nitinol? resistance of material to flow of current,
e
Ans. It is an alloy of nickel 55% and titanium produces intense localized heating and actual
t
45% and cobalt 0–2%. It was introduced in 1972. fusion of the metal. Electrical spot welding
t _
It is known for shape memory, super elasticity, apparatus is used for welding.
n
high resiliency and limited formality. Q. 29. What are braided or twisted wires?
e
Q. 23. What is shape memory effect (SME)? Ans. Small wire of stainless-steel are twisted
d
Ans. It is the ability of the alloy to retain or or braided together to form final intertwined or
@
memorize a particular shape given to it. It is due large multi-standard wire which may be round
to the change in the structure of space lattice or rectangular with dimension 0.14 to 0.63 mm.
that takes place at high temperature. They are able to sustain large elastic deflection
in bending. Due to low apparent modulus in
Q. 24. What is working range? bending, these wires apply low forces for giving
Ans. It is related to maximum flexibility, which deflection.
can move tooth over a large distance before
adjustment. Q. 30. What is silver solder?
Ans. Silver solder is used for soldering
Q. 25. What is base metal? Stainless steel.
Ans. Base metal is a type of metal that is easily Silver solder is an alloy of silver, copper, zinc
oxidized when heated in air, e.g. Fe, Pb, Cu, and and tin. Indium is added to lower the fusion
Zn. temperature and improves solder ability.
Q. 26. What is resilience? Soldering temperature ranges between
Ans. It is the amount of energy stored in wire 620–665°C. In free hand soldering, solder
that can be used to move tooth. should harden promptly to avoid movements of
the parts and tiredness of operator.
Q. 27. Write a short note on stainless steel
Denture base. Q. 31. Write soldering technique?
Ans. Stainless steel alloy can be used as a Ans. Soldering is the procedure of joining two
metallic denture base material. While making a pieces of metal by using proper alloys of metals.
thin denture base sheet of 18-8 steel having base In this procedure needle like non-luminous
of 0.2 mm thick is pressed between an alloy or gas air flame is be used for soldering. Thinner
epoxy resin die and counter die by hydraulic the flame less the metal surrounding the
Wrought Alloys 99
joint is annealed. Work should be held about added and heating continued till solder flows
3 mm (1/8 inch) beyond the tip of blue flame around the joints. After solder has flown work
introducing zone which can be observed should be immediately removed and quench in
against black background. Color should never water. Little heat should be used for short time
exceed dull red. Parts to be welded are aligned. to minimize carbide precipitation. Hydrogen–
Flux is applied to all the areas to be soldered oxygen torch or electric resistance heating can
before heating. As soon as, flux fuses solder is be used for soldering.
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
nt _
d e
@
27 CHAPTER
_ u
Dental Ceramics
f o r
ch _
e
Q. 1. What is dental ceramic? Q. 3. What is the difference between glass
t
Ans. Dental ceramic is an inorganic and porcelain?
t _
compound with non-metallic properties Ans. Glass is a fusible combination of silica
n
typically composed of oxygen and one or more and other ingredients. It is transparent.
e
metallic or semi-metallic and non-metallic Porcelain is a combination of infusible
d
elements like aluminum, calcium, lithium, ingredients held together by low fusing material.
magnesium potassium, silicon, sodium, tin, It is translucent. It is an inorganic non-metallic
@
titanium and zirconium, that is formulated to compound that lacks a crystalline structure. It
produce the whole or part of a ceramic based has excellent biocompatibility, is most esthetic
dental prosthesis, e.g. feldspathic porcelain, and chemically inert in oral cavity.
aluminous porcelain, castable ceramic (Dicor) Q. 4. What is fritting?
MGC, Optec, HSP, IPS-Empress, Inceram. Ans. Fused mass of porcelain if cooled quickly
(For figures, see Plate 12) by quenching, breaks up into fragments called
as frit. Fritting is the process of blending, melting
Q. 2. What is porcelain?
and quenching the ceramic components.
Ans. It is a glass like but translucent material
having a basic silica-oxygen tetrahedron Q. 5. What is the difference between
network described as glass forming networks. vitrification and devitrification?
Dental porcelain is a ceramic material Ans. Vitrification is the formation of glossy
containing feldspar, silica, and kaolin and phase due to melting and cooling of ceramic
alumina which fuses to hard smooth solid at ingredients. It is non-crystalline and amorphous
high temperature. with brittleness and non-directional fracture
Dental porcelain is made by heating pattern, flow under stress and has high surface
together feldspar, silica and other minerals tension in fluid state.
along with Al, Ca, Mg. It also contains fluxes Devitrification is converting non-crystalline
like oxides or carbonates of Na, K, Ti and glossy ceramics into crystalline ceramics by
disruption of SiO4 tetrahedral form.
Bo. Color pigments like iron or nickel oxide,
copper oxide, titanium oxide, cobalt,tin, Q. 6. Write in short history of dental ceramics.
zirconium oxide, stains, glaze and opacifying Ans. The word ceramic was very important
agents are added. since Stone Age, more than 10,000 years ago.
Dental Ceramics 101
• French pharmacist Duchateau had They are used for forming inlays, onlays,
introduced mineral paste teeth in 1774. veneers, crown, fixed partial dentures and all
• First porcelain tooth material was patented tooth colored restorations.
by French dentist (de Chemant) in 1789.
Q. 7. Classify dental ceramics.
• In 1808 Frenzy, Italian dentist introduced
Ans. According to their
terrometallic, porcelain tooth held with
1. Uses or indications
platinum wire.
• Type I – For artificial teeth
• Planteau a French dentist introduced • Type II – For crown, inlays, onlays or
porcelain teeth in United States in 1817. bridges.
• Peale an artist developed baked porcelain • Type III – For Metal ceramics, titanium
u
teeth in Philadelphia in 1822 and was
_
and titanium alloys, anterior or posterior
r
commercially made available in 1825 by crowns, veneers, post and core, fixed
o
Stockton. partial dentures
f
• Ash developed improved version of porcelain • Stain ceramics and glaze ceramics.
_
tooth in1837 in England. 2. Composition
ch
• 1839 Porcelain denture teeth were used in • Pure alumina
e
denture base. • Pure zirconium, silica glass
t
• 1844 S.S. White Company was founded by • Lucite based glass ceramic
t _
nephew of Stockton. • Lithia based glass.
n
• Dr Charles Land introduced first ceramic 3. Processing Method:
e
crown in 1903. Sintering, pressure molding, partial
d
• Metal ceramic restorations were patented by sintering, glass infiltration, CAD–CAM and
Weinstein and Weinstein in 1962. copy milling.
@
• First commercial porcelain was developed 4. Firing temperature or fusing temperature:
by Vita Zahnfabrik in 1963. • Low fusing: 850–1100oC
• Improvement in fracture resistance was • Medium Fusing: 1100–1300oC
reported by Mclean and Hughes in 1965 • High fusing: 1300–1400oC
(Aluminium Porcelain). • Ultra low fusing: below 850oC.
• Improvement in all ceramic system 5. Microstructure
developed by controlled crystallization of • Glass
• Crystalline and
a glass (Dicor) was shown by Adair and
• Crystal containing glass.
Grossman in 1984 and was improved as
6. Translucency
Machinable Glass Ceramic (MGC).
• Opaque
• In 1992 Duceram low fusing ceramic (LFC).
• Translucent and
was marketed.
• Transparent.
• New generation ceramic are: 7. Fabrication process
Cercon, Lava, Inceram, Zirconia, IPS-Impress • Core
2, Procera All Ceram, Sintered alumina core • Dentin
ceramic, Inceram Alumina, Inceram, Zirconia, • Enamel
Glass infiltrated Zirconia–Alumina core • Neck porcelain and
ceramic, Lava—a sintered ceramic of Zirconia • Glaze.
core ingot formed by CAD-CAM and Cercon 8. Based on type:
was introduced. • Feldspathic porcelain
Ceramics of various types with advanced • Leucite reinforced
processing technologies are introduced. • Aluminous porcelain
• Alumina porcelain strength, toughness and stiffness to support

• Glass infiltrated porcelain overlying layers of veneering ceramics.
• Glass infiltrated alumina porcelain Q. 13. What is glass ceramic?
• Glass ceramic Ans. Glass ceramic is a type of ceramic
• CAD-CAM. consisting of a glass matrix phase and at least
9. Based on core material: one crystal phase that is produced by the
• Cast metal. controlled crystallization of the glass.
• Swaged metal. Glass infiltration ceramic is a minimally
• Glass ceramic. sintered core ceramic with a porous structure
• CAD-CAM ceramic that has been densified by the capillary inflow
u
• Sintered ceramic. of a molten glass, e.g. In-ceram.
r_
Q. 8. What is alumina core? Q. 14. What is glaze ceramic or natural glaze?
f o
Ans. Alumina core is a ceramic containing Ans. A glaze ceramic is a specially formulated
_
sufficient crystalline alumina (Al2O3) to achieve ceramic powder which is mixed with a liquid
h
adequate strength and opacity when used and applied to a ceramic surface and heated
c
for producing the core structure of ceramic to an appropriate temperature for sufficient
e
prosthesis.
t
time to form a smooth glossy layer on a dental
_
ceramic surface.
t
Q. 9. What is aluminous porcelain?
Natural glaze is a vitrified layer that forms on
n
Ans. Aluminous porcelain is a ceramic
a surface of a dental ceramic containing a glass
e
compound of a glass matrix phase and it phase when the ceramic is heated to a glazing
d
contains at least by volume 35% Al2O3. It is a type temperature for a specified time.
of core porcelain. Alumina is used to strengthen
@
the porcelain. Available as body, dentin or Q. 15. What is over glaze?
gingival porcelain. Ans. Over glaze is the surface coating of glass
It is a veneering ceramic for ceramic or metal formed by fusing a thin layer of glass powder
ceramic prosthesis. that matures at a lower temperature than that
associated with the ceramic substrate.
Q. 10. What is CAD CAM ceramic? Over glaze is added after baking to produce
Ans. A ceramic that is formulated for the smooth, glassy surface, which does not absorb
production of the whole or part of an all ceramic water.
prosthesis through the use of a computer aided
design and computer design manufacturing Q. 16. What is pressable ceramics or hot
process is CAD CAM ceramic. pressed ceramic?
Ans. A ceramic that can be heated to a specified
Q. 11. What is castable ceramic? temperature and forced under pressure to fill a
Ans. Castable ceramic is called as Dicor. It cavity in a refractory mold is called as pressable
is developed by corning ware baking dishes ceramics or hot pressed ceramic.
and is marketed by Dentsply. A glass or other
ceramic specially formulated to be cast into a Q. 17. What is stain ceramic?
refractory mold to produce a core coping or core Ans. A mixture of one or more pigmented
framework for a ceramic prosthesis, e.g. ‘Dicor’. metal oxides and a low fusing glass that can
In this crown is made by lost wax process like modify the shades of the ceramic based
metal casting and then given a strengthening restorations. It is dispersed in an aqueous slurry
heat treatment. or monomer medium, applied to the surface of
porcelain or other dental ceramic and heated to
Q. 12. What is core ceramic? its vitrification temperature for a specified time.
Ans. Core ceramic is an opaque dental They are also used to provide enamel check line
ceramic material that provides sufficient, and decalcification spots.
Dental Ceramics 103
Q. 18. What is feldspathic porcelain? the temperature of the melting point of the
Ans. A ceramic composed of a glass matrix main component) to densify and strengthen a
phase and one or more crystalline phases such structure as a result of bonding, diffusion and
as leucite, K2O, AL2O3 , 4SiO2. flow phenomenon.
Q. 19. What is metal ceramic prosthesis? (Or Q. 23. What is shoulder porcelain?
PFM, PBM, PTM) Ans. A shoulder porcelain is a ceramic that is
Ans. Metal ceramics prosthesis, porcelain formulated to be sintered at the cervical area of
fused in metal, porcelain bonded in metal or metal ceramic crown to produce an aesthetic
porcelain to metal or ceramo-metal is a type and fracture resistance butt-joint margin.
of prosthesis in which low fusing porcelain is
u
Q. 24. What is copy milling?
_
used as a veneer (facing) to metal restoration Ans. Copy milling is a process of cutting or
r
by fusing and bonding, in order to increase the grinding a structure using a device that traces
o
strength of the restoration and at the same time
f
the surface of a master metal, ceramic or
_
maintain the aesthetic value. polymer pattern and transfers the traced spatial
h
In this a partial crown, full crown, veneer or positions to a cutting station where a blank
c
fixed dentures is made with a metal substrate (block) is cut or ground in a manner similar to a
e
to which porcelain is bonded for aesthetic
t
key cutting procedure.
enhancement via an intermediate metal oxide
_
Q. 25. What is the composition of dental
t
layer.
porcelain?
n
Advantages of metal ceramic are high
Ans. Composition of dental porcelain is as
e
strength, less breaking, improved fit and better
d
follows:
aesthetics. Disadvantages are restorations may
a. Feldspar: 80%. It is potassium aluminum
not be natural or lifelike as metal is opaque to
@
silicate (potaspar) or sodium aluminum
light and will not transmit light through it.
silicate (sodaspar).
Q. 20. What is spinel or inceram spinel? It provides glassy amorphous phase. Acts as
Ans. It is a hard crystalline natural mineral flux to dissolve quartz and kaolin
composed of mixed oxides such as magnesium Fusing temperature—1100°C.
and aluminum. MgAl2O4 (MgO.Al2O3). b. Silica: 15% in the form of quartz .Provides
crystalline phase and gives stiffness, body
Q. 21. What is slip casting? and stability. Also acts as strengthener.
Ans. It is a method in which ceramic material Fusing temperature is 1680°C.
is mixed with organic binder (e.g. polymer) c. Kaolin: 0.4%. It is white china clay that acts
instead of water. The binder is later burnt out in as binder and units with feldspar: Fusing
the sintering process. temperature is 1770oC.
This process is used to form “green” ceramic d. Glass modifiers: Other 1%. K2O, Na2O, CaO,
shapes by applying a slurry of ceramic particles for lowering the fusing temperature.
and water or a special liquid to a porous substrate e. Al2O lower firing temperature.
(such as a die material) thereby allowing f. Opacifying agents like titanium, zirconium ,
capillary action to remove water and densify the tin oxide
mass of deposited particles. “Green state” is an g. Fluorescing agent is cerium oxide
as ‘pressed condition’ before sintering. h. Colour shade of iron or nickel oxide, copper
Q. 22. What is sintering? oxide, cobalt oxide, etc.
Ans. Sintering is a method of changing Q. 26. What is propagation of cracks and its
porcelain powder to solid mass by heating. prevention?
Or It is a process of heating closely packed Ans. A crack developed at the surface of a
particles to a specified temperature (below crown will advance deep into it but the presence
of alumina will prevent its advancement and condensation and firing and thus, helps in
thus crown will not break. maintaining the desired shape.
Prevention of the propagation of cracks is by: Bonded platinum foil coping is a method
Transformation toughening is a method in which platinum foil is electroplated with tin
of preventing crack propagation by adding and then oxidized before applying aluminous
zirconia to the ceramic material, which changes porcelain.
its shape under different condition and thereby
expands and shuts of the cracks. Q. 32. What is ion exchange or chemical
tempering or production of pre-stressed
Q. 27. What are the methods of condensation surface?
of porcelain while building a crown? Ans. Ion exchange or chemical tempering or
u
Ans. Condensation is a process that is done
_
production of pre-stressed surface is a method
r
to produce a most compact and strong crown. in which the small sodium atoms of ceramic
o
Methods of condensation of porcelain are: material at the surface are replaced by large
f
• Brush application size potassium atoms by ion exchange when
_
• Gravitation material is immersed in potassium nitrate
ch
• Spatulation solution and thus producing a pre-stressed
e
• Whipping surface which strengthens porcelain.
t
• Vibration.
_
Q. 33. What is thermal tempering?
t
Q. 28. What are the stages of porcelain baking? Ans. Thermal tempering is a process where
n
Ans. Stages of porcelain baking are as follows: ceramic object is rapidly cooled in silicon oil to
e
• Low biscuit bake cause surface hardness and thus strengthens
d
• Medium biscuit bake the porcelain.
@
• High biscuit bake
• Final glazing: Crown surface gets Q. 34. What is the difference between CJC and
automatically glazed during final baking. C/a PJC?
Self-glazing. Ans. CJC: Ceramic Jacket crown is made
entirely by ceramic with more than 50% of
Q. 29. How do you prevent porosities in a crystals in it but without metal coping.
finished crown?
Ans. Porosities in a finished crown can be PJC: Porcelain jacket crown is made entirely
prevented as follows: with traditional feldspathic porcelain without
• By vacuum firing. crystals in it and it has aluminous core porcelain
• By firing in presence of hydrogen and helium and no metal coping.
• By cooling under pressure. Q. 35. What is creaming?
Q. 30. How is the bonding between metal and Ans. Creaming is a process when the glassy
ceramic? amorphous ceramic material changes into
Ans. Metal ceramic bond type is: solid crystalline material containing tiny thin
• By mechanical wetting sheets of crystalline mica in it as it happens with
• By chemical oxide film castable glass ceramic.
• By compression.
Q. 36. What is IPS Empress?
Q. 31. What is the purpose of platinum foil Ans. IPS Empress is a trade name of injection
while making a porcelain crown? molding glass ceramic, which contains higher
Ans. Platinum foil provides a metal framework percentage of Lucite i.e. potassium, aluminum
to support the porcelain powder during crystals, making it more unbreakable.
Dental Ceramics 105
Q. 37. Where metal ceramic bond failures are d. Ion exchange technique
seen? e. Thermal tempering
Ans. Metal ceramic bond failures are seen. f. Dispersion strengthening by crack
a. Between metal oxide and ceramic propagation
b. Within the metal oxide g. Transformation toughening.
c. Between metal oxide and metal.
Q. 40. How will you minimize excessive wear
Q. 38. What factors influence the shade of enamel by dental ceramics?
matching of porcelain? Ans. To minimize the wear of enamel by
Ans. Factors that influence the shade matching dental ceramics, following steps can be taken:
of porcelain are:
u
a. Ensure cuspid guided disclusion
a. Structure of tooth
_
b. Eliminate prematurities
r
b. Effect of fluorescence
c. Use metal in functional bruxing areas
o
c. Metamerism
f
d. Use ultraslow fusing ceramic in occlusal
d. Conditions during shade matching
_
areas
e. Color blending process
h
e. Polish functional ceramic surface
f. Cementing medium of silico-phosphate or
c
f. Repolish ceramic surface periodically
GIC cement
e
g. Readjust occlusion periodically if needed.
t
g. Sensitivity of eye
_
h. Quality of light source
t
Q. 41. What is “Shine through Effect” in
i. Time during shade selection.
n
porcelain?
e
Q. 39. What are the methods of strengthening Ans. In porcelain fused metal crown
d
ceramics? fabrication, in incisal third area no opaque layer
Ans. Methods of strengthening ceramics are: such as titanium dioxide is applied, so as to have
@
a. By introduction of residual compressive translucent effect. Then this shadow or shine
stresses through effect is seen.
b. Minimizing the number of firing cycles To avoid this opaque is required to prevent
c. Minimize tensile stress through optimal the shadow or shine through of the metal flange
design of ceramic prosthesis which causes discoloration of the tooth.
Index
A B Cold welding 88
Colloid
Abrasion 59 Base metal 19, 98
phases of 39
hardness of 62 alloys 3, 22, 90
types of 39
Abrasive grits 61 Base paste 46
Colloidal gel theory 49
Abrasive paste 62 Base plate wax 54 Color spectrum 9
Abrasive, hardness Beta hemihydrates 50
u
Compomer 75
measurement 60 Biocompatibility 4, 17, 43, 91
_
Composite 69
r
Abrasive, types of 61 tests, types of 18 Composite resins 3, 68, 69
Acid base reaction 73 Biofilm 67
o
Compressive stress 14
f
Acid etching Bio-integration 18 Contact angle 8
_
materials 3 Block copolymer 24 Cooling curve 20
h
methods of 65 British Dental Association 4 Copolymer 24
c
technique 5, 65 Brittle fracture 95 types of 24
e
Acrylic resin 25, 29 Brush bead technique 71 Copper amalgam composition 83
t
Acrylic teeth 28 Bulk reduction 59 Copper cement 81
_
Acute toxicity 17 Bulk technique 72
t
Core ceramic 102
Adhesion 5, 64 Burnout process 55
n
Corrosion 10, 11
Adhesive bonding 64
e
resistance 91
Adhesive wax 54 C types of 11
d
Agar 40, 41 CAD CAM ceramic 102 Creep 12, 82
@
manipulation of 40 CAD CAM processing 94 Crevice corrosion 11
Alginate 42 Calcium hydroxide 68 Crocus cloth 62
manipulation of 43 Calcium sulfate 42 Cross linked polymerization 24
properties of 43 hemihydrates 32 Crystalline theory 49
setting reaction of 42 Carbonized gold 87 Cyanoacrylates 29
types of 43 Carboxylate cements 3
uses of 44 Cast 32, 49 D
Alkaline compound 29 Cast metal 20 Densite 50
Allergy 18 finishing of 91 Dental amalgam 82, 85
Alloy 19, 21 Castable ceramic 102 Dental application, materials
system 21 Casting gold alloys 90 for 1
Alpha hemihydrates 50 Casting machines, types of 57 Dental casting alloy 91, 92
Alumina core 102 Casting molten metal 56 Dental cements 73, 74
Aluminous porcelain 102 Casting noble alloys 3 Dental ceramics 100, 101, 105
Aluminum oxide 62 Casting procedure 56 Dental Council of India 4
Amalgam 68, 82, 83 Casting ring liner 56 Dental material 2, 4, 17
alloy, types of 83 Casting shrinkage 93 biocompatibility of 17
restoration 84 Casting, recovery of 56 mechanical properties of 13
war 84 Catalyst paste 46 properties of 9
Amorphous and crystalline Cavity liner 73 types of 1
solid 7 Cavity varnish 74 Dental plaster 52
Antiexpansion solution 47 Cement 73 Dental polymers 23
Argon laser lamps 70 Ceramic 3, 68, 104 Dental porcelain 103
Austenitic stainless steel 97 Chemical corrosion 11 Dental products, standard
Autocatalytic process 37 Chromatic alginate 43 committee for 4
Autoclave 28 Chromium cobalt alloys 68 Dental waxes 53
Auxiliary dental materials 1 Cold mould seal, action of 26 uses of 54
Dentin conditioner 64 Fluorescence 10 Hook’s law 15

Dentine adhesives 3 Fluoride 3 Horace wells 2
Dentistry 1 recharging 75 Hot pressed ceramic 102
Denture cleaners 29 Flux 75 Hybrid composite 71
Denture soft liner 29 Food and Drug Administration 4 Hybrid ionomer 80
Depth of cure 70 Forging and foundry 20 Hybrid layer 65
Diatomaceous earth 42 Fracture toughness 15 Hydration theory 49
Die materials 52 Free radical 25 Hydrocolloid, types of 39
Die preparation 56 Frozen slab method 76 Hydrogen absorber 47
Die spacers 52 Functional impression Hygroscopic low heat
Dimensional stability 4 material 29 technique 57
u
Direct filling gold 86, 88 Hypersensitivity 18
G
_
Direct restorative material 64 Hystersis 40
r
Direct silver method 85 Galloy 19
I
o
Disodium phosphate 26 Galvanic corrosion 11
f
Dry corrosion 11 Galvanic shock 11 Implant materials 3
_
Dry strength and green Galvanism 85 Impression compound 32-35
h
strength 51 Gauging water 51 uses of 34
c
Dual cure 75 Geomer 75 Impression material 30, 31
t e
resin 70 Glass 75, 100 Impression plaster 32
_
Ductile fracture 95 Glass ceramic 102 Impression tray 31
t
Dustless alginate 43 Glass ionomer 3 Impression waxes 32
n
cement 79 Indian Dental Association 4
E
e
Glass modifiers 103 Inelastic impression
d
Edge dislocation 20 Glass transition temperature 6 material 32, 34
Elastic impression Glaze ceramic 102 types of 36
@
materials 32, 39 Gold and gold alloys 68 Inlay wax 53
Elastomer 45, 47 Gold based casting alloys 90 properties of 54
Elastomeric impression Gold beating 88 Interatomic bonds, types of 7
materials 3, 45 Gold foil book 88 International Color System 9
Electra alloy 87 Gold, properties of 86 International Standards
Electro-galvanism 11 Graft copolymer 24 Organization 3
Elgiloy 98 Green shrinkage 56 Ion exchange 104
Enamel tag 65 Green strength 56
Epoxy resin 29 Gun and cartridge system 47 J
Erosion 60 Gutta purcha 81 Japanese gold 92
Esthetic dentistry 3 GV Black’s classification of
Esthetic restorative materials 68 cavities for caries 68 K
Estrogenicity 72 Gypsum 48 Kaolin 103
Ethyl silicate bonded products 48, 51, 52
investment 56 L
Eutectic mixture 21 H
Laminate technique 41
Heat controlled water bath 28 Latent heat of fusion 6
F Heat cure resin 25 Lava soap 62
Federation Dentaire Heat soaking 57 Light activated denture
International 4 Heat thermal expansion 57 base resin 28
Feldspathic porcelain 103 Heat treatment 21 Light cure composite 69
Ferrite stainless steel 96 Heating processes for resins, types Light cure resins 70
Finishing and polishing 60, 72 of 28 Light cured composite 69
goal of 60 Heterogenous microfill 72 Linear coefficient of expansion 6
Flexural stress and strength 14 High copper alloy 83 Lost wax process 56
Fluid composite 71 amalgam 3 Luminescence 10
Index 109
M Phosphate bonded investment 56 Silica 103

Pickling and cleaning of casting 56 Silicon carbide 62
Making cast, methods of 51
Pit and fissure sealants 3, 66 Silicones addition
Martensitic stainless steel 97
Pit corrosion 11 polymerization 46
Mat foil 87
Plaster of Paris 6, 48, 49 Silicones condensation
Mat gold 87
Plastic and elastic strain 13 polymerization 45, 46
Matrix band and retainer, uses Platinized gold foil 87 Silver amalgam restoration 85
of 85 Poisson’s ratio 14 Silver solder 98
Maxillofacial appliance 29 Polycarbonates 29 Sintering 20, 103
Melt alloys 57 Polyether 3, 45, 46 Slip casting 103
Melting point 6 Polymerization, stages of 26 Smear layer 6, 65
Melting temperature 6
u
Polystyrene 29 Sodium alginate 26
Mercury alloy 84
_
Polysulfide 3, 45 Sodium per borate 29
r
Metal 19, 104 Polysulfide elastomer 46 Sol and gel 39
o
ceramic prosthesis 103 Polyurethanes 29 Soldering flux 94
f
properties of 19 Porcelain 100 Soldering technique 98
_
Micro filler 71 baking, stages of 104 Solid state reaction 8
h
Micro leakage 65 bonding 91 Soluble plaster state
c
Micromechanical bonding 6 teeth 28 ingredients 32
e
Moh’s scale 16
t
Porosities in dentures, types of 28 Space lattice 20
Moisture contamination 84
_
Posterior restorative materials 71 Spectra photometer 9
t
Molding acrylic resin, methods Potassium sulfate 32 Split mold 26
n
of 25 Potassium titanium fluoride 42 Spring back 96
e
Mucocompressive impression 37 Powdered gold 87 Spruing of wax pattern 56
d
Multiple mix technique 47 Pressable ceramics 102 Stain ceramic 102
Munsell color coordinate Preventive resin restoration 65 Stainless steel
@
system 9 Pseudo polymerization 27 denture base 98
types of 96
N Q wire 96
National Institute of Standards Quenching 20 Standard hardness tests 16
and Technology 3 Sticky wax 54
Natural glaze 60, 102 R Strain hardening 15, 20, 99, 95
Nature of elastomer 45 Radiation 10 Strengthening ceramics, methods
Nealon or brush bead Rapid heat polymerizing resin 28 of 105
technique 71 Recrystallization temperature 95 Stress and strain, types of 13
Nickel chromium alloy 97 Reflection 10 Stress concentration 6, 16
Nitinol 98 Refraction 10 Stress corrosion 11
Noble metal 20 Reline technique 47 Stress relaxation 15
types of 90 Resin tag 65 Surgical paste 38
Nonbonded abrasive 61 Resins, types of 29 Synthetic diamond 62
Non-eugenol paste 38 Restoration 68, 73 Synthetic polymers, application
Restorative materials 1, 68 of 24
O anterior 68 Synthetic resin 23
Optical impression 47 Restorative resins 68 Synthetic wax 54
Osseointegration 18 Reversible hydrocolloid 39, 40
Oswald color system 9 T
Over glaze 60, 102 S Tarnish 10
Oxygen inhibitor layer 72 Sag resistance 93 Tarnish resistance 91
Sand blasting 56 Temporary restorative materials 1
P Sandwich technique 65, 76 Terra alba 51
Paraffin wax 54 Self cure resin 29 Thermal conductivity 7
Patch test 18 Self-sealing restoration 84, 85 Thermal expansion, coefficient
Peritectic alloy 21 Shoulder porcelain 103 of 7
Thermal tempering 104 V Wrought alloy 95, 95

Thermoplastic resin 24 Wrought metal 20, 95
Van der Waals force 7
Thermosetting polymer 24
Thixotropic 12, 33
Vaporization, heat of 6 Y
Vinyl resin 29
Tin oxide 62 Young’s modulus of elasticity 14
Viscoelasticity 33
Torsion and bending 15
Toxicity 18
Viscosity 12 Z
Vitrification 100
Transformation toughening 15 Zinc free alloys 85
Vulcanization 45
Translucency 10 Zinc oxide 42
eugenol cement 68
Tri-cure 76 W
Trisodium phosphate 42 eugenol impression
Wash impression 38
u
paste 32, 36, 37
Truing 61 Wax, sources of 53
_
eugenol, uses of 36
Twinning 95
r
Welding 88, 98 Zinc phosphate cement 68, 76, 77
o
Wet field technique 41 Zinc polycarboxylate
U
f
Wet or electrolytic corrosion 11 cement 68, 77
_
Unit cell, shapes of 8 White gold 92 Zirconium silicate 62
t e ch
nt _
d e
@
Plate 1
Denture flasks > Cleaning > Trim trial denture with cast
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
Flasking base > Flasking > Investing
nt _
d e
@
Flask under hydraulic press > Flask with clamp > Acrylic denture >
Denture insertion Monomer and polymer Dewaxing and packing Separating medium
Ch.7 Q.15 and Q.20: Steps in denture fabrication in heat cure acrylic resin material
Plate 2
Medium fusing Stock trays and custom trays Preliminary impressions
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
nt _
d e
Low fusing: U/L border molding—sectional method
@
Tray compound
Ch.8 Q.7 and Ch.9 Q.4 : Rigid impression material: Impression compound
Plate 3
ZOE impression mixing: Paste: wash impression: maxillary Mandibular

Steel spatula and pad
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
nt _
d e
Non-eugenol impression paste Final (Wash) impressions
@
Ch.10 Q.5, Q.11 and Q.13: Rigid impression material: Zinc oxide eugenol impression paste
Plate 4
u
Agar-bulk form Agar syringe form
f o r_
ch _
t _ t e
d e n
@
Agar manipulation unit (Water circulating) Impression trays
Agar: Model duplicator
Ch.11 Q.10: Elastic impression material: Reversible hydrocolloid: Agar
Plate 5
Alginate bulk form Alginate dust less: Syringe type
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
t _
Stock perforated impression Trays; maxillary, mandibular Tray adhesive
d e n
@ Manipulation: W/P ratio Bowl and spatula Figure 8 motion
Manipulation Uniform mix Dentulous impression
Ch.12 Q.4, Q.5 and Q.7: Elastic impression material: Reversible hydrocolloid: Alginate
Plate 6
Polysulfide impression materials Lower impression
r_ u
_ f o
ch
Condensation silicone: Two stage impression technique
t _ t e
d e n
@
Addition silicone Putty consistency Medium body Light body
Ch.13 Q.1 and Q.6: Elastomeric impression materials
Plate 7
Manipulation: Dental Plaster and Dental stone
Correct powder and water ratio Mechanical mixing
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
Hand mixing: P/W ratio mixing GIC luting cement: Check setting
nt _
d e
Uses
@ Diagnostic casts; dental plaster: Final casts in dental stone Die
Plaster: Mounting Trial denture investing Refractory cast (investment type V)
Ch.8 Q.12, Q.13; Ch.14 Q.2, Q.9, Q.26; Ch.16 Q.1 and Q.11: Gypsum products
Plate 8
Zinc oxide eugenol cement Reinforced cement Glass ionomer cement powder and
powder and liquid powder and liquid liquid
u
mixing: Steel spatula and pad
f o r_
ch _
t _ t e
d e n
@
GIC Luting cement Zinc phosphate cement powder GIC—Core material powder
and liquid and liquid
Ch.20 Q.1, Q.28 and Ch.21 Q.2: Restoratives materials
Plate 9
u
Inlay wax. Boxing wax. Modeling wax Teeth on carding or utility wax
f o r_
ch _
t _ t e
Modeling wax Occlusal rims with record base Teeth arrangement
d e n
@ Wax pattern: Inlay casting wax Beading and boxing wax
Boxing wax
Ch.15 Q.4: Dental waxes
Plate 10
Amalgam filling Inlay Post and core
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
nt _
e
Ceramic crown PFM crown Metal: Gold crown
@ d
Removable partial denture Implant supported bridge Ceramic bridge
Acrylic complete denture Cr - Co metal crown Eye prosthesis
Ch.1 Q.1; Ch.19 Q.1, Q.2 and Ch.21 Q.4: Restoratives materials
Plate 11
Hand peace Dental burs` Diamond burs
r_ u
_ f o
t e ch
nt _
Carbide burs Round bur for straight hand peace
e
Ch.17 Q.18 and Q.19: Abrasives
@d
Plate 12
Acrylic teeth set Porcelain teeth Metal teeth
r_ u
Ch.17 Q.33 and Ch.27 Q.1: Artificial teeth
_ f o
t e ch
nt _
d e
@
Plate 13
Nickel chrome alloy Partial denture Titanium alloy Implant
r_ u
_ f o
Silver alloy and mercury Amalgam filling Stainless wire for clasp
t e ch
nt _
d e
Mechanical mixing Hand mixing Gold alloy Gold crown
@
Ch.6 Q.28; Ch.22 Q.5, Q.9, Q.26; Ch.23 Q.1;
Ch.25 Q.1, Q.3, Q.8, Q.16 and Ch.26 Q.12 : Metals
Plate 14
Temporary record base materials
r_ u
Shellac base plate Self cure acrylic resin
_ f o
h
Permanent record base materials
t e c
nt _
d e
@
Heat cure acrylic resin Metal: Nickel chrome alloy
Ch.7 Q.13 and Ch.24 Q.7: Record base materials

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Exam Preparatory Manual for

Exam Preparatory Manual for

The Health Sciences Publisher

The dawn was marching towards dusk

3. Physical and Chemical Properties of Dental Materials 9

4. M Mechanical Properties of Dental Materials 13

12. Elastic Irreversible: Hydrocolloid Impression Material-Alginate 42

13. Elastomeric Impression Materials 45

14. G Gypsum Products 48

15. D Dental Waxes 53

16. Casting Investment Material 55

17. F Finishing and Polishing Material 59

18. D Direct Restorative Material 64

19. R Restorative Resins 68

20. D Dental Cements 73

21. G Glass Ionomer Cement 79

22. D Dental Amalgam 82

xii Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

23. Direct Filling Gold 86

24. D Dental Casting and Soldering Alloys 89

25. Casting Gold Alloys 90

26. Wrought Alloys 95

27. D Dental Ceramics 100

2 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Materials for Dental Application 3

• Beers in 1873 patented Gold Shell crown. • Composite resins

4 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

6 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

For example, cohesive property of salivary Q. 11. What is self diffusion?

Q. 17. What is wettability? negatively charged ions are attracted to each

8 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Physical and Chemical Properties

10 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

object at numerous wavelength of visible light. Q. 13. What is opacity?

Physical and Chemical Properties of Dental Materials 11

12 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

or by proper compounding of the metals. Also Q. 32. What is thixotropic?

14 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Mechanical Properties of Dental Materials 15

Q. 12. What is proportional limit? of a test specimen. It is defined as the amount

16 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Q. 23. What is ductility? is measured. Applied for materials that

18 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

20 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Q. 7. What is noble metal? Q. 14. What is dislocation and edge

Q. 19. What is alloying? mechanically separable, e.g. Au, Ag, Au-Pt,

22 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

24 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Q. 2. What is thermoplastic resin? Q. 6. What is the difference between addition

26 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Fluid resin technique. Fluid resin is poured Physical stages of polymerization:

• Soap solution Q. 24. What is pseudo polymerization?

28 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Q. 34. What is relining? Q. 38. What is the difference between heat

32 Exam Preparatory Manual for Undergraduates: Dental Material

Q. 14. What is Model? enough to resist permanent deformation, i.e.

Inelastic Impression Material:

Inelastic Impression Material: Impression Compound 35

• Mixing cements in increments and introduc Good thermal insulator.