CSE40418

Advanced Structural Analysis

Structural Dynamics：
Single-degree-of freedom
discrete systems - Part 2
Professor YU Tao
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
 Equation of motion
x(t)
k

c F(t)
m

F(t): dynamic loading (external excitation);

x(t): displacement response;
m: mass of the SDOF system;
k: linear stiffness of the spring;
c: damping constant (coefficient) of the dashpot.
fI(t): inertial force. The inertial force is the product of the mass
and acceleration
𝑓𝐼 (𝑡) = 𝑚𝑥(𝑡)
ሷ

fS(t): elastic restoring force. The elastic restoring force is the

product of the spring stiffness and displacement
f S (t ) = k x(t )
fD(t): damping force. Assuming a viscous damping mechanism,
the damping force is the product of the damping constant and
velocity
f D (t ) = c x (t )
In conclusion,
𝐹(𝑡) − 𝑚𝑥(𝑡)
ሷ − 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑐 𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ =0

or
𝑚𝑥(𝑡)
ሷ + 𝑐 𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑡)
Free vibration (F(t) = 0)

m x(t ) + c x (t ) + k x(t ) = 0

Undamped free vibration (c = 0)

Viscously damped free vibration (c  0)

x(t ) = Ce − t cos( D t − )

where D =  1 −  2

( v + y ) 2
(v0 + y0)
C= y02 + 0 20 tan  =
D D y0
Forced vibration (F(t)  0)

m x(t ) + c x (t ) + k x(t ) = F (t )
Undamped harmonic vibration (c = 0)

The SDOF system without damping (c=0) specializes to

m x(t ) + k x(t ) = F0 sin  t

where F0 is the excitation amplitude and  is the exciting
frequency. The initial conditions are

x(t ) t = 0 = x(0) = y0

x (t ) t = 0 = x (0) = v0
The solution can be expressed as
x(t ) = xc (t ) + x p (t )
where xc(t) is the complementary solution satisfying the
homogeneous equation. xp(t) is the particular solution to the
non-homogeneous equation. The particular solution is
F0 1
x p (t ) = sin  t 
k 1 − (  ) 2

The complementary solution is the free vibration response

xc (t ) = A cos t + B sin t
And the complete solution is the sum of them:
F0 1
x(t ) = A cos t + B sin t + sin  t
k 1 − (  ) 2
After determining the constants A and B by imposing the initial
conditions, we have

 v0 F0  
x(t ) = y0 cos t +  − 2
sin t
  k 1 − (  ) 
  
transient
F0 1
+ sin  t
k 1 − (  ) 2
 
steady state

where the steady state response is

F0 1 F0
xs (t ) = sin  t = sin  t
k 1 − (  ) 2
k − m 2

𝜔= 𝑘Τ𝑚
The response contains two distinct vibration components:

(i) the sint and cost terms, giving an oscillation at the

natural frequency  of the system. It is the transient
vibration, which depends on the initial displacement and
velocity. It exists even if y0 = v0 = 0.

(ii) the sint term, giving an oscillation at the exciting

(forcing) frequency . It is the steady-state vibration or
forced vibration. It is present due to the applied force no
matter what the initial conditions.

The steady-state dynamic response xs(t) can be written as

F0 1 1
xs (t ) = sin  t = (ust )0 sin  t
k 1 − (  ) 2
1 − (  ) 2
where (ust)0 is the static deformation (displacement). The
above expression can also be written in terms of the amplitude
u0 and phase angle :

xs (t ) = u0 sin(  t − ) = (ust )0 Rd sin(  t − )

where
u 1  00   
Rd = 0 = and = 0
(ust )0 1 − (  ) 2 180   

(i) For  < ,  = 0o, implying that the displacement varies

as sint;

(ii) For  > ,  = 180o, indicating that the displacement

varies as −sint.
Resonant frequency is defined as the exciting frequency at
which Rd is maximum. Here the resonant frequency is r = 
and Rd is unbounded at this frequency. The response does not
become unbounded immediately, but gradually. If y0 = v0 = 0,
the response at r =  is
F0
xs (t ) = − (t cos t − sin t )
k
Damped harmonic vibration (c  0)

The damped SDOF system in harmonic vibration is

m x(t ) + cx (t ) + k x(t ) = F0 sin  t

with initial conditions
x(t ) t =0 = x(0) = y0 x (t ) t = 0 = x (0) = v0

The solution can be expressed as

x(t ) = xc (t ) + x p (t )
The complementary solution xc(t) is

xc (t ) = e − t ( A cos  D t + B sin  D t )

where D =  1 −  , and the constants A and B are determined
2

by the initial conditions.

The particular solution xp(t) is given by

x p (t ) = C cos  t + D sin  t
where,
F0 1 − (  ) 2
C=
k [1 − (  ) 2 ]2 + [2 (  )]2

F0 − 2  
D=
k [1 − (  ) 2 ]2 + [2 (  )]2
So the complete solution:

xc (t ) = e − t ( A cos Dt + B sin Dt ) + C cos  t + D sin 

t
 
transient steady state
The steady-state response can also be expressed as
x p (t ) = u0 sin(  t − ) = (ust )0 Rd sin(  t − )
where
F0 F0
u0 = =
( k − m  2 ) 2 + (c  ) 2 k [1 − (  / ) 2 ]2 + [2 (  / )]2

F0
(ust )0 =
k
u0 1
Rd = =
(ust )0 [1 − (  / ) 2 ]2 + [2 (  / )]2

c −1 2 (  / )
 = tan −1 = tan
k − m2 1 − (  / ) 2
So the complete solution is
xc (t ) = e − t ( A cos Dt + B sin Dt )
  
transient vibration
F0 sin(  t − )
+
k [1 − (  / ) 2 ]2 + [2 (  / )]2

steady state vibration
Characteristics of damped harmonic vibration:

(1) The transient response decays exponentially with time

at a rate depending on / and ;

(2) After a while, essentially only the steady-state (forced)

response remains. However, the largest response peak
may occur before the system has reached steady state;

(3) The lighter the damping, the larger is the number of

cycles to reach the steady-state vibration;

(4) Relationships among the displacement response factor

Rd, velocity response factor Rv, and acceleration
response factor Ra:
 x p (t ) = ( F0 k ) Rd sin(  t − )

x p (t ) = ( F0 km ) Rv cos(  t − )

xp (t ) = −( F0 m) Ra sin(  t − )
so
 
2

Rv = Rd Ra =   Rd
  

A plot of the amplitude of a response quantity against the

excitation frequency is called frequency-response curve.
Such a plot for displacement response factor Rd (dynamic
magnification factor) is plotted as a function of / for
several values of .
The steady-state forced response is:

x p (t ) = (ust )0 Rd sin( t −  )
where
F0
(ust )0 =
k
1
Rd =
[1 − ( /  ) 2 ]2 + [2 ( /  )]2

c −1 2 ( /  )
 = tan −1 = tan
k − m 2 1 − ( /  ) 2
(1) When  = / = 1,
1 1
Rd = =
[1 − ( /  ) 2 ]2 + [2 ( /  )]2 2
 So the corresponding response amplitude:
F0
xamp = (u st ) 0 Rd =
2k
(2) In order to obtain maximum response amplitude,
dRd
= 0 , thus  =  1 − 2 2  
d
1 1
Rd = =
[1 − ( /  ) 2 ]2 + [2 ( /  )]2 2 1 −  2

So the corresponding response amplitude:

F0
xamp = (u st ) 0 Rd = = xmax
2 1 −  k
2
Half-power bandwidth:
An important property of the frequency response curve for Rd
is the half-power bandwidth. If 1 and 2 are the exciting
frequencies on either side of resonant frequency at which their
1
amplitude is times the resonant amplitude, then for small 
2
2 − 1
= 2

so

2 − 1 f 2 − f1
= =
2 2f
or
2 − 1 f 2 − f1
= =
2 + 1 f 2 + f1
 Harmonic vibration tests to measure damping

The structure is excited by a vibration generator which imposes

a harmonic force with constant amplitude but different exciting
frequencies covering the resonant frequency. The amplitude of
steady state response of the structure at each forcing frequency
is measured. In this way, frequency-response curve is plotted
directly from the measured data.

The natural frequency of vibration and damping ratio are then

determined by the following procedure:

(1) Determine the natural frequency  (or f) as the forcing

frequency at resonance;
(1) Determine the natural frequency  (or f) as the forcing
frequency at resonance;

(2) Determine the peak response from the measured

frequency-response curve;
1
(3) Construct a horizontal line at times the peak level;
2
(4) Determine the two frequencies at which this horizontal
line cuts the response curve: 1 (or f1 ) and 2 (or f 2 );

(5) Compute the damping ratio by

2 − 1 f 2 − f1
= =
2 2f
or
2 − 1 f 2 − f1
= =
2 + 1 f 2 + f1
Example of damped harmonic vibration:
Experimental data for the frequency-response curve of a one-
storey building are measured and plotted in the above figure.
Determine the damping ratio of the structure.

Solution:

The peak of the measured frequency-response curve occurs at

3.59 Hz. Assuming that the damping is small, the natural
frequency f = 3.59 Hz.

The peak value is 12.8. Draw a horizontal line at 12.8 / 2 as

shown. This line intersects the frequency-response curve at f1
= 3.44 Hz and f2 = 3.74 Hz. Therefore

f 2 − f1 3.74 − 3.44
= = = 0.042 = 4.2%
2f 2  3.59
Forced vibration under arbitrary loading

The damped SDOF system under arbitrary loading is

m x(t ) + cx (t ) + k x(t ) = F (t )

with initial conditions

x(t ) t =0 = x(0) = y0 x (t ) t = 0 = x (0) = v0

The equation of motion is rewritten as

F (t )
x(t ) + 2x (t ) +  x(t ) =
2
m
where
k c
= =
m 2m
The solution is obtained by the Duhamel’s integral

− t  v0 +  y0 
x(t ) = e  y0 cos Dt + sin Dt 
 D 
1 t − ( t −  )
+ 0 F ()e sin D (t − )d
mD

where
D =  1 −  2

The integration can be analytically performed only for

a few simple loading cases.
The solution is obtained by the Duhamel’s integral

− t  v0 +  y0 
x(t ) = e  y0 cos Dt + sin Dt 
 D 
1 t − ( t −  )
+ 0 F ()e sin D (t − )d
mD

where
D =  1 −  2

The integration can be analytically performed only for

a few simple loading cases.
 If the excitation frequency is much higher or much lower than the
natural period of the structure, the response is muted compared
to the excitation at resonant frequency.

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