CE543 - Module 5 - Part I

CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety
Traffic Control
Bachu Anilkumar
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil and Env. Engineering
IIT Patna
E-mail: [email protected]
Module 5: Traffic Control
Signs, markings, islands and signals; At-grade and grade separated Intersections;
Rotaries; Basic principles of intersection signalization; Signal Design – HCM approach;
Analysis of signalized intersection, signal coordination
Traffic Control Devices
Traffic Signs - IRC 67 : 2012

Regulatory Signs
Warning Signs
Informatory Signs
Road Markings - IRC 35 : 2015
Traffic Signals
Anil (IITP) | CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety
Traffic Control Devices 1
Purpose
To promote highway safety and efficiency
Orderly movement of all road users on streets and highways
No advertising message or any other message that is not related to traffic control.
Principles
Fulfil a need;
Command attention;
Convey a clear, simple meaning;
Command respect from road users; and
Give adequate time for proper response.
Traffic Signs and Road Markings MUST BE the primary, and sole, means of
communication between Road System and Road User for efficient navigation
Traffic Signs 2
Regulatory Signs
Stop and Give-way
Prohibitory
No parking and No stoppage
Speed limit
Vehicle control
Restriction ends
Compulsory direction control
Violation of these signs is a legal

offence.
Traffic Signs 3
Purpose: Warn the road users of certain hazardous conditions

Shape - Equilateral triangle - apex upwards - White B/G - Red Boarders - symbol in
black colour
Traffic Signs 4
Guide the road users along routes, inform them directions and distance
Direction and Place identification, Facility information, parking and flood gauge
Traffic Signs 5
Traffic Signs 6
Road Markings 7
Guiding and controlling traffic on a highway

Serve as a psychological barrier
Help to signify the delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic
hazards facilitating safe movement
Types of markings
Longitudinal markings
Transverse markings
Object markings
Word messages
Parking
Longitudinal Markings 8
Longitudinal Markings- Can be in White or Yellow in colour - Solid or Broken
Solid white - you cannot change the lane while driving

Broken white - you are allowed to change lane but cautiously
Yellow solid - No overtaking
Longitudinal Markings- Can be in White or Yellow in colour - Solid or Broken
Double yellow - Passing or changing lane is NOT allowed

Broken yellow - passing cautiously
Solid with broken - Not allowed to overtake from solid line side.
Longitudinal markings
Center Line
Traffic lane line
Bus lane markings
Warning lines
Edge lines
Transverse Markings 11
Transverse marking - marking provided across the carriageway for traffic control with
broken lines, single/ double continuous lines
Road Markings 12
Object marking - Marking on obstructions in a carriageway (traffic island, medians) or

obstructions near carriageway (signal posts, pier, etc.)
Word Messages 13
Word Messages - Information to guide, regulate, or warn the road user through word
message on road surface.
Characters for word messages are usually capital letters.
STOP, SLOW, RIGHT TURN ONLY
Parking Marking 14
Promotes more efficient use of the parking spaces

To prevent encroachment on places like bus stops, fire hydrant zones etc. where
parking is undesirable.
Hazardous Location Marking 15
Change in width of road

Hazardous location
Road-rail level crossing
Check barriers
Traffic Signals 16
Traffic signals must operate at all times

If properly designed signals will:
Provide for orderly flow of traffic
Reduce frequency of some crashes
Increase capacity
Provide gaps for minor movements
If NOT
Result in excessive delay
Increase frequency of some crashes
Traffic Signals 17
Signal Faces and Visibility

Generally 3 to 5 lenses
8 in or 12 in diameter
Minimum sight distance
Must operate continuously
Traffic Signals 18
Pedestrian Signals
Traffic Signals 19
Other Traffic Signals

Beacons
Lane-use control
Ramp meters
Intersection Control
Intersection Control 20
# of conflicting points of conven-

tional 4- legged intersection
Merging - 8
Diverging - 8
Crossing - 16
Levels of Control 21
Level I - Basic rules of the road

Level II - YIELD or STOP control
Level III - Signalization
Basic Rules of the Road 22

Stopping Sight Distance

Distance travelled during perception/reaction time
Distance required to physically brake/stop the vehicle
v2
SSD = vt +
2g(f ± G)
Drivers on conflicting approaches must be

able to see each other in time to assess
whether an "impending hazard" is imposed
b dA − b adA
= → dB =
dB − a a dA − b
Analysis Steps:
Calculate dA
Calculate dB,act
Calculate minimum dB
Check if dB,act < minimum dB , unsafe
and move to level II or III.
Approach 2
To avoid collision from the point at which visibility is established, Vehicle A must travel 188
past the collision point in the same time that Vehicle B travels to a point 12ft before the
collision point.
dA + 18 dB − 12
=
1.47vA 1.47vB
vB
dB = (dA + 18) + 12
vA
Analysis Steps:
Calculate dA
Calculate dB,act
Calculate minimum dB
Check if dB,act < minimum dB , unsafe
and move to level II or III.
v2
dA = 1.47vt + = 196.5ft
30(0.348 ± 0.01G)
adA 20 × 196.5
dB = = = 25.4ft
dA − b 196.5 − 42
402
dB,min = 1.47×40×2.5t+ = 300.3ft
30 × 0.348
or
40
dB = (196.5 + 18) + 12 = 298ft.
30
Both are far larger than the actual distance !!
Potential Remedies??
Implement intersection control, using STOP or YIELD control or traffic signals

Lower the speed limit on the major street to a point where sight distances are
adequate
Remove or reduce sight obstructions to provide adequate sight distances
YIELD and STOP Control 30

Based on gap acceptance behaviour

Three components
Distance from the driver’s eye to the
front of the vehicle (assumed to be 8 ft)
Distance from the front of the vehicle to
the curb line (assumed to be 10 ft)
Distance from the curb line to the center
of the right-most travel lane
approaching from the left, or from the
curb line to the left-most travel lane
approaching from the right
dA−STOP = 18 + dcl
The required sight distances for Vehicle B
dB = 1.47 × Vmaj × tg
tg - average gap accepted by minor street
driver to enter the major road, seconds
Range - 6.5 to 12.5 seconds
Typical value - 7.5 seconds
Consider the case of a STOP-controlled approach at an intersection with a two-lane

arterial with a design speed of 40 mi/h.
dA−STOP (from left) = 18+6 = 24 ft
dA−STOP (from right) = 18+18 = 36 ft
dB,min = 1.47 × 40 × 7.5 = 441 ft.
Calculate actual distance of Vehicle B
from the collision point when visibility is
established
adA 36 × 24
dB,act,left = = = 216 < 441
dA − b 24 − 20
16 × 36
dB,act,right = = 576 > 441
36 − 35
Warrants for YIELD Control

When the ability to see all potentially conflicting traffic is sufficient to allow a road use
traveling at the posted speed, 85th percentile speed, or the statutory speed to pass
through the intersection or stop in a safe manner
If controlling a merge-type movement on the entering roadway where acceleration
geometry or sight distance is not adequate for merging traffic operations.
At a second crossroad of a divided highway, where the median width is 30 ft or
greater. A STOP sign may be installed at the entrance to the first roadway of a divided
highway, and a YIELD sign may be installed at the entrance to the second roadway.
At an intersection where a special problem exists and where engineering judgment
indicates that the problem is susceptible to correction by use of a YIELD sign.
Traffic Control Signals 35
Ultimate form of intersection control

Alternately assigns right-of-way to specific movements
Provide for the orderly movement of traffic
Increase the traffic-handling capacity
Provide continuous movement - if coordinated !!
Interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to permit other traffic,
vehicular or pedestrian, to cross.
To increase capacity, to improve safety, and to provide for orderly movement

Disadvantages
Excessive delay
Excessive disobedience of the signal indications
Increased use of less adequate routes as road users attempt to avoid the traffic
control signal
Significant increases in the frequency of collisions (especially rear-end collisions)
Warrants for Traffic Signals

Warrant 1 : Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume
Warrant 2: Four-Hour Vehicular Volume
Warrant 3: Peak Hour
Warrant 4: Pedestrian Volume
Warrant 5: School Crossing
Warrant 6 Coordinated Signal System
Warrant 7: Crash Experience
Warrant 8: Roadway Network
Basic Principles of Intersection Signalization
Components of Signal Cycle

Types of Signal Operation
Treatment of Left Turns
Discharge Headways, Saturation Flow, Lost Times, Capacity
Critical Lane Group Concept
Optimum Cycle Length
Left Turn Equivalency
Delay as a Measure of Effectiveness
Components of Signal Cycle 38
Cycle - One complete set of rotation through all of the indications provided
Cycle length - Time that it takes to complete one full cycle
Interval - Period of time during which no signal indication changes
Change interval
Clearance interval
Green interval
Red Interval
Phase - consists of a green interval, plus the change and clearance intervals that
follow it.
It is a set of intervals that allows a designated movement or set of movements to flow
and to be safely halted before release of a conflicting set of movements.
Change interval
Yellow
Transition from GREEN to RED
Timed to allow a vehicle that cannot safely stop when the “green” is withdrawn to
enter the intersection legally.
Clearance interval
Red, Transition from GREEN to RED
All movements will have RED
Timed to allow a vehicle that legally enters the intersection on “yellow” to safely cross
the intersection before conflicting flows are released.
Green interval
Movements permitted have a “green” light
Other movements will have RED light
Denoted with Gi
Red interval
All movements NOT permitted will have a “RED” light
Denoted with Ri
Types of Operation 41
Pre-timed Operation
Semi actuated operation
Fully actuated operation
Computer Control
Pre-Timed Operation
Cycle length, phase sequence, and timing of each interval are constant
Follows a pre-determined plan
Multi-dial controllers: One for peak and off-peak
Semi actuated operation

Detectors placed in minor street
Always green for major road
Minor will get green when there is a demand
Green returns to Major road (i) after reaching maximum green on minor or (ii) no
further demand
Fully-Actuated Operation
All approaches will be monitored by detectors
Green allocation - information from detectors and programmed rules
Cycle length, phase split, sequence of operation MAY CHANGE !!
Computer Control
Computer acts as a master controller - coordinating lot of signals
All signals in the network must use the same cycle length (or an even multiple
thereof).
Treatment of Left Turns 44
Permitted left turn - Left turn is allowed along with opposing through movement
Must select an appropriate gap in the opposing traffic stream.
left-turn volumes are reasonable and where gaps in the opposing flow are adequate
to accommodate left turns safely.
Protected left turn - Left turn is allowed when opposing through movement is stopped
Protects left-turning vehicles by stopping the opposing through movement.
Can lead to multi-phase signalization
Can be a combination of permitted and protected.

Discharge Headway 45
First headway
Second
First headway is relatively long !!
Must go through the full
perception-reaction sequence
Second is shorter - PRT overlaps
Constant headway achieved is referred to as
the saturation headway (h).
Saturation Flow 46
3600
s=
h
Remarks
Similar to capacity of approach - if the
signal were always green
Lost Times 47
Start-up Lost Time

The time lost in the starting of the green
time interval when a traffic signal phase
changes from red to green
Headway vary for first few vehicles and
then remain almost constant
Sum of additional time involved in initial
headway
X
l1 = ∆i
i
Lost Times 48
Start-up Lost Time
Possible to model the amount of green time required to discharge "n" number of
vehicles !!
Tn = l1 + nh
Lost Times 49
Clearance Lost Time
Time interval between the last vehicle’s front wheels crossing the stop line, and the
initiation of the GREEN for the next phase.
Denoted by l2
Un-utilized time.
Occurs at the end of the GREEN signal.
Start-up lost time: beginning of the GREEN signal.
Lost Times 50
Total Lost Time
Start-up lost time: beginning of the GREEN signal.

Clearance: End of the GREEN signal
Total lost time = Startup + clearance
tL = l1 + l2
NOT ABLE TO USE THE TOTAL GREEN TIME !! - Effective Green Time
Effective Green Time 51
The actual signal goes through a sequnce of intervals:
Green - All-Red - RED.
Yellow and All-Red should be provided

One set - RED
Another set - GREEN, YELLOW and ALL-RED
Modelling perspective
Effective GREEN - Time that vehicles are moving
Effective RED - Time vehicles are NOT moving
Effective Green Time 52
Effective Green, g = Gi + Yi − tL,i

Capacity of an Intersection Lane 53
Saturation flow rate(s) - Capacity of an intersection lane - assuming that the light is
always GREEN.
g
i
ci = si
C
Sample Problem 54
Consider a given movement at a signalized intersection with the following known

characteristics:
Cycle length, C = 60 s
Green time, G = 27 s
Yellow plus all-red time, Y = 3 s
Saturation headway, h = 2.4 s/veh
Start-up lost time = 2.0 s
Clearance lost time = 1.0 s
For these characteristics, what is the capacity (per lane) for this movement?
Critical Lane and Time-Budget Concepts 55
Time-Budget: Allocation of time to

various vehicular and pedestrian
movements at an intersection through
signal control
Critical-lane: Identification of specific
lane movements that will control the
timing of a given signal phase
Critical lane - Lane with the most intense traffic demand, not the lane with the highest
volume.
Critical Lane and Time-Budget Concepts 56
Establishment of Time Budget
Movement of vehicles in critical lane 1

Movement of vehicles in critical lane 2
Start-up and clearance lost times for
vehicles in critical lane 1
Start-up and clearance lost times for
vehicles in critical lane 2
Signalized Intersection Capacity 57
Assume total lost time is constant for all phases. Total lost time per signal cycle
L = N × tL
Total lost time in an hour

3600
LH = L
C
Time devoted for critical lane movements
TG = 3600 − LH
Maximum sum of critical lane volumes

TG 1 3600
Vc = = 3600 − NtL
h h C
Example 58
Example: If the signal at this location has

two phases, a cycle length of 60 seconds,
total lost times of 4 s/phase, and a saturation
headway of 2.5 s/veh. Calculate maximum
sum of critical lane volumes

1 3600
Vc = 3600 − NtL
h C

1 3600
Vc = 3600 − 2 × 4 = 1248veh/h
2.5 60
Total available time = 3600-(60 × 8) = 3120 sec. i.e. 2.5 seconds per vehicle.
Observations 59
Cycle length ↑ - Capacity ↑

Longer cycle lengths - cycles ↓ - lost
times↓ - effective green time ↑ - sum of
critical lane volumes ↑
Relationship gets flatter - cycle length ↑
Capacity ↓ - Phases ↑
Minimum Cycle Length 60
Minimum Acceptable Cycle length

1 3600
Vc = 3600 − NtL
h C
NtL
C=
Vc
1−
3600/h
Example: Vc =100 veh/h; h=2.5 s; tL = 4 s and N=2
2×4
C= = 26.2s
1000
1−
3600/2.5
Assumptions
Demand is uniformly distributed
Every second of effective green time is utilized
NOT POSSIBLE PRACTICALLY !!

How to overcome??
Take PHF into account - estimate the flow rate in worst 15-minute period
Capacity utilization - 80 % to 90%.
Divide the Vc with PHF and expected utilization of capacity
NtL
C=
Vc
1−
(3600/h) × PHF × (v /c)
Example: Vc =100 veh/h; h=2.5 s; tL = 4 s and N=2
2×4
C= = 26.2s
1000
1−
3600/2.5
Example: Vc =1000 veh/h; h=2.5 s; tL = 4 s and N=2, PHF - 0.95 and v/c ratio - 0.9
2×4
C= = 42.6 sec
1000
1−
(3600/2.5) × 0.95 × 0.90

Impact of Utilization of Capacity
Example: Vc =1200 veh/h; h=2.2 s; tL = 4 s and N=3, PHF - 0.90 and v/c ratios from 1.00
to 0.80
3×4
C= = 64.8 ≈ 65
1200
1−
(3600/2.2) × 0.90 × 1.00
v/c ratio
0.95 → 85 seconds
0.90 → 130 seconds
0.85 → 290 seconds
0.80 → -648.6 seconds
Practical limit: 120 seconds

Example 64
Using the time-budget and critical-lane concepts, determine the number of lanes required
for each of the critical movements and the minimum desirable cycle length.

1 3600
Vc = 3600 − 2 × 4 = 1357veh/h
2.3 60
Example 65

1 3600
Vc = 3600 − 2 × 4 = 1357veh/h
2.3 60
N-S artery: Six lanes

E-W artery: Four lanes
PHF: 0.95 and v/c - 0.9
Desirable cycle length
2×4
Cdes = = 77.7 ≈ 80
1200
1−
(3600/2.3) × 0.95 × 0.90
Concept of Left-Turn Equivalency 66

How to consider the effect of left-Turn vehicles??

Through vehicle equivalents
How many through vehicles would consume the same amount of effective green time
traversing the stop-line as one left-turning vehicle ??
In the same amount of time, the left lane discharges five through vehicles and two
left-turning vehicles, while the right lane discharges eleven through vehicles.
11 = 5 + 2ELT → ELT = 3.0

Relationship Among Left-Turn Equivalents, Opposing Flow, and Number of Opposing

Lanes
Concept of Let-Turn Equivalency 69
An approach to a signalized intersection has two lanes, permitted left-turn phasing, 10%
left-turning vehicles, and a left-turn equivalent of 5.0. The saturation headway for through
vehicles is 2.0 s/veh. Determine the equivalent saturation flow rate and headway for all
vehicles on this approach.
One left turn vehicle is equivalent to 5 through vehicles
One left turn vehicle consumes 5.0 times the effective green time as a through vehicle
10% of the traffic stream will have 2 × 5 = 10 sec of saturation headway
90% of vehicles will have 10 seconds
Average sat headway = (0.9 x 2.0)+(0.1 x 10.0) = 2.8
Saturation flow rate = 3600/2.8 = 1286 veh/hg/ln.
Relationship between Ideal (only through) and Prevailing Conditions
sprev = sideal × fLT
sprev 3600/hprev hideal

Left turn adjustment factor, fLT = = =
sideal 3600/hideal hprev
hprev = (PLT ELT hideal ) + ((1 − PLT )hideal )
hideal 1
fLT = =
(PLT ELT hideal ) + ((1 − PLT )hideal ) 1 + PLT (ELT − 1)
Delay as Measure of Effectiveness 71
Point locations within a network

Measures of effectiveness - Highway - not relevant
Speed ??
Density ??
Delay, Queuing and Stops
Tyes of Delay 72
Most common measure - delay

Stopped-time delay
The time a vehicle is stopped in queue while waiting to pass through the intersection
Approach delay
Includes stopped-time delay
Also adds time loss due to deceleration from the approach speed to a stop and the time
loss due to reacceleration back to the desired speed.
Time-in-queue delay
Time from a vehicle joining an intersection queue to its discharge across the STOP line on
departure.
Tyes of Delay 73
Travel time delay

Difference between the driver’s expected travel time through the intersection (or any
roadway segment) and the actual time taken.
Difficult to establishing a “desired” travel time
Control delay
Delay caused by a control device, either a traffic signal or a STOP-sign.
Approximately equal to the time-in-queue delay
Types of Delay 74
Delay types for a single vehicle approaching a RED signal
Units: Seconds per vehicle, Vehicle-seconds, Vehicle-minutes and Vehicle-hours

Theoretical Models of Delay 75
N-T Plot
Number of vehicles arriving and departing
vs. time
X-axis: Time
Divided into effective Red and Green
Y-axis: No. of vehicles
Waiting time in queue, W (i)

Number of vehicles queued at any time, Q(t)
Aggregate delay for all vehicles (vehicles x
time)
Major Assumptions
Uniform arrival rate
Queue is building at a point
Case 1: Stable Flow
No signal cycle fails

Departure function catches up with arrival
function
Sum of triangular areas
Uniform Delay
Case 2: Individual cycle failures within a stable

operation
Few signal cycles will fail

Some vehicles may not get served
Departure function catches up with arrival
function - at the end of time period.
Overall period is stable, with individual cycle
failures
Overflow delay.
Case 3: Demand exceeds capacity for a signif-

icant period
Worst case scenario - All cycles will fail

Vehicles may not get served at the end of
each cycle - accumulate
Typically happens when v/c > 1
Overflow delay
Components of Delay 80
Components of delay - Analytical models
Uniform delay
Assumption of uniform arrivals
Stable flow with no cycle failures
Random delay
Additional delay beyond uniform delay
Random flow
With few cycle failures
Overflow delay
Capacity is less than the demand
Webster’s Uniform Delay Model 81

1
Aggregate uniform delay, UD = RV
2
h g i
Length of RED phase, R = C 1 −
C
V = v (R + tc )
s
v (R + tc ) = stc → R + tc = tc
v
s R
R = tc − 1 → tc = s
v −1
v
 
R
V = v (R + tc ) = v R + s
 

−1
v
g i vs
vs h
V =R =C 1−
s−v C s−v
1 2h g i2 vs
Aggregate uniform delay, UD = C 1−
2 C s−v
1 2h g i2 vs
Aggregate uniform delay, UD = C 1−
2 C s−v
Average uniform delay per vehicle? - divide with number of vehicles arriving during the
cycle = arrival rate x cycle length
2 h vs i
C 2 1 − Cg
g 2
s−v 1 1− C
UD = = C
1 − vs

2vC 2
c
Another form in terms of capacity: s =
g/C
g 2 g 2
1 1− C 1 1− C
UD = C = C
2 1 − vc Cg 2 1− g
CX
Random Delay 85
Vehicle arrivals are random

Inter-vehicle arrivals - possion distribution
v/c < 1.00
Webster’s random delay formulation:
X2
Random delay per vehicle, RD =
2v (1 − X )
Total delay, D = 0.90(UD + RD)

Overflow Delay 86
Arriving vehicles exceeds capacity

Queue grows - overflow delay, in
addition to UD
v/c > 1.00
Two components: UD and OD
2
1 − Cg

1 h gi
UD = C g = 0.5C 1 −
2 1 − C 1.00 C
Overflow Delay 87
Aggregate overflow delay?
1 T2
Agg OD, ODa = T (vT − cT ) = (v − c)
2 2
Average overflow delay? - Divide with cT
T
Avg OD, OD = (X − 1)
2
Overflow Delay 88
Average delay per vehicle during time

period from T1 to T2
T1 + T2
2
Inconsistencies in Random and Overflow Delay 89
X2
Random delay per vehicle, RD =
2v (1 − X )
T
2
What happens when X → 1 ??

RD - Infinity
OD - ZERO ??
Uniform delay - v/c less than 0.85

Overflow delay - v/c more than 1.5
Most frequent cases - 0.85 to 1.15
How to bridge this gap ?? - Akcelik
Model
" s #
cT 12(X − Xo )
OD = (X − 1) + (X − 1)2 +
4 cT
sg
Xo = 0.67 +
600
T - Analysis period. h
X - v/c ratio
C - Capacity, veh/h
S - Saturation flow rate, veh/sg
g - Effective green time, s
Delay Estimation - Example 92
Example: An intersection approach has an approach flow rate of 1,000 veh/h, a saturation
flow rate of 2,800 veh/hg, a cycle length of 90 s, and a g/C ratio of 0.55. What average
delay per vehicle is expected under these conditions?
Calculate v/c ratio

c = s(g/C) = 2800(0.55) = 1540 veh/h
v/c = 1000/1540 = 0.55
Decide what delay equation to use ?
Uniform delay equation may be applied
C [1 − (g/C)]2 90 [1 − 0.55]2
d= = = 14.2sec/veh
2 1 − (v /s) 2 1 − (1000/2800)
Delay Estimation - Example 93
Example: What will happen if the demand flow rate increased to 1,600 veh/h?
Calculate v/c ratio - v/c = 1600/1540 = 1.039

Decide what delay equation to use ? - UD and OD: Akcelik Equation for OD
UD = 0.5C[1 − (g/C)] = 0.5 × 90[1 − 0.55] = 20.3s/veh

" s #
cT 12(X − Xo )
OD = (X − 1) + (X − 1)2 +
4 cT
" s #
1540 × 1 2
12(1.039 − 0.734)
OD = (1.039 − 1) + (1.039 − 1) + = 39.1s/veh
4 1540 × 1
2800
sg 3600
× (0.55 × 90)
Xo = 0.67 + → 0.67 + = 0.734
600 600
Total Delay = UD+OD = 20.3+39.1 = 59.4 s/veh

Signal Design 94
HCM Method
Steps involved:
Development of a safe and effective phase plan and sequence
Determination of vehicular signal needs
Yellow and All-RED intervals
Critical lane volumes
Lost times per phase
Cycle length
Allocation of effective green time - Splitting the green
Determination of pedestrian signal needs
Minimum pedestrian time
Check whether vehicular green meet minimum pedestrian needs
If not, adjust timings to ensure pedestrian safety
Development of a Signal Phase Plan 95
Provision for left turn

Left-turn volume
Conflicting volume
vLT ≥ 200 veh/h
vo
xprod = vLT × ≥ 50, 000
No
vLT = left-turn flow rate, veh/h
vo = opposing through movement flow rate, veh/h
No = number of lanes for opposing through movement
Phase and Ring Diagrams 96

Signal Phase Arrows
Used to illustrate signal phase plans phase plans

Phase diagram - shows all movements being made in a given phase within a single
block of the diagram.
Ring diagram - shows which movements are controlled by which “ring” on a signal
controller
Common phase plans
Simple two-phase signalization

Exclusive left-turn phasing
Leading and lagging green phases
Exclusive left tun with leading green
Eight-phase actuated control
Exclusive pedestrian phase
Two-Phase Signal
Exclusive left-turn phasing

Leading and Lagging Green Phases

Exclusive left turn with leading green

The Exclusive Pedestrian Phase

Signal Design 104


Yellow and All-RED intervals
Critical lane volumes
Lost times per phase
Cycle length
Allocation of effective green time - Splitting the green
Signal Design 105

Determination of Change and Clearance Intervals

Change Interval (Yellow): Allows a vehicle that is one safe stopping distance away
from the STOP line.
1.47S85
y =t+
2a + (64.4 × 0.01G)
S85
y =t+ , SI Units
2a
y= length of yellow interval
t = driver reaction time
S85 = 85th percentile speed of approaching vehicles
a = deceleration rate of vehicles
G = Grade of approach
Signal Design 106

Determination of Change and Clearance Intervals

Clearance Interval (All-Red): Vehicle enters intersection legally - Provide sufficient
time for the vehicle to cross the intersection
Signal Design 107

No pedestrian traffic
w +L
ar =
1.47S15
Significant pedestrian traffic exists
P +L
ar =
1.47S15
Some pedestrian traffic exists

w +L P +L
ar = max ,
1.47S15 1.47S15
Signal Design 108

Points to Remember
Yellow time - 85th percentile speeds
All-red time - 15th percentile speed
S15 = S − 5
S85 = S + 5
S = average speed in mi/h.
Determination of Lost Times 109
Total lost time = Start-up lost time + clearance lost time
Start-up lost time, l1i = 2 s/phase
Clearance lost time, l2i = y + ar − e

e=motorist use of yellow and all-red, approximately 2 s/phase.
Lost time per phase, tLi = l1i + l2i = l1i + yi + ari − e
n
X
tLi = yi + ari → Total Lost time, L = tLi
i
Critical Lane Volumes 110
Calculate critical lane volumes under each phase

Finally sum up all critical volumes of each phase
Proceed signal design with Vc
How to calculate critical volume ??
Convert demand volumes to through vehicle equivalents

Left turning vehicles
No. of left-turning vehicles
No. of lanes in opposite direction
Opposing flow
Right turning vehicles
Pedestrian volume
Critical Lane Volumes 111
VEQ = VLTE + VTH + VRTE = VLT ELT + VTH + VRT ERT

Determine Cycle Length 112
Inputs
Number of phases
Total lost time
Peak hour factor
volume to capacity ratio
Saturation headway (or) saturation flow rate
NtL
Cdes =  
Vc
1−
 
3600

× PHF × (v /c)
h
Splitting the Green 113
Split the total available effective green time to various phases

Total effective green time in the cycle
gToT = C − L

Vci
gi = gTOT ×
Vc
C - Cycle length
L - Total lost time
gTOT - Total effective green time in cycle
Vci - Critical lane volume for phase or subphase, in tvu/h
Vc - Sum of the critical lane volumes
Check for Pedestrian Requirements 114
Minimum pedestrian green requirement
L Nped
GP = 3.2 + + (2.7 × ), for WE > 10ft
Sp WE
L
GP = 3.2 + + (0.27 × Nped ), for WE ≤ 10ft
Sp
G - Minimum pedestrian crossing time
L - Length of crosswalk
Sp - Average walking speed of pedestrians
Nped - Number of pedestrians crossing per phase in a single crosswalk
WE - Width of crosswalk
If GP < G + Y OK, otherwise re-design.
Signal Design 115
Steps - HCM Approach

Develop a phase plan
Convert volumes to Through-Vehicle Equivalents
Determine critical lane volumes
Determine Yellow and All-Red intervals
Determination of lost times
Determine desirable cycle length
Allocate effective green to each phase
Check pedestrian requirements
Design of Two-Phase Signal 116
Moderate pedestrian volumes

Step 1: Develop a phase plan - Only one lane i each

approach - not possible to protect the left turn
vLT ≥ 200 veh/h

vo
xprod = vLT × ≥ 50, 000
No
xprodEB =10x(315/1)=3150 < 50000

xprodWB =12x(420/1)=5040 < 50000
xprodNB =10x(400/1)=4000 < 50000
xprodSB =10x(375/1)=3750 < 50000
No criteria met !! - No need to protect the left turn movements.

Step 2: Convert Volumes to Through-Vehicle Equivalents

Step 3: Determine Critical-Lane Volumes

Step 4: Determine Yellow and All-Red Intervals

Average approach speed - 30 mi/h, S85 = Sav + 5 = 35mi/h, S15 = Sav − 5 = 25mi/h
1.47S85 1.47 × 35
y =t+ = 1.0 + = 3.6s
2a + (64.4 × 0.01G) 2 × 10 + 0
P = Sum of two-15 ft lanes and 10-ft crosswalk: 15+15+10 = 40 ft.
P +L 40 + 20
ar = = = 1.6s.
1.47S15 1.47 × 25
Both streets have the same width, crosswalk width, and approach speed, the values of y
and ar will be same for both Phases A and B.
Step 5: Determination of Lost Times
Start-up lost time, l1 = 2.0 sec

Yellow time, y = 3.6 sec
All-red time, ar = 1.6 sec
Clearance lost time
l2 = y + ar − e = 3.6 + 1.6 − 2 = 3.2sec

Total lost time per phase, tL = l1 + l2 = 2 + 3.2 = 5.2sec
Number of phases = 2; Total lost time, L = 5.2+5.2 = 10.4 seconds
Step 6: Determine the Desirable Cycle Length
NtL
Cdes =  
Vc
1−
 
3600

× PHF × (v /c)
h
10.4
Cdes = = 33.5sec
924
1−
1615 × 0.92 × 0.90
Round off to highest 5 seconds → Cycle length = 35 seconds

Step 7: Allocate Effective Green to Each Phase

Cycle length = 35 seconds
Available green time, effective green time = 35-10.4 = 24.6 seconds
VcA 470
gA = gTOT = 24.6 × = 12.5sec.
Vc 924
VcB 454
gB = gTOT = 24.6 × = 12.1sec.
Vc 924
Actual green times:
GA = gA − YA + tLA = 12.5 − 5.2 + 5.2 = 12.5 s
GB = gB − YB + tLB = 12.1 − 5.2 + 5.2 = 12.1 s
Step 8: Check Pedestrian Requirements
Moderate pedestrian - 200 per hour

How many per cycle? - 3600/35 = 103 cycles per hour
200/103 = 1.94. Approximately 2 pedestrians per hour.
L 30
GpA,B = 3.2 + + 0.27Nped = 3.2 + + 0.27 × 2 = 11.2s
Sp 4.0
Gp < G + Y
GpA = 11.2 < 12.5 + 5.2 = 17.7s OK
GpB = 11.2 < 12.1 + 5.2 = 17.3s OK
The signal safely accommodates all pedestrians. No changes in the signal timing for
vehicular needs is required.
Case 2: Intersection of Major Arterials 125

Exclusive Left Turn


Exclusive Left Turn
Step 1: Develop a phase plan
vLT ≥ 200 veh/h

vo
xprod = vLT × ≥ 50, 000
No
EB: VLT = 35 < 200
xprodEB =35x(500/2)=8750 < 50000, Not needed
WB: VLT = 25 < 200
xprodEB =25x(610/2)=22875 < 50000, Not needed
NB: VLT = 250 > 200; Protection required
SB: VLT = 220 > 200; Protection required
Need to protect the left turn movements of NB and SB.

Exclusive Left Turn


Exclusive Left Turn


Exclusive Left Turn

Speed limit - 45 mi/h : No differentiation between S85 and S15 .
1.47S85 1.47 × 45
yA,B,C = t + = 1.0 + = 4.3s
2a + (64.4 × 0.01G) 2 × 10 + 0
Width of N-S street - 55 ft. → P= 55+10 = 65 ft.
P +L 65 + 20
arA,B = = = 1.4s.
1.47S15 1.47 × 45
Width of E-W street - 60 ft. → P= 60+10 = 70 ft.
P +L 70 + 20
arC = = = 1.3s.
1.47S15 1.47 × 45

Exclusive Left Turn
Assuming start-up lost time and e as 2.0 s

Lost time per phase, tL = Y = y + ar = Yellow time + All-Red
YA,B = 4.3 + 1.4 = 5.7s
YC = 4.3 + 1.3 = 5.6s
Total lost time, L = 5.7+5.7+5.6 = 17 sec.


Exclusive Left Turn
L
Cdes =  
Vc
1−
 
3600

× PHF × (v /c)
h
17
Cdes = = 109.7sec
1130
1−
1615 × 0.92 × 0.90


Exclusive Left Turn

Available green time, effective green time = 110-17 = 93 seconds
VcA 263
gA = gTOT = 93 × = 21.6sec.
Vc 1130
VcB 516
gB = gTOT = 93 × = 42.5sec.
Vc 1130
VcC 351
gC = gTOT = 93 × = 28.9sec.
Vc 1130
Check for total cycle length: 21.6+42.5+28.9+17 = 110 → OK


Exclusive Left Turn
Step 8: Check Pedestrian Requirements
Moderate pedestrian - 200 per hour

How many per cycle? - 3600/110 = 32.7 cycles per hour → 200/32.7 = 6.1 ped
L 60
GpB = 3.2+ +0.27Nped = 3.2+ +0.27×6.1 = 19.8s < GB +YB = 42.5+5.7 = 48.2 OK
Sp 4.0
L 55
GpC = 3.2+ +0.27Nped = 3.2+ +0.27×6.1 = 18.6s < GC +YC = 28.9+5.6 = 34.5 OK
Sp 4.0
The signal safely accommodates all pedestrians. No changes in the signal timing for
vehicular needs is required.

Exclusive Left-Turn Phase Plus Leading Green


Step 1: Develop a phase plan
vLT ≥ 200 veh/h

vo
xprod = vLT × ≥ 50, 000
No
EB: VLT = 300 > 200, Protection required
WB: VLT = 150 < 200
xprodWB =150x(1200/3)=60000 > 50000,
Protection needed
NB: VLT = 50 < 200; Not required
SB: VLT = 300 < 200; Not required
Need to protect the left turn movements of EB and WB.






EWAvg - 50 mi/h; NSAvg - 35 mi/h.
1.47S85 1.47 × 55
yA1,A2,A3 = t + = 1.0 + = 5.0s
2a + (64.4 × 0.01G) 2 × 10 + 0
1.47S85 1.47 × 40
yB = t + = 1.0 + = 3.9s
2a + (64.4 × 0.01G) 2 × 10 + 0
Width of N-S street - 40 ft.
P +L 40 + 20
arA1,A2,A3 = = = 0.9s.
1.47S15 1.47 × 45
Width of E-W street - 96 ft.
P +L 90 + 20
arC = = = 2.6s.
1.47S15 1.47 × 30

Assuming start-up lost time and e as 2.0 s

Lost time per phase, tL = Y = y + ar = Yellow time + All-Red
YA1,A2 = 5.0 + 0.9 = 5.9s
YA3 = 5.0 + 0.9 = 5.9s
YB = 3.9 + 2.6 = 6.5s
Total lost time, L = 5.9+5.9+6.5 = 18.3 sec.


L
Cdes =  
Vc
1−
 
3600

× PHF × (v /c)
h
18.3
Cdes = = 95.3sec
998
1−
1615 × 0.85 × 0.90



Available green time, effective green time = 100-18.3 = 81.7 seconds
VcA1,A2 315
gA1,A2 = gTOT = 81.7 × = 25.8sec.
Vc 998
VcA3 334
gA3 = gTOT = 81.7 × = 27.3sec.
Vc 998
VcB 349
gB = gTOT = 81.7 × = 28.6sec.
Vc 998

Specific lengths of all phases

Total length of combined Phase A1 and A2 = 25.8+27.3 = 53.1 seconds
158
gA1 = 53.1 × = 15sec
158 + 400
gA2 = 53.1 − 15.0 − 27.3 = 10.8sec

GA1 = 15.0 sec YA3 = 5.9 sec
GA2 = 10.8 sec GB = 28.6 sec
YA1,A2 = 5.9 sec YB = 6.5 sec
GA3 = 27.3 sec C = 100 sec
No pedestrians in this intersection. No Step 8 !!

Bachu Anilkumar
IIT Patna
[email protected]
Thank You !!

CE543 - Module 5 - Part I

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CE 543 - Traffic Engineering and Highway Safety

Traffic Signs - IRC 67 : 2012

Traffic Control Devices 1

Violation of these signs is a legal

Purpose: Warn the road users of certain hazardous conditions

Guiding and controlling traffic on a highway

Longitudinal Markings- Can be in White or Yellow in colour - Solid or Broken

Solid white - you cannot change the lane while driving

Longitudinal Markings- Can be in White or Yellow in colour - Solid or Broken

Double yellow - Passing or changing lane is NOT allowed

Object marking - Marking on obstructions in a carriageway (traffic island, medians) or

Promotes more efficient use of the parking spaces

Hazardous Location Marking 15

Change in width of road

Traffic signals must operate at all times

Signal Faces and Visibility

Other Traffic Signals

# of conflicting points of conven-

Level I - Basic rules of the road

Basic Rules of the Road 22

Basic Rules of the Road 23

Stopping Sight Distance

Basic Rules of the Road 24

Drivers on conflicting approaches must be

Basic Rules of the Road 25

Basic Rules of the Road 26

Basic Rules of the Road 27

Basic Rules of the Road 28

Basic Rules of the Road 29

Implement intersection control, using STOP or YIELD control or traffic signals

YIELD and STOP Control 30

YIELD and STOP Control 31

Based on gap acceptance behaviour

YIELD and STOP Control 32

The required sight distances for Vehicle B

YIELD and STOP Control 33

Consider the case of a STOP-controlled approach at an intersection with a two-lane

YIELD and STOP Control 34

Warrants for YIELD Control

Traffic Control Signals 35

Ultimate form of intersection control

To increase capacity, to improve safety, and to provide for orderly movement

Traffic Control Signals 36

Traffic Control Signals 37

Warrants for Traffic Signals

Components of Signal Cycle

Components of Signal Cycle 38

Components of Signal Cycle 39

Components of Signal Cycle 40

Components of Signal Cycle 42

Semi actuated operation

Components of Signal Cycle 43

Treatment of Left Turns 44

Can be a combination of permitted and protected.

Start-up Lost Time

Start-up Lost Time

Clearance Lost Time

Total Lost Time

Start-up lost time: beginning of the GREEN signal.