CHAPTER 7

SOIL
EXPLORATION
 Group 2

Jay Wilmer S. Roquero Joy L. Ondon Crislie B. Albatera

Cyrus Val M. Angcon Rudaliza A. Batiller

IMPORTANCE OF
SOIL EXPLORATION
SOIL EXPLORATION
• Also called site investigation.
• Provides data regarding subsoil
conditions(i.e. underground conditions),
groundwater position and its fluctuations.
• Essential requirements for design and
construction of any civil engineering project.
PURPOSE AND
OBJECTIVES
Purpose of soil exploration is:
(i)To determine the basic properties of soil
which affect the design and safety of structure
i.e., compressibility, strength and hydrological
conditions. To determine the stratigraphy of
the site.
(ii)To determine the extent and properties
of the material to be used for construction.
(iii) To determine the condition of
groundwater.
(iv) To analyze the causes of failure of
existing works.
The nature and extent of
soil exploration depends
upon the ultimate use to
which the results of the
investigation will be
applied.
Primary Objectives:
• To assess quality of bedrock and
depth of overburden soil.
• To determine position of
groundwater table (GWT).
• To evaluate the characteristics of
subsoil, rock, and GWT.
INVESTIGATION PHASES
I. Feasibility or reconnaissance
II. Preliminary exploration
III. Detailed exploration
IV. Pre-construction phases
Construction/post construction stage
exploration
I. Feasibility or Reconnaissance
-The over view or the flying visit of the site.
-The background information of the site
are collected.
• Project details
The type of structure to be constructed,
expected structural loads, intended use
of the structure, construction methods
and approximate construction period.
• Surface and sub-surface
conditions of the site
Obtained through study of geological
maps, aerial photographs.
For large projects, geophysical methods
of exploration may be used
• Study of existing structures in the
area
behaviour of existing structure
adjacent to the site
II. Preliminary exploration
Drilling holes and recovering the disturbed soil sample
from each stratum bedrocks and hardpan are
established for identification and classification of soils
only.
• Bedrock or hardpan is established
• Disturbed soil samples are recovered
• Position of GWT may also be established
III.Detailed exploration
This phase may include:
• Test pits excavation, boreholes, in-situ testing
• Collection of both disturbed and undisturbed
samples for detailed laboratory testing
• GWT fluctuations may also be checked regularly
during this phase by installing peizometers.
IV. Construction/post construction
stage exploration
• Additional exploration may be required during
construction stage to cope with the unexpected
subsoil conditions.
• Monitoring of the movement of structure,
• Monitoring of groundwater fluctuations, both
during and after construction, may be required.
SOIL EXPLORATION
METHODS
SOIL EXPLORATION
The technical investigation by
which the necessary information
regarding various soil properties is
obtained to enable the engineer in
charge to design a safe and
economical foundation is referred
to as subsurface investigation and
then the various methods of soil
exploration.
• • Inspection: It is the first step and should be
taken before carrying out the design and
construction of the structure.
• • Probing: In this, a rod about 25 mm in
diameter is driven in the ground. It has a
point end when it is taken out, the soil
which sticks on its sides gives us the idea
about the strata available.
•
• Boring: In this, a hole is bore in the ground
for taking soil samples. The exploration
of soil below water table is usually very
difficult to perform by means of test
pits, Therefore, test pits are replaced
by boring methods.
Method of Boring
a) Auger boring: It is the device which helps
in advancing a bore hole into the ground.

The most common augers in use are:

• Post hole augers

( for general use)
• Gravel augers
( for gravelly soils )

• Screw augers
( for stiff clay )
• Power or mechanically
operate auger ( for greater
depths and when boring is
require in a comparatively
short time )
(b) Wash boring: Wash boring is a fast and
low-cost method of deep boring. It is the
ideal boring when there is enough water for
the water jet plant to function well, as well as
for subsurface formations consisting of sand,
gravel, and clayey formations, and it is good
for acquiring soil samples since heavier soil
particles remain suspended.
(c) Rotary boring: This process of boring is
also know as Mechanical boring. It is use for
very deep boring specially when the soil
consists of boulders or rock.

(d) Percussion boring: In this, a drilling rod is

raise up and down alternately in the bore
hole. It is use in most of the soils and rocks.
Trail pit method:
It is one of the simplest and
most common method for
investigating the sub-soil in
its natural and undisturbed
state. This method is limit
to small depths up to 3 m
only.
 PROBING OR SOUNDING
A steel rod of about 25 mm diameter is
driven into the ground for the purpose
of probing and sounding. The deriving
resistance to rod and the adhering
particles to the rod when it is pulled out,
tells us type and properties of soil.
TEST TRENCHES AND PITS
• Trenching
Trenching is similar to test pits except that in this
case, the pit is elongated over some distance in
order to establish how the subsurface conditions
change over various parts of the worksite. This
method allows for identification of different
sedimentary changes over a longer distance.
• Test Pits
Test pits are much like you would expect, a pit
is dug either manually or with an excavator in
order to reveal the subsurface conditions to
the depth desired. Generally, this is for siting
shallow foundations.
AUGER BORING
• Simplest and most common
method of boring for small
projects in soft cohesive soils.
– Fast, economical, light,
inexpensive and flexible
• Auger a drill for advancing holes Has a shank
with cross wise handle to apply torque

The length of the auger

blade varies from 0.3-0.5m.

Diameter of central rod

almost 18mm.
Auger held vertically and
driven by applying torque,
either manually or
mechanically

Driving force: Torque on

handle+ downward pressing
force
The auger is rotated until it is full of
soil, then it is withdrawn to remove
the soil and the soil type present at
various depths is noted. Hand
augers and mechanically operated
auger

Post hole augers: for taking samples

when hole is already dug/driven
Hand-Operated
Hand-Operated
➢ can be made up to about 6m depth
➢ Usually used for shallow depth
applications used for such as rail road,
highways etc.
➢ Highly disturbed samples (but better than
other boring methods) classification
purpose and basic tests only
Power operated
Power operated
➢ The power required to rotate the auger
depends on the type and size of auger and
the type of soil.
➢ can be made up to about 12m depth
➢ Downwards pressure - applied hydraulically,
mechanically or by dead weight
Outcomes of Auger boring:
Disturbed soil we get
Below Water table not
possible
Changes in soil strata not
known
Wash Boring
• Fast and simple do works at 12 m
depths
• Casing pipe –5-10cm diameter
driven to the ground first, up to
certain depth (~1.5m)
•Wash pipe- lower dia>upper end
connected to water supply system,
and lower end to chisel shaped
chopping bit

• Water with high pressure

pumped through hollow boring
rods released from narrow holes in
a chisel attached to the lower end
of the rods.
Driving force: jetting action of water +
chopping action of chisel
• Slurry comes up through annular space
between casing pipe and wash pipe>taken in
tub>settles> samples can be taken if required.
• Further advancement of hole can be done by
raising and lowering of chopping bit
• Casings can be
extended or
drilling fluids can
be pumped
instead
Outcomes:
• Highly disturbed samples
• Finer particles (clay, loam etc.) won’t
settle, and heavier particles not
brought up
• Exact strata identification not possible
due to mixing of oil particles
• Slow in coarse grained and stiff soils
• Not effective in hard soils, rocks , boulders
• Can be used in most type of soil but the
progress is slow in coarse gravel strata
• Some indications about strata from slurry
color and drill penetration resistance
• It is only used for advancing the borehole
to enable tube samples to be taken or
field test to be carried at the hole bottom.
WASH BORING
Percussive Drilling
Percussion drilling is considered to be one of the
oldest drilling methods. It uses a heavy
hammering or a cable with a serious cutting bit
attached to a rope and is lowered into the open
hole. It is repeatedly lifted and dropped; thus, the
cutting loses the soil, which gets extracted later
by using a bailer.
Types of Percussive Drilling
1. Down Hole Drills or Rotary Air Blast Drilling
- A down-the-hole drill, usually called DTH is
mainly a pneumatic powered rock or ground drill,
in which the percussive hammer is located directly
behind the drill bit, so the percussion mechanism
follows the bit down into the drill hole.
2. Top Hammer Drilling
- Top hammer drills are primarily used in
mining, construction and quarrying of rock
material. Top hammer drilling, combined with
the “drill and blast” method, makes the whole
excavation process extremely efficient.
3. Reverse Circulation Drilling
- Reverse circulation is achieved by blowing air
down the rods, the differential pressure creating
air lift of the water and cuttings up the “inner
tube”, which is inside each rod. It reaches the
“divertor” at the top of the hole, then moves
through a sample hose which is attached to the
top of the “cyclone”.
Rotary Drilling
Rotary drilling is one of the many
geotechnical drilling services we
offer here at Diamond Drilling Kent.
It is the most widely used drilling
method for small and large projects.
Types of Rotary Drilling
1. Auger Drill
Auger drilling uses a drill bit that looks a lot like a
screw it’s made of steel casing, with curved flights
that are rotated while the rig drill head applies
pressure to move the bit further into the ground.
The rotation of the flights is important, because it
mechanically moves material to the surface.
2.Calyx Drill
A rotary core drill that uses hardened steel
shot for cutting rock, which will drill holes
from diamond-drill size up to 6 ft (1.8 m) or
more in diameter. Drilling is slow and
expensive, and holes cannot be drilled more
than 35 degrees off the vertical, as the shot
tends to collect on the lower side of the hole.
Also called shot drill.
3. Rotary Drill (uses rock roller bit and
tricone bits)
Broadly, various types of drill machines that
rotate a rigid, tubular string of rods to which is
attached a bit for cutting rock to produce
boreholes. The bit may be a roller cone bit, a
toothed or fishtail drag bit, an auger bit, or a
diamond bit.
4. Diamond Drill (uses diamond drill bit)

A drilling machine with a rotating, hollow,

diamond-studded bit that cuts a circular
channel around a core, which can be
recovered to provide a more or less
continuous and complete columnar sample
of the rock penetrated.
GEOPHYSICAL
METHODS
Geophysical techniques measure the
material's physical characteristics in
order to draw conclusions about the
Earth's surface and subsurface.
The three geophysical techniques most
frequently used for agricultural soil investigations
are:
• resistivity,
• electromagnetic induction, and
• ground-penetrating radar;
• however, optical reflectance and -ray
spectroscopy are increasingly being used.
• Geophysical techniques react to the
physical properties of the subsurface media
(rocks, sediments, water, voids, etc.) and can
be used successfully when one region differs
sufficiently from another in some physical
characteristics Geophysical information can
therefore be used to find natural resources
like as hydrocarbons, minerals, aggregate,
and others.
• Geophysical data can be utilized for
permafrost research, infrastructure
planning and monitoring, hydrology,
environmental monitoring, slope
stability evaluation, and geologic
mapping.
OBJECTIVES:
Geophysical methods are widely used in the
fields of Earth science, environmental science,
engineering, and natural resource exploration.
The objectives of employing these methods
are multifaceted and include:
1. Subsurface Imaging
One of the primary objectives of geophysical
methods is to create images of the subsurface of
the Earth.
This helps in understanding the geological
structures, identifying buried features, and
mapping the distribution of various materials (e.g.,
rocks, minerals, water, and man-made objects).
2. Resource Exploration:
Geophysical methods are instrumental in locating
and characterizing natural resources such as oil,
natural gas, minerals, groundwater, and
geothermal energy reservoirs.
By identifying the subsurface distribution of these
resources, industries can plan extraction and
utilization strategies more effectively.
3. Environmental Assessment:
Geophysics plays a vital role in environmental
studies. It helps in monitoring groundwater
quality, detecting contamination plumes,
assessing soil properties, and evaluating the
impact of human activities on the environment.
These methods aid in making informed
decisions about environmental protection and
remediation.
TYPES OF
GEOPHYSICAL
METHODS
1. Seismic Methods:
• Reflection Seismology:
This method uses artificially
generated seismic waves to
image subsurface structures,
including oil and gas reservoirs,
and to assess the geological
composition of the Earth's
interior.
• Refraction Seismology:
It involves measuring the travel times of seismic
waves refracted at subsurface interfaces to
determine the depth and velocity of different
layers.
• Surface Wave Seismology:
Surface waves, like Love and Rayleigh waves, are
used to investigate near-surface geological
properties and assess site-specific seismic
hazards.
2. Electromagnetic Methods:
• Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT):

ERT measures the electrical resistivity of the

subsurface to map variations in geology,
groundwater, and contaminant plumes.
• Induced Polarization (IP):
IP measures the ability of rocks and minerals to
store electrical charge and is used to identify
mineral deposits and assess groundwater quality.

• Magnetotellurics (MT):
MT measures natural electromagnetic field
variations to determine subsurface resistivity,
aiding in mapping deep geological structures.
3. Ground-Penetrating
Radar (GPR):
• GPR uses radar waves to
investigate the shallow subsurface,
making it valuable for archaeological
studies, utility detection, and
pavement assessment.
4. Gravity Methods:
• Gravity surveys measure
variations in gravitational
acceleration to map
subsurface density
variations, aiding in mineral
exploration and subsurface
mapping.
5. Magnetic Methods:
• Magnetic surveys detect
variations in the Earth's
magnetic field caused by
magnetic minerals, helping
locate buried objects, mineral
deposits, and geological
structures.
6. Remote Sensing:
• Techniques such as satellite and aerial
imagery, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging),
and hyperspectral imaging are used to study
large-scale geological features, land use, and
environmental changes.
7. Borehole Geophysics:

• These methods involve measurements made

within drilled boreholes and are crucial for
characterizing subsurface properties and
validating surface geophysical data.
 8. Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR):
• NMR is used to investigate
subsurface fluid content,
porosity, and permeability,
making it valuable in
hydrogeology and petroleum
exploration.
9. Well Logging:
• Well logging tools are
used in the oil and gas
industry to measure
properties such as
porosity, resistivity, and
natural gamma radiation
within boreholes.
10. Cosmic Ray Neutron Sensing:
• This method measures cosmic
ray-induced neutron emissions
to assess soil moisture content,
making it important for
agricultural and hydrological
applications.
11. Thermal Methods:
• Thermal surveys measure variations in
subsurface temperature to detect
underground anomalies, such as geothermal
resources or buried objects.
12. Microgravity:
• Similar to gravity surveys,
microgravity methods use
highly sensitive instruments
to detect small changes in
gravitational acceleration,
often applied in mineral
exploration.
 Each of these geophysical methods has its own
strengths and limitations, and the choice of method
depends on the specific objectives of a study or
exploration project. Geophysicists often combine
multiple techniques to gain a comprehensive
understanding of subsurface conditions and
geological features.
 SOIL
SAMPLES
● A sample is said to be a representative
sample when it truly represents the
characteristics of the stratum from which it
is recovered.
● Soil sampling is the process of collection of
samples of soil in order to determine the
engineering properties of soil required for the
proper design of foundation.

● Soil samples are usually obtained by attaching

an open-ended, thin-walled tube-to drill rods
and forcing it down into the soil.
 THE OBJECTIVE OF
SOIL SAMPLING
To obtain soils of
satisfactory size with
minimum disturbance
for observations and
laboratory test.
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SOIL SAMPLES CAN BE
OF TWO TYPES:
Disturbed and
Undisturbed Samples
1. Disturbed samples
• A sample in which the natural structure of
soil gets partly or fully modified and destroyed
during sampling.
• However, by taking proper precautions, the
natural water content in soil sample can be
preserved.
• The composition and the mineral content of the
soil is represented by the samples. Index properties
of the soil can be determined from disturbed
samples. (eg. Grain size, plasticity, characteristics of
specific gravity.)
• Samples are normally taken from the field for
laboratory test to characterize the physical and
mechanical (strength, and deformation) properties.
• These parameters are used to design foundations and
to determine the use of soils as a construction material.

• Disturbed samples such as from a standard sampler

are usually used for visual inspection and for tests to
determine the physical properties such as plasticity and
grain size and shape.
2. Undisturbed samples

• A sample in which the natural structure and

properties remain preserved and the water content
are retained.
• It is impossible to get the truly undisturbed sample.
The sample disturbance depends on the design of
samplers and the method of sampling.

• These samples are used for determining engineering

properties of soil such as shear strength,
compressibility, shrinkage limit and permeability.
TYPES OF SAMPLERS
SAMPLERS
Equipment used for taking samples of soil are
known as samplers.

TYPES OF SAMPLERS
- Thick wall sampler: used for obtaining disturbed soil
samples. (Area ratio> 10%)
- Thin wall sampler: used for obtaining undisturbed soil
samples.(Area ratio < 10%)
Types of samplers depending upon the mode of
operation:
Open drive sampler
• Open drive sampler called open drive
because at the leading end, it is open and
soil enters through it.

• Cutting edge at leading end pushing sampler

into the ground displaces the soil of equal
volume of the metal of the sampler.
• Undisturbed samples are obtained from
boreholes by open drive samplers.

• Consist of thin walled tubes which are

pushed or driven in to the soil at the bottom
of the hole and then rotated detach the
lower end of the sample from the soil.
• Most soft or moderately stiff cohesive soil
can be sampled without extensive
disturbance in thin walled seamless steel
tubes having diameter not less than 50mm.

• The lower end of the tube is sharpened to

form a cutting edge and the other end is
machined for attachment to the drill rod.
• The entire tube is pushed or
driven in to the soil at the
bottom of the hole and is
removed sample with inside.

• The two ends of the tube are

then sealed and sample shifted
to the laboratory.
Piston sampler
• It is consist of two parts: Sampler cylinder and
Piston system
• The piston first tightened in the sampler
cylinder.
• Good quality undisturbed samples of soft and
sensitive clay are obtained from piston
samplers which use thin-walled sampling
tubes with a piston inside.
• While the tube is being lowered to the bottom
of the drill hole, the piston rods and piston are
held at the bottom by different type of
samplers.
• The presence of the piston prevent rapid
squeezing of the soft soil into the tube and
reduces the disturbance of the sample.
Rotary sampler
• A rotary sampler is a double –
walled tube sampler with an
inner removable liner.

• The outer tube or the rotating

barrel is provided with a cutting
bit. The bit cuts an annular ring
when the barrel is rotated.
• The inner tube which is stationary, slides over
the cylindrical sample cut by the outer rotating
barrel. The sample is collected in the inner
liner.

• Rotary samplers are useful for sampling in firm

to hard cohesive soils and particularly in rocks.
•
• It can be used for collection of undisturbed
samples in stiff-to-hard clays, silts, and sands
with some cementation and also in soft rock.
The sampler is, however, unsuitable for
gravelly soils and loose cohesion less soils.
Split spoon sampler
● It is commonly used
for obtaining a disturb
samples of the soil.
• The steel in the middle has inside and
outside diameters of 34.9mm and 50.8mm,
respectively. When the bore hole is
advanced to a desired depth, the drilling
tools are removed.

• The split spoon sampler is attached to the

drilling rod and then lowered to the bottom
of the bore hole by repeated blows of
hammer and then withdrawn.
• Separated after removing the shoe and
coupling and the sample is taken out.
Sample is then placed in container, sealed
and transported to the laboratory.
• The split spoon sampler consists of three
types:
1. Tool – steel made driving shoe about
75mm in length.
2. 450mm long steel tube, split longitudally in
two halves.
3. 150mm long coupling at the top of the
tube.
IN SITU
"In situ" in geotechnical engineering refers to
performing tests, measurements, or
assessments directly at the site or location
where the soil, rock, or geologic materials of
interest are situated. This approach allows
engineers and geologists to gather data and
information about the subsurface conditions
and properties without disturbing or removing
the materials from their natural environment.
OBJECTIVES
• Site Characterization:
In situ tests help geotechnical engineers
characterize the site's subsurface conditions,
including the type of soil or rock, layering, depth
to groundwater, and other geotechnical
parameters. This information is crucial for
designing foundations, slopes, retaining
structures, and other civil engineering projects.
• Assessment of Soil Properties:
In situ tests provide data to assess various soil
properties, such as shear strength, cohesion,
internal friction angle, compressibility, and
permeability. These properties are fundamental
for analyzing the stability and deformation
behavior of soil masses under various loading
conditions.
• Foundation Design:
In situ testing is critical for designing safe and
cost-effective foundations for structures.
Engineers use the data to calculate bearing
capacity, settlement predictions, and design
parameters for shallow and deep foundations.
• Slope Stability Analysis:
Information obtained from in situ tests is
essential for assessing the stability of natural
slopes, embankments, and cut slopes. It helps
in identifying potential landslide or stability
issues and designing appropriate slope
reinforcement measures.
TYPES OF TESTS
In situ tests are a group of geotechnical tests
that are conducted directly in the field at the
location where soil or rock properties need to
be assessed. These tests provide valuable
information about the subsurface conditions,
which is crucial for engineering and
construction projects.
 Three common in situ tests are
the Standard Penetration Test
(SPT), the Cone Penetration Test
(CPT), and the Plate Load Test
(PLT). Let's explore each of them:
1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
The Standard Penetration Test, commonly referred
to as SPT, is one of the oldest and most widely
used in situ tests for soil characterization. It is
primarily used to determine the relative density
(or compaction) of granular soils and provides
information about the soil's resistance to
penetration by a standard sampler.
Here's how the SPT works:

• A borehole is drilled at the test location.

• A split-barrel sampler, which has a standard

weight and dimensions, is driven into the soil
at the bottom of the borehole using a drop
hammer.
• The number of hammer blows required to
drive the sampler a specific distance into the
soil (usually 12 inches or 300 mm) is
recorded. This number is called the "blow
count" or "N-value.“

• The N-value is used to estimate the soil's

properties, including its shear strength and
relative density.
2. Cone Penetration Test (CPT):
The Cone Penetration Test, or CPT, is another in
situ test used to assess the subsurface
conditions, primarily in cohesive soils and silts. It
involves pushing a cone-shaped penetrometer
into the ground at a constant rate and measuring
the resistance encountered.
Key aspects of the CPT:

• A cone-shaped penetrometer, equipped

with sensors to measure cone tip
resistance (q_c) and friction along the
cone's sleeve (f_s), is pushed into the
ground.
• The penetration depth and resistance
measurements are recorded continuously.

• The data collected during the test are used to

determine soil properties, including soil type,
shear strength, and stratigraphy.
3. Plate Load Test (PLT):
The Plate Load Test, also known as the Plate
Bearing Test or Plate Loading Test, is
conducted to assess the bearing capacity of the
soil underneath a foundation or footing. This
test is particularly important for the design of
foundations for buildings and structures.
Here's how the PLT is performed:

• A rigid steel plate, usually square or circular, is

placed on the ground at the test location.

• A load is applied to the plate, typically through

hydraulic jacks or other loading mechanisms.
• The amount of settlement or deformation
of the plate and the applied load are
recorded.

• These data are used to determine the

bearing capacity of the soil and assess
whether it can support the planned
structure.
In summary, in situ tests like the Standard Penetration
Test (SPT), Cone Penetration Test (CPT), and Plate
Load Test (PLT) are essential tools in geotechnical
engineering. They provide valuable information about
soil and rock properties, helping engineers and
geologists make informed decisions during the design
and construction of various civil engineering projects.
Each test is suitable for specific purposes, and the
choice of test depends on the project's requirements
and the characteristics of the subsurface materials at
the site.
Thank you