SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT EPOCH I • Bipedalism (walking on two feet)

• Brain size (>600 cubic centimeter)

Evolution - It is the change in the heritable • Jaw size
characteristics (genes) of biological populations over • Teeth size
successive generations.
Ardipithecus Group – the earliest humans are our
A. These genes (sections of DNA) can change over closest link to other primates. They evolved in Africa
time due to mutation. and took the first steps toward walking upright.
This gene is for melanin production (example only). The • Ardipithecus ramidus
upper gene (AATCGCGTAC) is unmutated (resulting to • Ardipithecus kadabba
darker skin tone), while the lower gene (AATCGTGTAC) • Orrorin tugenensis
is mutated (resulting to lighter skin color). • Sahelanthropus tchadensis

B. The genes (sections of DNA) are being passed Australopithecus Group – species in this group of early
through the offspring through the process of humans walked upright on a regular basis, but they still
reproduction. climbed trees, too.
• Australopithecus africanus
That genetic mutation for melanin production will be • Australopithecus garhi
passed through generations, if they will be able to • Australopithecus anamensis
reproduce. After many generations, there will be
population of human with high melanin (darker skin Paranthropus Group – large teeth and powerful jaw
tone) and low melanin (lighter skin tone). enabled this group of early humans to feed on a variety
of foods.
C. Evolution occurs when natural selection due to • Parathropus robustus
environmental pressure act on this variation, • Parathropus boisei
resulting in certain characteristics becoming • Parathropus aethiopicus
more common or rare within a population.

Since melanin is vital for UV radiation protection, after Homo Group – like modern humans, other species in
many generations, the population with darker skin tone this group had large brain and used tools. Members of
increases in places near the equator, while the this group were the first to expand beyond Africa.
population with lighter skin tone increase in places far •Homo neanderthalensis
from the equator. • Homo floresiensis
• Homo erectus
D. Evolution occurs when natural selection due to • Homo habilis
environmental pressure act on this variation, • Homo rudolfensis
resulting in certain characteristics becoming • Homo heidelbergensis
more common or rare within a population. • Homo sapiens

The variation (longer limbs) allows that species to Evolution

survive and reproduce on its current habitat. After o Evolution does not work in a linear fashion. We are
many generations, that variation (longer limbs) will be not direct descendants of monkeys or apes, but we
more prevalent in their population. are related to them, that is why there are still
monkeys and apes.
E. Evolution occurs when natural selection due to
o Same goes with all the domesticated animals (ex.
sexual selection act on this variation, resulting Chihuahua, Labrador, Blood hound), they are not
in certain characteristics becoming more
direct descendants of their wild counterparts (ex.
common or rare within a population. wolves) but they are related.
Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the two sexes o Evolution works like a branching tree, and each
of the same species exhibit different characteristics branch signifies a genetic variability that separates
beyond the differences in their sexual organs. them from the existing species but is still related.
o If the mutation helps the species to survive or do
Human Evolution - The defining features of humans not affect them at all, it will persist, and will be
among its distant relatives are as follows: passed to the next generation.
o As time goes by and many mutations get passed • Around 40,000 years ago, even more diverse toolkits
from generation to generation, they could were developed and reflected cultural diversity at that
accumulate and lead to the development of a new time. These toolkits were found across in Africa, Europe,
species. and Asia.
• Groups of early modern humans experimented on
different raw materials aside from stones (bone, ivory,
ANCIENT EPOCH II antler).
• The toolkits that were unearthed during this period
consists of:
Early Stone Age • Burins
o The earliest stone tools ever found was at least 2.6  Burin (Graver) rom La Madeleine, Dordogne,
million years ago in Africa, known as Oldowan France
toolkits. It consists of:  Burin from Laugerie Haute & Basses, Dordogne,
• Hammerstone France
 Hammerstone from Majuangou, China • Bone needles
• Stone cores  Bone and Ivory Needles
 Olduvai Chopper • Harpoon points
 Oldowan Tools from Lokalalei, Kenya  Katanda Bone Harpoon Point
 Stone Tools from Majangou,China
• Stone flakes Agriculture
• It is the process of adapting wild plants and animals
o By about 1.76 million years ago, another set of for human use. It is the conversion of wild species into
stone tools were found across, Africa, Asia, and domestic species.
Europe, known as Acheulean toolkit. It consists of: • This process creates food and territorial security.
• Hand axes • Farming is the end-result of plant domestication,
 Handaxe and Tektites from Bose, China while husbandry is the endresult of animal
 Handexe from India domestication
 Handex from Europe
Plant Domestication
Controlled Fire • It is the process whereby wild plants have been
• Around 1.7 to 2.0 million years ago, our ancient evolved into crop plants through artificial selection.
ancestors was able to control fire. It was used for food • This usually involves an early hybridization event
preparation, tool making, and as source of light and followed by selective breeding.
heat.
• This allows our ancient ancestors to extract more Animal Domestication
nutrients from food and cover large distances during • It is the process whereby wild animals have been
migration. evolved into domestic animals through three different
• This ability is widely being credited to Homo erectus. approaches.
• The initial events of domestications was unintentional,
Middle Stone Age but the relatively recent domestications were
• Around 400,000 to 200,000 years ago, more diverse intentional.
toolkits were developed. These toolkits were
established in Africa, Europe, and western Asia. Animal Domestication
• During this period, they have used a technique that • It has three processes whereby wild animals have
raised the level of standardization and predictability of been evolved into domestic animals.
the stone tools. It is known as “prepared core • The (1) commensal pathway occurred when wild
technique”. animals (wolves, big cats, wild boars) where attracted to
• The toolkits that were unearthed during this period the leftovers (bones, meat) on ancient human
consists of: campsites. It did not begin with human action, but
• Projectile points for spears, darts, and arrows rather initiated by ancient wild animals.
• Bone awls • The (2) prey pathway occurred when humans can
successfully hunt animal herds (goats, sheep, cattle)
Late Stone Age with increasing frequency, until they can manage the
dispersion of the herd. The sole purpose of this hunting transformed Earth’s natural landscapes-first locally,
strategy is to manage their sources of meat, but not to then globally.
domesticate them at all.

• The (3) directed pathway occurred when a specific MODERN EPOCH I

group of animals (horse, camel, donkey) that was once
hunted as food, was now being intentionally protected
and be domesticated. It is due to their vital role in Early Metal Age: Copper
human transportation. • Around 7,000 years ago when modern humans started
extracting these red stones that do not break. Since it is
Becoming bipedal – by 6 million years ago the oldest easy to mine and process but more durable, malleable,
evidence for walking on two legs comes from one of the and less brittle than stone, it started replacing other
earliest humans known, Sahelantropus. Walking upright material of choice for tools, weapons, and ornaments.
may have helped this species survive in the diverse  Copper nugget
Habitats near where it lived-including forests and  Copper axe head (5,500 years ago)
grassland.
Early Metal Age: Copper
Mostly bipedal – by 4 million years ago during this time, • Due to the size of the nuggets, presence of impurities,
early humans species lived near open areas and dense and increasing scarcity because of continuous
woods. Their bodies had evolved in ways that enables extraction, the smiths were forced to experiment on
them to walk upright most of the time, but still climb what they have. This led to the development of smelting
trees. As a result, they could take advantage of both and annealing.
habitats.  Clay furnace for smelting minerals
 Air tubes for clay furnace
Dawn of technology -by 2.5 million years ago the
earliest tools were simple stone flakes and cores. For Middle Metal Age: Bronze
more than 2 million years, early humans used these • Around 5,020 years ago when modern humans started
tools to cut, pound, crush, and access new foods- smelting copper and combination of different metals
including meat from large animals. (tin, arsenic, phosphorus) to create alloys using pottery
kilns. This process is known as metallurgy.
Control of fire - by 800,000 years ago control of fore • Bronze is the most durable material at that time,
provided a new tool with several uses-including which then allowed the bronze age civilizations to gain
cooking, which led to a fundamental change in the early further technological advantage.
human diet. Early humans probably gathered around  Bronze mirror from Egypt (3,560 years ago)
campfires to socialize, to find comfort and warmth, to  Bronze artifacts from Korea (3,020 years ago)
share food and information, and to find safety from
predators. Middle Metal Age: Bronze
• This technology rapidly scattered around the globe,
Rapid increase in brain size – from 800,000-200,000 starting in East Africa then in India (around 5,350 years
years ago human brain size evolved most rapidly during ago), to Europe (around 5,220 years ago), and East Asia
a time of dramatic climate change. Larger, more (around 5,120 years ago). It is mainly due to trade and
complex brains enabled early humans of this time travel.
period to interact with each other and with their • According to archeological evidences, it was the
surroundings in new and different ways. As the period where the earliest form of writing and counting
environment became more unpredictable, bigger brains systems emerged. These are in Mesopotamia (Iraq;
help our ancestors survive. cover some part of Iran, Syria, Turkey) and Egypt.
 Cuneiform from Mesopotamia (5,520 years ago)
 Hieroglyphics from Egypt (5,320 years ago)
The Turning Point – 12,000 years ago eventually,
humans found they could control the growth and Late Metal Age: Iron
breeding of certain plants and animals. This discovery • Around 3,220 years ago when modern humans started
led to farming and herding animals, activities that smelting iron to create steel and combination of
different materials (carbon) to create alloys using • For example, yeast performs fermentation to obtain
pottery kilns. energy by converting sugar into alcohol. Bacteria
• Iron is the most durable material at that time, which perform fermentation, converting carbohydrates into
then allowed the iron age civilizations to gain both lactic acid.
technological and warfare advantage.  Cheese from fermented milk
 Lingling-o earrings from Philippines (2,520 years  Wine from fermented grapes
ago)  Beer from fermented barley
 Silla armor from Korea (2,420 years ago) • It is metabolic process in which a microbial organism
converts a carbohydrate, such as starch or a sugar, into
Late Metal Age: Iron an alcohol or an acid.
• This technology rapidly scattered around the Europe • For example, yeast performs fermentation to obtain
and Asia, starting in Greece and Italy (around 3,210 energy by converting sugar into alcohol. Bacteria
years ago) and to the rest of Europe (around 2,920- perform fermentation, converting carbohydrates into
2,520 years ago). As well as in South Asia (around 3,220 lactic acid.
years ago) and to East Asia (around 2,520 years ago). It
is mainly due to trade and travel. AGRICULTURAL APPLICATION: SELECTIVE BREEDING
• According to archeological evidences, there was no • Also known as artificial selection, is the process by
definite period of the beginning of the iron age since which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding
the transition was different per area and they go back to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits
and forth between bronze and iron technologies. (characteristics).
 Bow brooch from Greece (2,720 years ago)  Selective breeding in plants results to
 Farming tools from Great Britain (2,220 years varieties/cultivars
ago)  Selective breeding in animals results to breeds

Intellectual Revolution MEDICINAL APPLICATION: INOCULATION

• During this period, modern humans craves to • It is a set of methods of artificially inducing immunity
understand the human mind and everything around against various infectious diseases. This process is
them. The modern humans that joined this search for known in ancient China, India, Middle East, and Africa in
knowledge were known as philosophers or thinkers. treating smallpox.
• It is one of the largest and most significant libraries in  Nasal insufflation using a silver blowpipe
the ancient world, and was located in Alexandria, Egypt.  Tishteree el Jidderi using a cotton cloth to tie
• It was built during the period of Ptolemaic kingdom around an arm; Dak el Jedri using a cotton cloth
(Ptolemy I-VIII) as proposed by Demetrius of Phalerum, to rub into a flesh wound.
around 2,305 years ago.  Needle variolation using an iron needle
• It quickly became filled with papyrus scrolls, but was
destroyed by continuous wars, and its complete Science
destruction around 1,745 years ago on the hands of • It is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes
King Theophilus. knowledge in the form of testable explanations and
• Plant and animal domestication predictions about the universe.
• Irrigation and agricultural tools (e.g. stone, metal) 1. Non-discriminatory
• Fermentation (e.g. milk, fruit extracts) 2. Systematic 3. Evidence-based
• Wheel and roads 4. Testable
• Boats and canals 5. Iterative
• Weapons and armors (e.g. stone, metal) 6. Peer reviewed
• Writing system and medium (e.g. stone, paper) 7. Self-correcting
• Numbering and counting system
• Foundations of modern knowledge Industrial Revolution
• It is the process of change from an agrarian and
FOOD APPLICATION: FERMENTATION handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and
• It is metabolic process in which a microbial organism machine manufacturing.
converts a carbohydrate, such as starch or a sugar, into • It mainly started in Britain in the 18th century, and
an alcohol or an acid. from there spread to other parts of the world.
7 Technological Changes during the Industrial
Revolution
1. The use of new basic materials, like iron and steel.
2. The use of new energy sources, like coal, steam
engine, electricity, petroleum, and internal-combustion
engine. 3. The invention of new machine, like spinning
jenny and power loom.
4. The formation of new organization of work, like
division of labor and specialization of function.
5. The improvement of transportation, like steam
locomotive, steamship, automobile, and airplane.
6. The improvement of communication, like telegraph
and radio.
7. The increase in application of science to industry, like
use of natural resources and mass production of
manufactured goods.

5 Socio-economic Changes during the Industrial

Revolution
1. The improvement of agricultural sector for food
provisions.
2. The distribution of land and wealth, and increasing
international trade.
3. The shifting of economic power due to new state
policies and need of industrialization.
4. The growth and development of cities, working-class
movements, and new patterns of authority.
5. The transformation of culture to a broader order
which lead to acquisition of new skills and shifting of
tasks.

First Industrial Revolution

• 18th to 19th century
• Conversion of agrarian and rural lands to industrial
and urban lands.
• Products: iron, coal, textiles
• Transportation: steam engines

Second Industrial Revolution

• 1870 to 1914 (before WWI)
• Utilization of electricity in industries for mass
production and in households for efficiency.
• Products: steel, oil, electricity, light bulb
• Transportation: internal combustion engine
• Communication: telephone, radio
• Entertainment: phonograph

Industrial Melanism