CHAPTER 1

Definition of Communication

The word communication is derived from the Latin word” Communis” which means to make
common, to share, to transmit or to impart. Thus communication can be considered as a
process that involves the transfer of information, ideas, emotions, feelings etc. between
people.

Thus PETER LITTLE defines Communication as ’ the process by which information is

transmitted between individuals and / or organizations so that an understanding response
result.’

E.C. Eyre, defines Communication as ,’The transferring of thought or a message to another

party so that it can be understood and acted upon.’

What is Business Communication ?

Communication is neither the transmission of a message nor the message itself. It is the
mutual exchange of understanding, originating with the receiver. Communication needs to be
effective in business. Communication is the essence of management. The basic functions of
management (Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling) cannot be performed
well without effective communication.

Business communication involves constant flow of information. Feedback is integral part of

business communication. Organizations these days are very large and involve large number of
people. There are various levels of hierarchy in an organization. Greater the number of levels,
the more difficult is the job of- managing the organization. Communication here plays a very
important role in process of directing and controlling the people in the oragnization.
Immediate feedback can be obtained and misunderstandings if any can be avoided. There
should be effective communication between superiors and subordinated in an organization,
between organization and society at large (for example between management and trade
unions). It is essential for success and growth of an organization. Communication gaps should
not occur in any organization.

Business Communication is goal oriented. The rules, regulations and policies of a company
have to be communicated to people within and outside the organization. Business
Communication is regulated by certain rules and norms. In early times, business
communication was limited to paper-work, telephone calls etc. But now with advent of
technology, we have cell phones, video conferencing, emails, satellite communication to
support business communication. Effective business communication helps in building
goodwill of an organization.

Components of Communication Process

Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It is a continuous

process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This message must be conveyed
through some medium to the recipient. It is essential that this message must be understood by
the recipient in same terms as intended by the sender. He must respond within a time frame.
Thus, communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from the
recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him.

Communication Process

The main components of communication process are as follows:

1. Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This

context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication
proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a
context.
2. Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender
makes use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and
produce the required response. For instance - a training manager conducting training
for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an
organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge
of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols
chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in
the same terms as intended by the sender.
3. Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign
that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding
about the message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the
message is clear.
4. Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender
must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message
might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of
communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted
by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending upon the
features of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message
has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is chosen when
spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared
then and there.
5. Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is
intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message
is dependent upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their
responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on decoder.
6. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits
the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the
correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through
 words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in
form of memos, reports, etc.

Objectives of Communication

The main objective of all communication is to obtain an understanding response from other
fellow human beings. When a group of persons, whether in a social organization or in a
business, work together their efforts will be to achieve the common goal. Effective
communication is needed to ensure this welfare and to make the entire organization function
smoothly as an organic whole. So, basic objective of communication within the organization
is to ensure co-operation amongst the various departments.

In a complex and elaborate organization structure, communication is used for the following
objectives.

The following are the main objectives of business communication:

1. Conveying the right message: The main object of communication is to convey the
right message to the right person, i.e., to the person for whom it is meant. The
message conveyed should be well understood and accepted by the receiver in the right
perspective. In other words, it should carry the same meaning which has been
conveyed so that it may be translated into action effectively.

2. Coordination of effort: Communication is an effective tool for coordinating the

activities of different persons engaged in running a business. Coordination without
communication is a remote possibility. The individuals or groups come to know what
others are doing and what is expected from them only through communication.
3. Good industrial relations: Communication develops good industrial relations as it
conveys the feelings, ideas, opinions, and viewpoints of one party to the other party.
The two parties - the management and the subordinates, come closer through
communication. They understand each other and dispel any misunderstanding. Thus,
it promotes cooperation and good industrial relations.
4. Development of managerial skills: Communication helps managers to understand
human behavior at work. Communication of facts, ideas, opinions, information,
feelings, etc., add value to the knowledge of managers about various happenings, in
the organization and behavior of people. Thus, communication is a process of learning
. Business communication has specific objectives.
5. Information- The main objective of a business is to pass on information and making
people more informed, E.g.- all the advertisement activity that we see around as are
an attempt to inform and pass the information on to others, and in case of business
houses this information is mostly about the product or services that they have to offer.
But the mode of communication may be verbal, written, visual or any other.
6. Motivation- communication in business is also necessary to increase the motivation
in the workers. So if the communication is done properly and is successful in
motivating the workers and workers are motivated enough the work gets done easily,
efficiently and they will work independently and with out supervision.
 Communication should be used to create a right working environment. So that there is
a healthy competitive environment among the workers and also that they can be
recognized and rewarded for their achievements. Employees working at a lower level
in the hierarchy of the organization should be encouraged to provide suggestion and
inputs on how to improve the working of an organization, this type of communication
creates a sense of participation and belonging, it also develops more loyalty towards
the company.
7. Raising Morale - Another very important objective of business communication
(internal) is to keep the moral of the workers high so that they work with vigor and
confidence as a team. This is a major factor that can have very serious impact on the
success of a business house. But as morale is a psychological factor the state of high
morale is not a permanent factor. An organization may have a high morale among the
workers for a quarter but may find that the employees have lost their morale in the
next quarter. So to keep the moral of employees high an organization has to put
continuous effort in that direction. It can be done by maintaining an open door policy,
keeping an eye on the grapevine and not allowing harmful rumors to spread.
8. Order and instructions – An order is an oral or written command directing the start,
end or modifying an activity. This form of communication is internal and is carried
out within a business house. Order may be written or verbal. Written orders are given
when the nature of work is very important or the person who would perform the task
is far away. We should always be careful while handing out written orders and should
always keep a copy of the order so that follow up action can be taken. Oral orders are
given when work is of urgent nature and the person is nearby. But in both the cases it
is very essential to follow up.
9. Education and training- Now communication can also be used in business to
increase the circle of knowledge. The objective of education is achieved by business
communication on three levels (a) Management (b) employees (c) general public
(a) Education for future managers- Here junior personals in the organization is trained to
handle important assignments involving responsibility, so that they can succeed their
superiors in the future.
(b) Education for newbie’s- When new personals join an organization they are inducted
by educating them about the culture of the company, code of discipline, work ethos
etc. This is usually done through a training mode to acquaint the new recruits with the
functioning of the organization.
(c) Educating the public- Now this is done by advertising, informative talks, newspapers,
journals. And this is done to inform the public about the product, the functioning of
the company, and various schemes offered by the company.

CHAPTER 2
Channels Of Communication

1 Verbal Communication : Any form of communication in which words are used to convey
a message is verbal communication. A language code as the medium of transmission relies on
words and unit arrangement. Verbal communication can be divided into

1.1 Oral Communication :Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It

includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic
conversation. Speeches, presentations, discussions are all forms of oral communication. Oral
communication is generally recommended when the communication matter is of temporary
kind or where a direct interaction is required. Face to face communication (meetings,
lectures, conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant so as to build a rapport and trust.

Advantages of Oral Communication

 There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is

interpersonal.
 There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for
allowing changes in the decisions previously taken.
 The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be
made quickly without any delay.
 Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and
efforts.
 Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and
many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them over.
 Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
 Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among
organizational employees.
 Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential
information/matter.

Disadvantages/Limitations of Oral Communication

 Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business

communication is formal and very organized.
 Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal
and not as organized as written communication.
 Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in
case of meetings, long speeches consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.
 Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
 There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack
essentials.
 It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
 Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except
in investigation work.
 1.2 Written Communication: Written communication has great significance in today’s
business world. It is an innovative activity of the mind. Effective written communication
is essential for preparing worthy promotional materials for business development. Speech
came before writing. But writing is more unique and formal than speech. Effective
writing involves careful choice of words, their organization in correct order in sentences
formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. Also, writing is more valid and
reliable than speech. But while speech is spontaneous, writing causes delay and takes
time as feedback is not immediate.

Advantages of Written Communication

Written communication helps in laying down apparent principles, policies and rules for
running of an organization.
It is a permanent means of communication. Thus, it is useful where record maintenance is
required.
It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities. While in case of oral communication, it
is impossible to fix and delegate responsibilities on the grounds of speech as it can be
taken back by the speaker or he may refuse to acknowledge.
Written communication is more precise and explicit.
Effective written communication develops and enhances an organization’s image.
It provides ready records and references.
Legal defenses can depend upon written communication as it provides valid records.

Disadvantages of Written Communication

Written communication does not save upon the costs. It costs huge in terms of stationery and
the manpower employed in writing/typing and delivering letters.
Also, if the receivers of the written message are separated by distance and if they need to
clear their doubts, the response is not spontaneous.
Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The encoding
and sending of message takes time.
Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in language and
vocabulary use. Poor writing skills and quality have a negative impact on organization’s
reputation.
Too much paper work and e-mails burden is involved.

2 Non Verbal Communication : Nonverbal communication involves those nonverbal

stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source [speaker] and his or
her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver
[listener]. Basically it is sending and receiving messages in a variety of ways without the
use of verbal codes (words). It is both intentional and unintentional. Most speakers /
listeners are not conscious of this. It includes touch glance, eye contact (gaze),volume, vocal
nuance, proximity, gestures, Facial expression pause (silence),intonation, dress, posture,
smell, word choice and syntax, sounds (paralanguage).Broadly speaking, there are four basic
 categories of non-verbal language:

2.1 Body Language : The face and eyes are the most important features of body language.
Happiness, surprise, fear, anger and sadness are usually accompanied by definite facial
expressions and eye patterns.

Gestures are another way we send nonword messages through our body parts. Gestures are
physical movements of our arms, legs, hands, torsos and heads. Through movements of each
of these body parts , we can accent and reinforce our verbal messages. Speaking and
gestures appear to be linked. The louder someone speaks, the more emphatic the gestures
used, and vice versa.

Another area of body language is physical appearance – our clothing, hair and adornments
( jewellery, cosmetics, perfumes etc.). The appearance of our bodies indicates how are body
movements are seen.

2.2 Space : We create four different types of space : intimate (physical contact to 18 inches)
; personal (18 inches to 4 feet ); social (4 to 12 feet); and public ( 12 feet to range of seeing
and hearing). In each of these spaces, our communication behaviours differ and convey
different meanings. For Example , consider the volume of your voice when someone is 12
feet away and consider the tone when someone is 12 inches from you. There is a difference,
just because of the distance involved.

2.3 Time : Just as there is a body and space language, there is also a time language. How
we give meaning to time communicates to others. To illustrate, think about how you manage
your daily schedule? Do you arrive early for most appointments? Do you prioritize
telephone calls? Do you prepare agendas for meetings? How you respond to time
communicates to others. And, of course, others’ use of time communicates to you.

2.4 Paralanguage : Paralanguage meaning “ like language”. Paralanguage is the

communication effect of the speed, pitch, volume and connectivity of spoken words. It has
to do with the sound of a speaker’s voice, the “how” of it –those hints and signals in the
way words are delivered. Are they fast or slow? Are they high pitched or deep? Are they
loud and forceful or barely audible? Are they smooth or disjointed? These questions are
examples of the types you would ask to analyze the nonverbal symbols of paralanguage.

Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch, yawn) are also symbols of
paralanguage.

Types of Communication
External Communication: This is the communication with the outside world, i.e, with
customers, suppliers, banks insurance companies, government departments, mass media etc.
The external activities relate to selling and obtaining goods and services, reporting to the
shareholders on the financial conditions and business operations and creating a favorable over
all climates for conducting business.

The External Communication is of two types:

 Outward: this consists of all messages that go out of an organization. It builds public
image and public relation of an organization.
 Inward: which includes all communication that an organization receives form
outside. These are letters, telegrams, telephone etc.
1. Internal Communication: It is communication that takes place within an
organization, among manager, employees and others. It is complex and varied in
nature, as it comprises personnel matters, improving the morale of company
employees, giving orders to workers. It is further divided into :
Formal: It flows within the chain of command or task responsibility defined by the
organization. It is divided into:
 Vertical Communication
 Horizontal Communication

In a organization, vertical communication is communication between those who are on

different levels of authority within the company. Examples are: manager to employee,
general manager to managers, foreman to machine operator, head of the department to
cashiers, etc.

On the other hand, horizontal communication is communication between people on the same
level of authority. Like an organizational chart one communicates horizontally with people of
same 'authority' with similar 'power' or grade or pay band.

Informal: Grapevine is an informal channel of business communication. It is called so

because it stretches throughout the organization in all directions irrespective of the authority
levels. Man as we know is a social animal. Despite existence of formal channels in an
organization, the informal channels tend to develop when he interacts with other people in
organization. It exists more at lower levels of organization. Grapevine generally develops due
to various reasons. One of them is that when an organization is facing recession, the
employees sense uncertainty. Also, at times employees do not have self-confidence due to
which they form unions. Sometimes the managers show preferential treatment and favor
some employees giving a segregated feeling to other employees. Thus, when employees
sense a need to exchange their views, they go for grapevine network as they cannot use the
formal channel of communication in that case. Generally during breaks in cafeteria, the
subordinates talk about their superior’s attitude and behavior and exchange views with their
peers. They discuss rum ours about promotion and transfer of other employees. Thus,
grapevine spreads like fire and it is not easy to trace the cause of such communication at
times.
Examples of Grapevine Network of Communication

Suppose the profit amount of a company is known. Rumor is spread that this much profit is
there and on that basis bonus is declared. CEO may be in relation to the Production Manager.
They may have friendly relations with each other.

Advantages of Grapevine Communication

1. Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to

know some confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details
then to his closest friend who in turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily.
2. The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies.
Thus, the feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of
communication.
3. The grapevine creates a sense of unity among the employees who share and
discuss their views with each other. Thus, grapevine helps in developing group
cohesiveness.
4. The grapevine serves as an emotional supportive value.
5. The grapevine is a supplement in those cases where formal communication does
not work.

Disadvantages of Grapevine Communication

1. The grapevine carries partial information at times as it is more based on rumours.

Thus, it does not clearly depicts the complete state of affairs.
2. The grapevine is not trustworthy always as it does not follows official path of
communication and is spread more by gossips and unconfirmed report.
3. The productivity of employees may be hampered as they spend more time talking
rather than working.
4. The grapevine leads to making hostility against the executives.
5. The grapevine may hamper the goodwill of the organization as it may carry false
negative information about the high level people of the organization.
6. A smart manager should take care of all the disadvantages of the grapevine and try
to minimize them. At the same time, he should make best possible use of
advantages of grapevine.

CHAPTER 3

Listening
Lee Hopkins, an Australian expert on leadership, defines listening as "a process that consists
of five elements: hearing, attending, understanding, responding, and remembering." Listening
is more than just hearing words, and requires skill and practice for greater effectiveness.

Listening: the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken
and/or nonverbal messages.

– International Listening Association.

Effective listening is very often the foundation of strong relationships with others, at home,
socially, in education and in the workplace.

Importance

The importance of listening skill in business is enormous. The ability to speak well is a
necessary component to successful communication. The ability to listen is equally as
important. Good listening is an art.

 A good listener is generally interested in what the speaker has to convey.

 A good listener knows the art of getting much more than what the speaker is trying to
convey.

 A good listener knows how to prompt, prod, persuade.

 A good listener puts a speaker at ease helps articulate and facilitates the speaker to get
across the message in full and with clarity.

 A good listener should also not have any biases and should cultivate the right
temperament. A positive attitude helps in making listening effective.

 Listening promotes greater customer satisfaction. When a company can relate and
properly understand a customer's concern, it can remedy the issue. Some issues
require a tangible reply, such as the replacement of a defective product, while other
issues may require an apology.

 Listening creates a leadership structure where subordinates can trust and rely on their
leader's word. This is commonly seen when employees provide feedback and the
company responds with swift action. Employees feel respected and heard, which
results in increased loyalty to the company.

 Listening in business communications develops strong business to business

relationships. When businesses work together, their intention is to produce a win-win
situation where both business benefit from the communication. Listening skills enable
the partners to have a clear understanding of what each company expects or wants
from the relationship.
General Listening Types:

The two main types of listening - the foundations of all listening sub-types are:

 Discriminative Listening
 Comprehensive Listening

Discriminative Listening

Discriminative listening is first developed at a very early age – perhaps even before birth, in
the womb. This is the most basic form of listening and does not involve the understanding of
the meaning of words or phrases but merely the different sounds that are produced. In early
childhood, for example, a distinction is made between the sounds of the voices of the parents
– the voice of the father sounds different to that of the mother.

Discriminative listening develops through childhood and into adulthood. As we grow older
and develop and gain more life experience, our ability to distinguish between different sounds
is improved. Not only can we recognise different voices, but we also develop the ability to
recognise subtle differences in the way that sounds are made – this is fundamental to
ultimately understanding what these sounds mean. Differences include many subtleties,
recognising foreign languages, distinguishing between regional accents and clues to the
emotions and feelings of the speaker.

Being able to distinguish the subtleties of sound made by somebody who is happy or sad,
angry or stressed, for example, ultimately adds value to what is actually being said and, of
course, does aid comprehension. When discriminative listening skills are combined with
visual stimuli, the resulting ability to ‘listen’ to body-language enables us to begin to
understand the speaker more fully – for example recognising somebody is sad despite what
they are saying or how they are saying it.

Example

Imagine yourself surrounded by people who are speaking a language that you cannot
understand. Perhaps passing through an airport in another country. You can probably
distinguish between different voices, male and female, young and old and also gain some
understanding about what is going on around you based on the tone of voice, mannerisms and
body language of the other people. You are not understanding what is being said but using
discriminative listening to gain some level of comprehension of your surroundings.

Comprehensive Listening

Comprehensive listening involves understanding the message or messages that are being
communicated. Like discriminative listening, comprehensive listening is fundamental to all
listening sub-types.

In order to be able use comprehensive listening and therefore gain understanding the listener
first needs appropriate vocabulary and language skills. Using overly complicated language or
technical jargon, therefore, can be a barrier to comprehensive listening. Comprehensive
listening is further complicated by the fact that two different people listening to the same
thing may understand the message in two different ways. This problem can be multiplied in a
group setting, like a classroom or business meeting where numerous different meanings can
be derived from what has been said.

Comprehensive listening is complimented by sub-messages from non-verbal communication,

such as the tone of voice, gestures and other body language. These non-verbal signals can
greatly aid communication and comprehension but can also confuse and potentially lead to
misunderstanding. In many listening situations it is vital to seek clarification and use skills
such as reflection aid comprehension.

Specific Listening Types

Discriminative and comprehensive listening are prerequisites for specific listening types.
Listening types can be defined by the goal of the listening. The three main types most
common in interpersonal relationships are:

 Informational Listening (Listening to Learn)

 Critical Listening (Listening to Evaluate and Analyse)
 Therapeutic or Empathetic Listening (Listening to Understand Feeling and
Emotion)

In reality you may have more than one goal for listening at any given time – for example, you
may be listening to learn whilst also attempting to be empathetic.

Informational Listening

Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engaged in informational listening. This is
true in many day-to-day situations, in education and at work, when you listen to the news,
watch a documentary, when a friend tells you a recipe or when you are talked-through a
technical problem with a computer – there are many other examples of informational
listening too.

Although all types of listening are ‘active’ – they require concentration and a conscious effort
to understand. Informational listening is less active than many of the other types of listening.
When we’re listening to learn or be instructed we are taking in new information and facts, we
are not criticising or analysing. Informational listening, especially in formal settings like in
work meetings or while in education, is often accompanied by note taking – a way of
recording key information so that it can be reviewed later.

Critical Listening

We can be said to be engaged in critical listening when the goal is to evaluate or scrutinise
what is being said. Critical listening is a much more active behaviour than informational
listening and usually involves some sort of problem solving or decision making. Critical
listening is akin to critical reading; both involve analysis of the information being received
and alignment with what we already know or believe. Whereas informational listening may
be mostly concerned with receiving facts and/or new information - critical listening is about
analysing opinion and making a judgement.
When the word ‘critical’ is used to describe listening, reading or thinking it does not
necessarily mean that you are claiming that the information you are listening to is somehow
faulty or flawed. Rather, critical listening means engaging in what you are listening to by
asking yourself questions such as, ‘what is the speaker trying to say?’ or ‘what is the main
argument being presented?’, ‘how does what I’m hearing differ from my beliefs, knowledge
or opinion?’. Critical listening is, therefore, fundamental to true learning

Many day-to-day decisions that we make are based on some form of ‘critical’ analysis,
whether it be critical listening, reading or thought. Our opinions, values and beliefs are based
on our ability to process information and formulate our own feelings about the world around
us as well as weigh up the pros and cons to make an informed decision.

It is often important, when listening critically, to have an open-mind and not be biased by
stereotypes or preconceived ideas. By doing this you will become a better listener and
broaden your knowledge and perception of other people and your relationships.

Therapeutic or Empathic Listening

Empathic listening involves attempting to understand the feelings and emotions of the
speaker – to put yourself into the speaker’s shoes and share their thoughts Empathy is a way
of deeply connecting with another person and therapeutic or empathic listening can be
particularly challenging. Empathy is not the same as sympathy, it involves more than being
compassionate or feeling sorry for somebody else – it involves a deeper connection – a
realisation and understanding of another person’s point of view.

Counsellors, therapists and some other professionals use therapeutic or empathic listening to
understand and ultimately help their clients. This type of listening does not involve making
judgements or offering advice but gently encouraging the speaker to explain and elaborate on
their feelings and emotions. Skills such as clarification and reflection are often used to help
avoid misunderstandings

We are all capable of empathic listening and may practise it with friends, family and
colleagues. Showing empathy is a desirable trait in many interpersonal relationships – you
may well feel more comfortable talking about your own feelings and emotions with a
particular person. They are likely to be better at listening empathetically to you than others,
this is often based on similar perspectives, experiences, beliefs and values – a good friend,
your spouse, a parent or sibling for example.

Other Listening Types

Although usually less important or useful in interpersonal relationships there are other types
of listening that we engage in.

Appreciative Listening

Appreciative listening is listening for enjoyment. A good example is listening to music,

especially as a way to relax
Rapport Listening

When trying to build rapport with others we can engage in a type of listening that encourages
the other person to trust and like us. A salesman, for example, may make an effort to listen
carefully to what you are saying as a way to promote trust and potentially make a sale. This
type of listening is common in situations of negotiation.

Selective Listening

This is a more negative type of listening, it implies that the listener is somehow biased to
what they are hearing. Bias can be based on preconceived ideas or emotionally difficult
communications. Selective listening is a sign of failing communication – you cannot hope to
understand if you have filtered out some of the message and may reinforce or strengthen your
bias for future communications.

Barriers to Listening and overcoming them

1. Distractions

We get distracted by what is going on outside (our surroundings) and inside ourselves.

What’s outside that distracts us while trying to listen to someone? Noises, temperature, or
what other people are saying or doing.

What’s inside that distracts us from listening to someone? Thoughts, thoughts and more
thoughts. Thoughts as memories, judgments, opinions, expectations, worries, fears. Even
thoughts about thoughts.

Both, internal and external distractions can be overcome by directing your attention to the
speaker.

2. Attachment to personal beliefs and values

Our personal beliefs and values are dear to us; they're an integral part of our point of view.
We tend to find facts and evidence that support our views and we dismiss anything that
weakens them.

Over time we find that we’ve developed a strong bond to our point of view, we may be proud
of our views and defend them if need be. Sometimes we may get into arguments with people
that have a different point of view. At best, we may judge them for not knowing better; at
worst, we may try to persuade them to view things our way.

Having a strong bond to our point of view is among the toughest barriers to effective
listening. When people are expressing a different point of view, we may be thinking how
wrong they are, or what we’ll say to convince them of our truth, or we may get defensive
about them trying to convince us of their truth.
Overcoming this barrier to listening is straightforward: Reduce or eliminate any strong
attachments to your point of view; consider your point of view just one view among many.
Be curious about others’ point of views and the reasons why they hold them. Replace
attachment with curiosity, your listening will improve dramatically.

3. Misinterpretations

When we add an interpretation to what someone's saying or doing, we introduce possible

errors in communication. When the message is clear and obvious, our interpretation may be
correct, and we feel justified in continue to interpret what others say. We may even
congratulate ourselves in being so good at guessing what others’ intentions are behind the
words they say.

Case in point: An executive I know told me recently that she knew she was "invisible" to the
CEO. I asked her why. She said: “because when I ran into him at the hallway, he didn’t say hi
to me.” then she added: "and I'm very good at reading people". Perhaps the CEO was deep in
thought that day, or mad at her. Or perhaps he tends to be aloof. Or perhaps she is invisible to
him.

We don’t know what's the real reason for the CEO not greeting the executive on that day,
unless we ask him. Even then we may not get the complete truth, but at least we will be
closer to it.

To overcome this barrier to listening, get in the habit of asking for clarification on matters
that are important to you. We can interpret on everyday matters, but it’s best to make sure we
get the right interpretation on more important matters.

Overcoming barriers to effective listening

• When you find yourself getting distracted with either internal or external noise, pay
attention by being mindful.

• When you discover any attachment to your point of view, ease up on the attachment or
completely let go of it. Become curious about other points of view.

• When a speaker says something unclear, avoid misinterpretations by asking the speaker
what he meant.

Developing Listening Skills

Listening carefully when someone speaks to you can help you communicate more effectively.
Listening requires concentration, which can be developed into a habit with effort and
practice. Because effective listening can improve communication, proficient listening is an
important skill for anyone in the small business arena. When you work to improve active
listening skills in business situations, you can enhance your communication with clients,
peers and employees.
Step 1: Clear your mind of distractions when you need to listen actively. Make a conscious
effort to focus only on listening to the person speaking to you.

Step 2: Sit or stand so you face the speaker. Make your body language communicate your
interest to the speaker. Establish eye contact to communicate your active listening.

Step 3: Remove distractions as much as possible. Eliminate background activity and noise to
enable you to concentrate on listening. Put electronic devices away and silence music if you
can.

Step 4: Encourage the speaker with nods and affirmations, as appropriate, so the speaker
knows you are listening.

Step 5: Stay focused on listening without turning your mind to your response. If you are
formulating a response in your mind, you stop listening actively and you may miss important
information. Instead, continue to listen while the speaker speaks. When the speaker finishes,
take the time you need to formulate your response.

Step 6: Notice nonverbal communication from the speaker. You can gain clues about how a
speaker feels by observing body language. Wringing hands or flailing arms can indicate high
emotion or stress.

Step 7: Resist the urge to interrupt. When the speaker finishes or pauses, ask questions or
make comments, if appropriate. Look for something to validate about what you just heard
because this can help the speaker know that you were actively listening. Another response to
active listening may be to reflect or paraphrase what you think you heard to ensure that you
understand.

Step 8: Continue listening as the speaker responds to your questions or comments. A

conversation with an employee might involve asking questions to get additional information.
As you ask careful questions, you gain understanding, which can enable you to offer advice,
if appropriate. A conversation with an unhappy customer may include paraphrasing what you
think you understand so you can help solve a problem. When you paraphrase what the
customer stated, you help the customer feel validated and understood. This often diffuses a
situation.

CHAPTER 4

Johari Window
The Johari Window is a communication model that is used to improve understanding
between individuals. The word "Johari" is taken from the names of Joseph Luft and Harry
Ingham, who developed the model in 1955.

There are two key ideas behind the tool:

1. That you can build trust with others by disclosing information about yourself.

2. That, with the help of feedback from others, you can learn about yourself and come to
terms with personal issues.

By explaining the idea of the Johari Window, you can help team members to understand the
value of self-disclosure, and you can encourage them to give, and accept, constructive
feedback.

Done sensitively, this can help people build better, more trusting relationships with one
another, solve issues, and work more effectively as a team.

Johari Window Model

The four Johari Window perspectives are called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'. Each of
these regions contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc - known
about the person, in terms of whether the information is known or unknown by the person,
and whether the information is known or unknown by others in the group.
This is the standard representation of the Johari Window model, showing each
quadrant the same size. The Johari Window's four regions, (areas, quadrants, or
perspectives) are as follows, showing the quadrant numbers and commonly used names:

johari quadrant 1 - 'open self/area' or 'free area' or 'public area', or 'arena'

Johari region 1 is also known as the 'area of free activity'. This is the information about the
person - behaviour, attitude, feelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc -
known by the person ('the self') and known by the group ('others').

The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' for every person,
because when we work in this area with others we are at our most effective and
productive, and the group is at its most productive too. The open free area, or 'the
arena', can be seen as the space where good communications and cooperation occur,
free from distractions, mistrust, confusion, conflict and misunderstanding.

Established team members logically tend to have larger open areas than new team members.
New team members start with relatively small open areas because relatively little knowledge
about the new team member is shared. The size of the open area can be expanded
horizontally into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other
group members. This process is known as 'feedback solicitation'. Also, other group members
can help a team member expand their open area by offering feedback, sensitively of course.
The size of the open area can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden or
avoided space by the person's disclosure of information, feelings, etc about him/herself to the
group and group members. Also, group members can help a person expand their open area
into the hidden area by asking the person about him/herself. Managers and team leaders can
play an important role in facilitating feedback and disclosure among group members, and in
directly giving feedback to individuals about their own blind areas. Leaders also have a big
responsibility to promote a culture and expectation for open, honest, positive, helpful,
constructive, sensitive communications, and the sharing of knowledge throughout their
organization. Top performing groups, departments, companies and organizations always tend
to have a culture of open positive communication, so encouraging the positive development
of the 'open area' or 'open self' for everyone is a simple yet fundamental aspect of effective
leadership.

johari quadrant 2 - 'blind self' or 'blind area' or 'blindspot'

Johari region 2 is what is known about a person by others in the group, but is unknown by
the person him/herself. By seeking or soliciting feedback from others, the aim should be to
reduce this area and thereby to increase the open area, ie, to increase self-awareness. This
blind area is not an effective or productive space for individuals or groups. This blind area
could also be referred to as ignorance about oneself, or issues in which one is deluded. A
blind area could also include issues that others are deliberately withholding from a person.
We all know how difficult it is to work well when kept in the dark. No-one works well when
subject to 'mushroom management'. People who are 'thick-skinned' tend to have a large 'blind
area'.

Group members and managers can take some responsibility for helping an individual to
reduce their blind area - in turn increasing the open area - by giving sensitive feedback and
encouraging disclosure. Managers should promote a climate of non-judgemental feedback,
and group response to individual disclosure, which reduces fear and therefore encourages
both processes to happen. The extent to which an individual seeks feedback, and the issues on
which feedback is sought, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are
more resilient than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset.

johari quadrant 3 - 'hidden self' or 'hidden area' or 'avoided self/area' or 'facade'

Johari region 3 is what is known to ourselves but kept hidden from, and therefore unknown,
to others. This hidden or avoided self represents information, feelings, etc, anything that a
person knows about him/self, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden from others. The
hidden area could also include sensitivities, fears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions,
secrets - anything that a person knows but does not reveal, for whatever reason. It's natural
for very personal and private information and feelings to remain hidden, indeed, certain
information, feelings and experiences have no bearing on work, and so can and should remain
hidden. However, typically, a lot of hidden information is not very personal, it is work- or
performance-related, and so is better positioned in the open area.

Relevant hidden information and feelings, etc, should be moved into the open area through
the process of 'disclosure'. The aim should be to disclose and expose relevant information and
feelings - hence the Johari Window terminology 'self-disclosure' and 'exposure process',
thereby increasing the open area. By telling others how we feel and other information about
ourselves we reduce the hidden area, and increase the open area, which enables better
understanding, cooperation, trust, team-working effectiveness and productivity. Reducing
hidden areas also reduces the potential for confusion, misunderstanding, poor
communication, etc, which all distract from and undermine team effectiveness.

Organizational culture and working atmosphere have a major influence on group members'
preparedness to disclose their hidden selves. Most people fear judgement or vulnerability and
therefore hold back hidden information and feelings, etc, that if moved into the open area, ie
known by the group as well, would enhance mutual understanding, and thereby improve
group awareness, enabling better individual performance and group effectiveness.

The extent to which an individual discloses personal feelings and information, and the issues
which are disclosed, and to whom, must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some
people are more keen and able than others to disclose. People should disclose at a pace and
depth that they find personally comfortable. As with feedback, some people are more resilient
than others - care needs to be taken to avoid causing emotional upset.

johari quadrant 4 - 'unknown self' or 'area of unknown activity' or 'unknown area'

Johari region 4 contains information, feelings, latent abilities, aptitudes, experiences etc, that
are unknown to the person him/herself and unknown to others in the group. These unknown
issues take a variety of forms: they can be feelings, behaviours, attitudes, capabilities,
aptitudes, which can be quite close to the surface, and which can be positive and useful, or
they can be deeper aspects of a person's personality, influencing his/her behaviour to various
degrees. Large unknown areas would typically be expected in younger people, and people
who lack experience or self-belief.

Examples of unknown factors are as follows, and the first example is particularly relevant
and common, especially in typical organizations and teams:
  an ability that is under-estimated or un-tried through lack of opportunity,
encouragement, confidence or training
 a natural ability or aptitude that a person doesn't realise they possess
 a fear or aversion that a person does not know they have
 an unknown illness
 repressed or subconscious feelings
 conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood

The processes by which this information and knowledge can be uncovered are various, and
can be prompted through self-discovery or observation by others, or in certain situations
through collective or mutual discovery, of the sort of discovery experienced on outward
bound courses or other deep or intensive group work. Counselling can also uncover unknown
issues, but this would then be known to the person and by one other, rather than by a group.

Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area depends
on who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is then given as
feedback, or disclosed.

Again as with disclosure and soliciting feedback, the process of self discovery is a sensitive
one. The extent and depth to which an individual is able to seek out discover their unknown
feelings must always be at the individual's own discretion. Some people are more keen and
able than others to do this.

Uncovering 'hidden talents' - that is unknown aptitudes and skills, not to be confused with
developing the Johari 'hidden area' - is another aspect of developing the unknown area, and is
not so sensitive as unknown feelings. Providing people with the opportunity to try new
things, with no great pressure to succeed, is often a useful way to discover unknown abilities,
and thereby reduce the unknown area.

Managers and leaders can help by creating an environment that encourages self-discovery,
and to promote the processes of self discovery, constructive observation and feedback among
team members. It is a widely accepted industrial fact that the majority of staff in any
organization are at any time working well within their potential. Creating a culture, climate
and expectation for self-discovery helps people to fulfil more of their potential and thereby to
achieve more, and to contribute more to organizational performance.

A note of caution about Johari region 4: The unknown area could also include repressed or
subconscious feelings rooted in formative events and traumatic past experiences, which can
stay unknown for a lifetime. In a work or organizational context the Johari Window should
not be used to address issues of a clinical nature.

The explaination of above four regions in short ---

1. Open/self-area or arena – Here the information about the person his attitudes, behaviour,
emotions, feelings, skills and views will be known by the person as well as by others. This is
mainly the area where all the communications occur and the larger the arena becomes the
more effectual and dynamic the relationship will be. ‘Feedback solicitation’ is a process
which occurs by understanding and listening to the feedback from another person. Through
this way the open area can be increased horizontally decreasing the blind spot. The size of the
arena can also be increased downwards and thus by reducing the hidden and unknown areas
through revealing one’s feelings to other person.

2. Blind self or blind spot – Information about yourselves that others know in a group but
you will be unaware of it. Others may interpret yourselves differently than you expect. The
blind spot is reduced for an efficient communication through seeking feedback from others.

3. Hidden area or façade – Information that is known to you but will be kept unknown from
others. This can be any personal information which you feel reluctant to reveal. This includes
feelings, past experiences, fears, secrets etc. we keep some of our feelings and information as
private as it affects the relationships and thus the hidden area must be reduced by moving the
information to the open areas.

4. Unknown area – The Information which are unaware to yourselves as well as others. This
includes the information, feelings, capabilities, talents etc. This can be due to traumatic past
experiences or events which can be unknown for a lifetime. The person will be unaware till
he discovers his hidden qualities and capabilities or through observation of others. Open
communication is also an effective way to decrease the unknown area and thus to
communicate effectively.

The four extremes of Johari Window

The Ideal Window

The Ideal Window in the first example reflects a high degree of trust in the group or in any
relationship significant to the person. If you are in this window, the size of your Arena
increases because of your increased trust level in the group. The norms developed by your
group for giving and receiving feedback facilitate this kind of exchange. The large Arena
suggests that much of your behavior is open to your group members. Because of your
openness, other group members do not need to interpret (or misinterpret) or project more
personal meanings into your behavior. They understand your actions and words, and they
know you are open to soliciting and giving feedback.

You do not need a large Arena with everyone. Your casual acquaintances may see this kind
of openness as threatening or inappropriate because of the relationship you have with them.
The more open you are in dealing with others, the fewer games you play in relationships.

The Large Facade Window - The Interviewer

Window number two suggests a person who characteristically participates by asking

questions but not giving information or feedback. If you are in this window, the size of your
Facade relates to the amount of information you provide to others. You may respond to the
group norm to maintain a reasonable level of participation by asking for information. You
intervene by asking questions such as: "What do you think about this?" "How would you
have acted if you were in my shoes?" "How do you feel about what I just said?" "What is
your opinion of the group?" You want to know where other people stand before you commit
yourself. You do not commit yourself to the group, making it difficult for them to know
where you stand on issues. At some point in your group's history, other members may have
confronted you with a statement similar to this one: "Hey, you are always asking me how I
feel about what's going on, but you never tell me how you feel." This style, characterized as
the Interviewer, may eventually evoke reactions of irritation, distrust, and withholding.

The Blind Spot Window - Bull-in-the-China Shop

Window number three suggests a person who characteristically participates primarily by

giving feedback but soliciting very little. If you are in this window, you tell the group what
you think of them, how you feel about what is going on in the group, and where you stand on
group issues. You may lash out at group members or criticize the group as a whole and view
your actions as being open and above board. For some reason, you either appear to be
insensitive to the feedback you get or do not hear what group members tell you. Either you
may be a poor listener or you may respond to feedback in such a way that group members are
reluctant to continue to give you feedback. Members get angry, cry, threaten to leave. As a
consequence, you do not know how you are coming across to other people or what impact
you have on others. Because you do not correct your actions when you receive group
feedback, you appear out of touch, evasive, or distorted. You continue to behave ineffectively
because of your one-way communication (from you to others). Since you are insensitive to
the group’s steering function, you do not know what behaviors to change.

The Unknown Window - The Turtle

The fourth window suggests a person who characteristically participates by observing. If you
are in this window, you do not know much about yourself, nor does the group know much
about you. You may be the silent member in the group who neither gives nor asks for
feedback. The "soliciting" and "giving feedback" arrows are very short. Group members find
it difficult to know where you stand in the group or where they stand with you. You are the
mystery person. You appear to have a shell around you, insulating you from other group
members. If group members confront you about your lack of participation, you may respond
with, "I learn more by listening." While you may find it painful to participate actively, you
will learn considerably more than you would if you choose to participate passively. Your
shell keeps people from getting in and you from getting out. You will expend a considerable
amount of energy maintaining a closed system because of the pressure which group norms
exert on your behavior.

The goal of soliciting feedback and self-disclosure or giving feedback is to move information
from the Blind Spot and the Facade into the Arena, where everyone accesses it. The process
of giving and receiving feedback moves new information from the Unknown into the Arena.
You have an "Aha" experience when you suddenly perceive a relationship between a here-
and-now transaction in the group and a previous event. You gain insight and inspiration from
these experiences.

It takes practice to give nonthreatening feedback. You must develop sensitivity to other
people's needs and be able to put yourself in another person's shoes. Be accepting of yourself
and of others to make your feedback more valuable to others.
*

Thus Johari Window is a simple and useful tool for understanding and training
selfawareness, personal development, improving communications, interpersonal
relationships, group dynamics, team development and intergroup relationships.

Transactional Analysis

Transactional Analysis is a theory developed by Dr. Eric Berne in the 1950s. Originally
trained in psychoanalysis, Berne wanted a theory which could be understood and available to
everyone and began to develop what came to be called Transactional Analysis (TA).
Transactional Analysis is a social psychology and a method to improve communication. The
theory outlines how we have developed and treat ourselves, how we relate and communicate
with others, and offers suggestions and interventions which will enable us to change and
grow. Transactional Analysis has the philosophy that:

 people can change

 we all have a right to be in the world and be accepted

While there were many theories purporting to explain human behavior before Eric Berne, the
most frequently cited and known is the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud emerged in the early
20th century with his theories about personality. Freud believed that personality had three
components, all of which must work together to produce our complex behaviors. These three
components or aspects were the Id, Ego, and the Superego. It was Freud’s belief that these
three components needed to be well-balanced to produce reasonable mental health and
stability in an individual. According to Freud, the Id functions in the irrational and emotional
part of the mind, the Ego functions as the rational part of the mind, and the Superego can be
thought of as the moral part of the mind, a manifestation of societal or parental values.

But Freud’s greatest contribution (and the one that influenced Berne) was the fact that the
human personality is multi-faceted. Regardless of the classification or name given to a
particular area of personality (id, superego, etc.), each individual possesses factions that
frequently collide with each other. And it is these collisions and interactions between these
personality factions that manifest themselves as an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors. Thus, under Freud’s theories, an individual’s behavior can be understood by
analyzing and understanding his/her three factions. But later in this paper, Dr. Berne believes
that Freud’s proposed structures are “concepts… [and not] phenomenological realities”

Another scientist whose contributions impacted Dr. Berne in his development of

Transactional Analysis is Dr. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon from McGill University in
Montreal. Penfield’s experiments focused on the application of electrical currents to specific
regions of the brain. Penfield discovered that, when applying current to the temporal lobe of
live and alert patients, he would stimulate meaningful memories. In addition, not only were
vivid pictures of that person’s past revealed, but also the feelings and emotions associated
with that event were uncovered .These patients would recite these events, even though in
many cases they were events that the patients were unable to recollect on their own.

Penfield carried out these and similar experiments for many years. Some of the key
conclusions that he reached that went on to influence Berne in his development of
Transactional Analysis include:

 The human brain acts in many ways like a camcorder, vividly recording events. While
that event may not necessarily be able to be consciously retrieved by the owner, the
event always exists in the brain.

 Both the event and the feelings experienced during that event are stored in the brain. The
event and the feelings are locked together, and neither one can be recalled without the
other.

 When an individual replays his or her experiences, he or she can replay them in such a
vivid form that the individual experiences again the same emotions he or she felt during
the actual experience.

 Individuals are able to exist in two states simultaneously. Individuals replaying certain
events are able to experience the emotions associated with those events, but they are also
able to objectively talk about the events at the same time.
These contributions by Penfield and Freud, as well as many others, were used by Berne as he
developed his theories on Transactional Analysis and games.

Transactions Defined

“The unit of social intercourse is called a transaction. If two or more people encounter each
other… sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of
acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called transactional stimulus. Another
person will then say or do something which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is
called the transactional response.“

With this definition, Dr. Berne defined the basic unit of analysis. At its simplest level,
Transactional Analysis is the method for studying interactions between individuals. By
identifying and standardizing upon a single unit, development and promotion of this theory
was easily facilitated. Psychotherapists were able to read about Berne’s theories and test them
out in their own practices.

This approach was profoundly different than that of Freud. While Freud and most other
psychotherapists took the rather simplistic approach of asking the patient about themselves,
Berne took an alternate approach to therapy. Berne felt that a therapist could learn what the
problem was by simply observing what was communicated (words, body language, facial
expressions) in a transaction. So instead of directly asking the patient questions, Berne would
frequently observe the patient in a group setting, noting all of the transactions that occurred
between the patient and other individuals.

Berne’s Three Ego States

In addition to the analysis of the interactions between individuals, Transactional Analysis

also involves the identification of the ego states behind each and every transaction. Berne
defined an ego state as “a consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a
corresponding consistent pattern of behavior.”

As a practicing psychiatrist in Carmel, California in the early 1950s, Berne treated hundreds
of patients. During the course of their treatment, he consistently noted that his patients, and
indeed all people, could and would change over the course of a conversation. The changes
would not necessarily be verbal – the changes could involve facial expressions, body
language, body temperature, and many other non-verbal cues.

Berne ultimately defined the three ego states as: Parent, Adult, and Child. It should be
carefully noted that the descriptions of these ego states do NOT necessarily correspond to
their common definitions as used the English language.

The following are detailed descriptions of the three ego states:

Parent – The parent represents a massive collection of recordings in the brain of external
events experienced or perceived in approximately the first five years of life. Since the
majority of the external events experienced by a child are actions of the parent, the ego state
was appropriately called Parent. Note that events perceived by the child from individuals that
are NOT parents (but who are often in parent-like roles) are also recorded in the Parent.
When Transactional Analysts refer to the Parent ego state (as opposed to a biological or
stepparent), it is capitalized. The same goes for the other two states (Adult and Child).

Examples of recordings in the Parent include:

 “Never talk to strangers”

 “Always chew with your mouth closed”

 “Look both ways before you cross the street”

While recording these events, the young child has no way to filter the data; the events are
recorded without question and without analysis. One can consider that these events are
imposed on the child.

Child – In contrast to the Parent, the Child represents the recordings in the brain of internal
events associated with external events the child perceives. Stated another way, stored in the
Child are the emotions or feelings which accompanied external events. Like the Parent,
recordings in the Child occur from childbirth all the way up to the age of approximately 5
years old.

Examples of recordings in the Child include:

 “When I saw the monster’s face, I felt really scared”

 “The clown at the birthday party was really funny!

Adult – The Adult is the last ego state. Close to one year of age, a child begins to exhibit
gross motor activity. The child learns that he or she can control a cup from which to drink,
that he or she can grab a toy. In social settings, the child can play peek-a-boo.

This is the beginning of the Adult in the small child. Adult data grows out of the child’s
ability to see what is different than what he or she observed (Parent) or felt (Child). In other
words, the Adult allows the young person to evaluate and validate Child and Parental data.
Berne describes the Adult as being “principally concerned with transforming stimuli into
pieces of information, and processing and filing that information on the basis of previous
experience” Stated another way, Harris describes the Adult as “a data-processing computer,
which grinds out decisions after computing the information from three sources: the Parent,
the Child, and the data which the adult has gathered and is gathering”7

One of the key functions of the Adult is to validate data in the parent

In this example, Sally’s Adult reached the conclusion that data in her Parent was valid. Her
Parent had been taught “always turn pot handles into the stove, otherwise you could get
burned.” And with her analysis of her brother’s experience, her Adult concluded that this was
indeed correct.

In an attempt to explain Transactional Analysis to a more mainstream audience, Dr. Thomas

Harris developed the following summary.

Parent – taught concept

Child – felt concept
Adult – learned concept

Analyzing Transactions

When two people communicate, one person initiates a transaction with the transactional
stimulus. The person at whom the stimulus is directed will respond with the transactional
response. Simple Transactional Analysis involves identifying which ego state directed the
stimulus and which ego state in the other person executed the response.

According to Dr. Berne, the simplest transactions are between Adults ego states. For
example, a surgeon will survey the patient, and based upon the data before him/her, his/her
Adult decides that the scalpel is the next instrument required. The surgeon’s Adult holds out
his/her hand, providing the transactional stimulus to the nurse. The nurse’s Adult looks at the
hand, and based upon previous experiences, concludes that the scalpel is needed. The nurse
then places the scalpel in the surgeon’s hand.

But not all transactions proceed in this manner. Some transactions involve ego states other
than the Adult.
 Structural Diagram
This leads us to Parent – Child transactions, which are almost as simple as Adult-Adult
transactions.For example “The fevered child asks for a glass of water, and the nurturing
mother brings it.” In this, the Child of a small child directs an inquiry to the Parent of his/her
mother. The Parent of the mother acknowledges this stimuli, and then gives the water to the
child. In this example, the small child’s request is the stimuli, and the parent providing the
water is the response. This is nearly as simple as an Adult-Adult transaction.

One of the tools used by a Transactional Analysis practitioner is a structural diagram, as

represented on the left. A structural diagram represents the complete personality of any
individual. It includes the Parent, Adult, and Child ego states, all separate and distinct from
each other

Child interacting with a Parent

Transactional Analysts will then construct a diagram showing the ego states involved in a
particular transaction. The transaction to the right shows a Parent – Child transaction, with
the Child ego state providing the transactional stimulus, and the Adult responding with the
transactional response.

This transaction matches the Parent – Child example listed above, with the fevered child
asking his/her mother for a glass of water.

So far, the two transactions described can be considered complementary transactions. In a

complementary transaction, the response must go back from the receiving ego state to the
sending ego state. For example, a person may initiate a transaction directed towards one ego
state of the respondent. The respondent’s ego state detects the stimuli, and then that particular
ego state (meaning the ego state to which the stimuli was directed) produces a response.
According to Dr. Berne, these transactions are healthy and represent normal human
interactions.Communication will proceed as long as transactions are complementary.

Crossed Transaction
However, not all transactions between humans are healthy or normal. In those cases, the
transaction is classified as a crossed transaction. In a crossed transaction, an ego state
different than the ego state which received the stimuli is the one that responds. The diagram
to the right shows a typical crossed transaction. An example is as follows:

Agent’s Adult: “Do you know where my cuff links are?” (note that this stimuli is directed at
the Respondents Adult).

Respondent’s Child: “You always blame me for everything!”10

This is one the classic crossed transactions that occurs in marriage. Instead of the
Respondent’s Adult responding with “I think they’re on the desk”, it is the Respondent’s
Child that responds back.
It is important to note that when analyzing transactions, one must look beyond what is being
said. According to Dr. Berne, one must look at how the words are being delivered (accents on
particular words, changes in tone, volume, etc.) as the non-verbal signs accompanying those
words (body language, facial expressions, etc.). Transactional Analysts will pay attention to
all of these cues when analyzing a transaction and identifying which ego states are involved.

The importance of these non-verbal cues can be understood by considering the work of Dr.
Albert Mehrabian. Berne passed away in 1970, before Mehrabian’s seminal work was
published. But Mehrabian’s work quantitatively proved the importance of non-verbal cues in
communication. According to Dr. Mehrabian, when an individual is speaking, the listener
focuses on the following three types of communication:

 Actual Words – 7%

 The Way words are delivered (tone, accents on certain words, etc.) – 38%

 Facial expressions – 55%

In the above statistics, the percentage figure indicates the degree of importance the listener
places on that type of communication. One can see that facial expressions play a far more
important role in communication (and thus, Transactional Analysis) than the actual words
exchanged.

We each have internal models of parents, children and also adults, and we play these roles
with one another in our relationships. We even do it with ourselves, in our internal
conversations.

Conflict

Complementary transactions occur when both people are at the same level (Parent talking to
Parent, etc.). Here, both are often thinking in the same way and communication is easier.
Problems usually occur in Crossed transactions, where each is talking to a different level.

The ideal line of communication is the mature and rational Adult-Adult relationship.

Watch out for crossed wires. This is where conflict arises. When it happens, first go to the
state that the other person is in to talk at the same level.

For rational conversation, move yourself and the other person to the Adult level.
 CHAPTER 5

Presentations

Most of us do not feel comfortable speaking before others. With effort, we can improve our
speaking. We can do this by learning what good speaking techniques are and then putting
those techniques into practice.

Selection of the topic - The first step in making formal speeches is the selection of the topic
of our presentation. The selection of the topic is guided by three factors –

 Your background and knowledge.

 Interests of your audience.
 Occasion of the speech.

A speech about Japanese management practices be appropriate for the members of the
executives’ club , but not for the fashion designers.

Preparation of the Presentation -

After selection of the topic, next step is to gather information we need for our speech. This
step may involve conducting research in library or company files , gathering information
online, or consulting people around us, or searching through our mind for experiences or
ideas. When we have the information , we need to organize the speech. The order suggested
is Introduction, Body and Conclusion.

Introduction – The introduction of a speech has the goal to prepare the listeners to receive the
message and additional goal of arousing interest. Unless we arouse interest at the beginning,
our presentation is likely to fail. The techniques of arousing interest are – Storytelling ,
Humor, Quotations, Asking Questions, Startling statement which present facts and ideas that
awaken the mind. Following the attention gaining opening, it is appropriate to tell our
audience the subject (theme) of our speech.
Body – The body of the speech should be divided into comparable parts. The transition from
one part to the other should be smoothly done.

Conclusion – The speech should end by drawing a conclusion. These three elements should
be in our closing -- 1) a restatement of the subject. 2) a summary of the key points developed
in the presentation and 3) a statement of the conclusion ( or main message).

Determination of the Presentation method – After the preparation of the speech we need to
decide on our method of presentation. Whether to present the speech extemporaneously, to
memorize it or to read it.

Presenting Extemporaneously – This the most popular and effective method. In this method ,
we first thoroughly prepare the speech, prepare notes, rehearse well and then present the
speech from notes. Make no attempt to memorize.

Memorizing – The most difficult method is memorizing. It is difficult to memorize long

succession of words. We memorize words rather than meanings. Thus when we make the
speech, if we miss a word or two we become confused and so does our speech. We even may
become panic-stricken.

Reading – Most of us tend to read aloud in a dull monotone. We also miss punctuation marks,
fumble over words, lose our place and so on. To improve on this we can practice with a
recorder and listen to ourself and make improvements accordingly.

Consideration Of Personal Aspects – In oral presentations the speaker is real part of the
presentation. Thus we should carefully evaluate our personal effect on our message. We
should do whatever we can to detect and overcome our shortcomings and to sharpen our
strengths.

Confidence – A primary characteristic of effective oral reporting is confidence. Confidence in

self and the confidence of our audience in us. To gain confidence prepare presentation
diligently and practice it thoroughly. Another confidence-building technique is an appropriate
physical appearance. In addition to this, speaker should talk in strong clear tone.

Sincerity – Listeners quickly detect insincerity. And if they detect , they give little weight to
what speaker says. Thus speaker should be sincere so that the audience has confidence in the
speaker.

Thoroughness – Thorough coverage gives the impression that time and care have taken, and
this tends to make the presentation believable. But giving too much information can put
listeners in sea of information. Thus speaker should keep a balance between what his listeners
need to know and what should be excluded to make presentation meaningful and effective.

Friendliness - A speaker who projects an image of friendliness has a significant advantage in

communicating. People simply like friendly people. Friendliness can be developed by little
self analysis and mirror watching while practicing speeches.

The other characteristics required for a good speaker are – interest, enthusiasm, originality
and flexibility.
Audience Analysis –

Preliminary Analysis – Personal characteristics of our audience like age, gender, education,
experience, knowledge of subject matter should be analysed by the speaker before preparing
the speech. And thus the words, illustrations and level of information to them should be given
accordingly.

Analysis during presentation – The eyes and ears of the speaker receives feedback from the
audience. Facial expressions like smiles, blank stares and movements give indication of
whether they understand, agree with or accept it. Thus we can adjust our presentation to
improve the communication result.

Appearance and Physical Actions –

The Communication Environment – The audience sees the physical things that surround the
speaker like the stage, lighting, background and so on. These things tend to make a general
impression. Outside noises tend to distract listeners attention. Thus communication
environment should contribute to our message, not detract from it.

Personal Appearance – Personal appearance is a part of the message our audience receives.
Thus the speaker should dress in a manner appropriate for the audience and the occasion. We
should use facial expressions and physical expressions in the following manner :

A) Posture – The audience who cannot detect facial expressions and eye movements can
see the general form of the body. We should keep our body erect without appearing
stiff and comfortable without appearing limp.
B) Walking – The audience forms an impression from the way we walk before them. A
strong, sure walk to the speakers’ position conveys an impression of confidence.
Hesitant, awkward steps convey the opposite impression. Too much walking distracts
audiences’ attention.
C) Facial Expression – The audience like speakers who smile and keep good eye contact.
Eyes are considered to be “ mirrors of the soul” and provide listeners about the
speakers’ sincerity, goodwill, and flexibility.
D) Gestures

Use of Voice – Good voice is a requirement of good speaking. Like physical movements, the
voice should not hinder the listeners’ concentration on the message. The create voice
effectiveness, these methods should be used :

Pitch variation – The speakers who speak in monotones do not hold the interest of their
listeners for long. Pitch variation can be developed by practice since most voices are capable
of wide variations in pitch.

Variation in speaking speed - As a general rule, we should present the easy parts of our
speech at a faster rate and the hard parts and the parts we want to emphasize at a slower rate.
A slow presentation of easy information is irritating; hard information presented fast may be
difficult to understand. Incorrect use of pauses should be avoided. Frequent pauses for no
reason are irritating. Pauses become more irritating when the speaker fills them with
distracting words like uh, you know and OK.
Volume of voice – The presentation should be loud enough to be heard by everyone. The
volume will vary in accordance to the number of listeners. Variation in volume should be
used to make our presentation interesting and also for emphasizing important points.

One of the best ways of improving our presentation skills is through watching others. We
should watch our peers, instructors, television personnel, professional speakers and anyone
else who gives us an opportunity. Analyze these speakers to determine their strong points.
Imitate their techniques to become a good speaker.

CHAPTER 6
Fundamentals of Business Writing

Correspondence refers to communication in writing. It is an exchange of ideas, information,

views and opinions in respect of certain matters in a written in a written form. It can be in the
form of letters, invoices, circulars, bills, memos, reports, etc. It is often regarded as silent
salesman, because it has to convince the addressee and induce him to act upon the message.

The phrase, ‘The pen is mightier than the sword’ is very much applicable in business.
Through good correspondence, a secretary can build a good image for the organization.

The following things should be kept in mind while business writing:

 Planning of the Letter

 Selecting the Approach
 Knowing the purpose of the Letter
 Sincerity
 Simplicity
 Clarity
 Brevity
 Courtesy
 Layout
 Visualizing Reactions of the Receiver
 Quality of Stationery
 Promptness In Correspondence
 Firmness
 Originality

Format of Business Letter

A typical business letter comprises of:

Letterhead: It refers to name, address, telephone/mobile number and such details. It

introduce the firm/sender to the reader.

Date: It refers to date, month and the year. It can be written on right or left hand side below
letterhead. It may be preferable written like this : 25th September,2011.

Reference Number: It helps for filing and referencing to both the parties that is sender and
receiver. It depends upon the requirement of the sender.
Inside Address: It refers to name and address of the receiver addressee. This is always
written on the left hand side.
Salutation: It refers to greeting to the addressee. It is written just below the inside address.
Dear Sirs, Madam etc.
Subject Line; It is necessary to mention the subject to which the letter relates. It helps to sort
out the letters and immediately the receiver may come to know the purpose of the letter.
Body of the Letter: This contains the subject matter. It must be divided into paragraphs.
Complimentary Close; It refers to the regards or respect which the writer wants to convey to
the reader.
Signature: Every letter must contain the signature of the sender. It has legal significance. It
reveals the identity of the sender.
Identification Mark; At the bottom of the letter, there may be initials of the clerk, who types
the letter. This mark is put to hold the typist responsible for any error.
Postscript: If the writer wants to insert additional matter after completion of the letter, the
such matter is written by indicating P.S.
Enclosures ; They are the documents sent along with the letter. If there are any enclosures,
then they should be stated serially at the end of the letter.
Types of Business Letters

Making An Inquiry: letter of Make an inquiry when requesting more information about a
product or service. This type of business letter tends to include specific information such as
product type, as well as asking for further details in the form of brochures, catalogs,
telephone contact, etc. Making inquiries can also help you keep up on your competition!

Sales Letters: Sales Letters are used to introduce new products to new customers and past
clients. It's important to outline an important problem that needs to be solved and provide the
solution in sales letters. This example letter provides an outline, as well as important phrases
to use when sending out a wide variety of sales letters.
Replying to an Inquiry:Replying to inquiries are one of the most important business letters
that you write. Customers who make inquiries are interested in specific information, and are
excellent business prospects. Learn how to thank the customers, provide as much information
as possible, as well as make a call to action for a positive outcome.

Account Terms and Conditions: When a new customer opens an account it is essential to
inform them of account terms and conditions. If you run a small business, it is common to
provide these terms and conditions in the form of a letter. This guide provides a clear
example on which you can base your own business letters providing account terms and
conditions.

Letters of Acknowledgment:For legal purposes letters of acknowledgment are often

requested. These letters are also referred to as letters of receipt and tend to be rather formal
and short. These two examples letters will provide you with a template to use in your own
work and can be easily adapted for a number of purposes.

Placing an Order:As a business person, you will often place an order - especially if you
have a large supply chain for your product. This example business letter provides an outline
to make sure your order placement is clear so that you receive exactly what you order.

Making a Claim:Unfortunately, from time to time it is necessary to make a claim against

unsatisfactory work. This example business letter provides a strong example of a claim letter
and includes important phrases to express your dissatisfaction and future expectations when
making a claim.

Adjusting a Claim:Even the best business may make a mistake from time to time. In this
case, you may be called upon to adjust a claim. This type of business letter provides an
example to send to unsatisfied customers making sure that you address their specific
concerns, as well as retain them as future customers.

Cover Letters:Cover letters are extremely important when applying for a new position.
Cover letters should include a short introduction, highlight the most important information in
your resume and elicit a positive response from your prospective employer. These two
examples of cover letters are part of a larger section on the site providing all the information
you will need on taking an interview in English during your job search.

Inquiry Letter: When business people write letters asking any information then it is known
as inquiry letter. A large volume of the daily correspondence of a firm occupied by inquiry
letters. Information can be asked regarding quality price and availability of the product. This
type of letter also can be written by making status inquiry. Status inquiry letters seek for
information regarding a person.

Features of inquiry letter:

1. Starts with direct and polite request.
2. Asked for information.
3. Provide explanation for the requirement of information.
4. Confidentiality.
5. Specific objective.
6. Supported by reply letter.
7. Asking information within specific time.
8. Specific format on structure.
9. Formal language.
10. Cordial closing.

Complaint Letter:

How to Write a Complaint Letter

Include your name, address, and home and work phone numbers.

Type your letter if possible. If it is handwritten, make sure it is neat and easy to read.

Make your letter brief and to the point. Include all important facts about your purchase,
including the date and place where you made the purchase and any information you can give
about the product or service such as serial or model numbers or specific type of service.

State exactly what you want done about the problem and how long you are willing to wait to
get it resolved. Be reasonable.

Include all documents regarding your problem. Be sure to send COPIES, not originals.

Avoid writing an angry, sarcastic, or threatening letter. The person reading your letter
probably was not responsible for your problem but may be very helpful in resolving it.

Keep a copy of the letter for your records.

Sample Complaint Letter

Name of Contact Person, if available

Title, if available
Company Name
Consumer Complaint Division, if you have no contact person
Street Address
City, State, Zip Code

Dear (Contact Person):

Re: (account number, if applicable)

On (date), I (bought, leased, rented, or had repaired) a (name of the product, with serial or
model number or service performed) at (location and other important details of the
transaction).
Unfortunately, your product (or service) has not performed well (or the service was
inadequate) because (state the problem). I am disappointed because (explain the problem: for
example, the product does not work properly, the service was not performed correctly, I was
billed the wrong amount, something was not disclosed clearly or was misrepresented, etc.).

To resolve the problem, I would appreciate it if you could (state the specific action you want
—money back, charge card credit, repair, exchange, etc.). Enclosed are copies of my records
(include copies of receipts, guarantees, warranties, canceled checks, contracts, model and
serial numbers, and any other documents).

I look forward to your reply and a resolution to my problem, and will wait until (set a time
limit) before seeking help from a consumer protection agency or the Better Business Bureau.
Please contact me at the above address or by phone at (home and/or office numbers with area
code).

Sincerely,

Your name
Enclosure(s) cc: (reference to whom you are sending a copy of this letter, if anyone)

Employment Messages

Writing Resume: Resume writing is a critical task. Writing a great resume does not
necessarily mean you should follow the rules you hear from others. It does not have to be just
one page in length or follow a specific resume format. Every resume is one-of-a-kind
marketing communication. It should be appropriate to your situation and do exactly what you
want it to do. The resume is a tool with one specific purpose: to win an interview.
If it does what the fantasy resume did, it works. If it doesn't, it isn't an effective resume.
It convinces the employer that you have what it takes to be successful in this new position or
career. It is so pleasing to the eye that the reader is enticed to pick it up and read it. It "whets
the appetite", stimulates interest in meeting you and learning more about you.
It inspires the prospective employer to pick up the phone and ask you to come in for an
interview. It consists of the following items or points:

 The Title.

 Personal Details

 Education

 Extra-curricular Activities

 Experience

 Personal Interest or Hobbies

Application Letter
A letter of application is one of the most important letters that an individual writes because
through it he is seeking a job on which his future prospects and career depend. A job
application letter, also known as a cover letter, should be sent or uploaded with your resume
when applying for jobs. The job application letters you send explain to the employer why you
are qualified for the position and why you should be selected for an interview.

A job application letter consists of three parts:

 Introduction: The purpose of the introduction is to specify why you are writing and
to say a few things about yourself, such as, where you are going to school and your
major. The introduction gives you the opportunity to praise to the company for some
specific quality it posses. This praise can serve to answer the silent question as to why
you have chosen their company and also allows you to subtly display a personality
technique that most people enjoy greatly, the ability to convey the feeling "I know
you and I like you." Caution though, praise must be specific because general praise
has a tendency to sound insincere. The best line of praise should be to something in
the company directly related to your line of work. Sometimes uncovering these facts
can require a bit of research, please remember to learn the name and position of your
intended reader.

 Body: The body of your letter should be use to answer any questions your employer
might have about how you feel that your education and background pertain to the job
you are seeking. Here you want to draw connections from your past experiences and
education to the specific skills required for the job you are seeking

 Conclusion: In planning your letter's conclusion you must decide exactly how you
intend to follow up your letter. Will you call within a specified period of time or will
you await a telephone call or letter? You must bring the letter to a cordial but brief
close. You must sound confident, yet never pushy. All ways ask for a follow-up
interview. Remember, the letter you are sending along with your personal resume is
your proverbial "foot in the door" with any would-be employer and often has to serve
as your initial interview. Polish it carefully.

Specimen

XYZ Company
87 Delawar Road
New Delhi

[email protected]

Date

Dear Mr. Gilhooley,

I am writing to apply for the programmer position advertised in the Times Union. As
requested, I am enclosing a completed job application, my certification, my resume and three
references.

The opportunity presented in this listing is very interesting, and I believe that my strong
technical experience and education will make me a very competitive candidate for this
position. The key strengths that I possess for success in this position include:

I have successfully designed, developed, and supported live use applications

I strive for continued excellence

I provide exceptional contributions to customer service for all customers

With a BS degree in Computer Programming, I have a full understanding of the full life cycle
of a software development project. I also have experience in learning and excelling at new
technologies as needed.

Please see my resume for additional information on my experience.

I can be reached anytime via email at [email protected] or my cell phone, 909-

555-5555.

Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to speaking with you about this
employment opportunity.

Sincerely,

FirstName LastName

Writing the Opening Paragraph

It is a group of related sentences that elaborate, analyse and illustrate a short subject and
essentially deals with one idea. I t is defined as” A distinct division of written or printed
matter that begins on a new, usually indented line, consists of one or more sentences and
typically deals with a single thought or topic one speaker’s continuous words” A key quality
of an effective paragraph is unity. It is true that the first impression—whether it’s a first
meeting with a person or the first sentence of a paper—sets the stage for a lasting opinion.
The introductory paragraph of any paper, long or short, should start with a sentence that
piques the interest of your readers. In a typical essay, that first sentence leads into two or
three sentences that provide details about your subject or your process. All of these sentences
build up to your thesis statement. The thesis statement is the subject of much instruction and
training. The entirety of your paper hangs on that sentence. But its function is to be
informative and direct. This means it’s not normally very exciting.

First Sentence:To get your paper off to a great start, you should try to have a first sentence
that engages your reader. Think of your first sentence as a hook that draws your reader in. It
is your big chance to be so clever that your reader can’t stop. As you researched your topic,
you probably discovered many interesting anecdotes, quotes, or trivial facts. This is exactly
the sort of thing you should use for an engaging introduction. Consider these ideas for
creating a strong beginning.

Summarizing

Summarizing is how we take larger selections of text and reduce them to their bare essentials:
the gist, the key ideas, the main points that are worth noting and remembering. Webster's
calls a summary the "general idea in brief form"; it's the distillation, condensation, or
reduction of a larger work into its primary notions.

What not to put in the closing paragraph :

 It does not need a topic sentence.

 It should not list the topic sentences word for word.
 It should not tell about specific details or examples that you discussed in the
paragraphs of development.