Chapter 4

CHAPTER 4
PLANT STRUCTURE
Definition of terms:
Root - the part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground, conveying
water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers.
Stem - A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. It supports
leaves, flowers and fruits, transports fluids between the roots and the leaves
Leaf - a flattened structure of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that is attached to a stem directly
or via a stalk. Leaves are the main organs of photosynthesis and transpiration.
Hierarchy - a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to
status or authority.
1.1. Plant Structure
Although you many not think about it, the organs of vascular plats play an important part in your daily life. You
probably eat roots of carrot or radish plants in salads. You do your homework on paper made from the stems of trees.
You might cool off in the shade produced by leaves.
1.2. Roots
Fig. 1.1. Plant Structure
A root is an organ that anchors a plant to the ground and collects water and minerals from the soil. Most roots
are important food shortage organs too. Compared to other plant organs, roots have evolved slightly. In fact, the roots
of modern plants are very similar to the roots of ancient plants.
Slender roots that branch out in many directions are called fibrous roots. Food crops such as wheat, barley,
and beans have fibrous roots. Meanwhile, a single large root that grows straight down into the ground is called taproot.
A taproot only has smaller roots that extend out from its sides. The taproots are many plants store large quantities of
food.
1.2.1. Root structure
Epidermis – a protective outer layer of cells and

covers the root that serves as the root’s protection. A wide
section of cells inside the epidermis stores food for the root.
Vascular tissue – located inside the ring of food-

storage cells
a. Phloem – is a kind of vascular tissue

which carries food from one part of a
plant to another. Food produced from in
the leaves of the plant travels down to the
root through the phloem.
b. Xylem – another kind of vascular tissue
which carries water and dissolved
minerals upward from the roots to the
stem and leaves.
1.2.2. Root Growth
Fig. 1.2.1. Root Structure
How does a root grow? A root grows
longer at its tip. The root cap protects the growing tip as it pushes through the soil. Dividing cells
behind the root cap produce new cells by the process of mitosis. As these cells lengthen, they push
the root tip further into the soil.
Behind the lengthening cells, other cells specialize to perform certain functions. For
example, some cells join end-to-end to form phloem and xylem tissues. Other cells specialize to form
root hairs, or tiny, fuzzy threads that absorb water and minerals from the soil.
1.2.3. Root Adaptations

Not all roots grow underground. Some roots are adapted for special functions. For example,
English ivy can grow on the sides of building because its bristly roots are adapted for climbing.
1.3. Stems
Imagine that you are climbing a tall, old tree. You start at the ground and slowly climb up the trunk, branch by
branch until you reach the leaves near the top. The tree trunk is actually a stem, an organ that transports food, water,
and minerals between the roots and leaves of a plant. A stem also supports the leaves and holds them up to the light.
Many stems also stores water and produce food.
1.3.1. Stem Structure

The stems of modern plants have evolved over millions of years. There are two main types of stems.
First, an herbaceous stem is soft, green, and flexible. Plants with herbaceous stems usually live one or two
years. Meanwhile, a woody stem is hard, strong, and rigid. Plants that have woody stems live for many years.
Each year their stems grow wider. Most trees and shrubs have woody stems.
1.4. Leaves
A leaf is an organ that produces food for a plant. It takes many leaves to make enough food for a large tree
to live. Leaves are adapted to a variety of environments and come in many shapes and sizes.
Two common types of leaves are:
a. Broad leaves - these leaves like the ones from maple trees, corn plants, and dandelions, are flat.
Some broad leaves have both a flattened part, or blade, and a talk, or petiole. Others have only a
blade. Grasses, for example, have a long and narrow blade without a petiole.
b. Needle-like leaves – these leaves have a thick outer covering that protects them from freezing
temperatures. Examples include the leaves of pines, spruces, and firs.
1.4.1. Leaf Structure
There are levels of hierarchy that is present in leaves. Simple leaves have just one level of hierarchy
whereas compound leaves have two or more levels of hierarchy. Compound leaves are sometimes mixed
with branches but there are many other characteristics which allow to distinguish them.
Fig. 1.4.1. (a) Leaf levels of hierarchy

There are three types of leaf characters: general, terminal, and repetitive. General characters are
only applicable to the whole leaf. Terminal characters are only applicable to the terminal leaflets. Terminals
are the end parts of leaves, they do not
split in smaller terminals; clover leaf, for example, has 3 terminals. Lastly, repetitive
characters repeat on each level of leaf hierarchy. General and terminal characters do
not depend on hierarchy. Repetitive characters may be different on each step of
hierarchy.
General characters of leaf include stipules and other structures located near leaf
base; sheath (typical for grasses and other liliids) and ocrea (typical for buckwheat family, Polygonaceae).
Terminal characters are applicable only to terminal leaflets of leaves. These characters are the shape
of the leaf blade base, the leaf tip, the type of margin, the surface, and the venation. The base of the leaf
blade could be rounded, truncate (straight), cuneate, and cordate. The leaf apex could be rounded,
mucronate, acute, obtuse, and acuminate. Leaf margin variants are entire (smooth) and toothed: dentate,
serrate, double serrate and crenate.
To characterize the whole leaf, one might use the following plan:
1. General characters (leaf as a whole). Refer to Figure 1.4.1. [a]

(a) stipules (present / absent, deciduous / not, how many, size, shape);
(b) base (sheath / no sheath, ocrea / no ocrea)
2. First level of hierarchy: repetitive characters:
(a) symmetry (symmetrical / asymmetrical);
(b) shape;
(c) dissection;
(d) petiole (presence and length)
3. Second level of hierarchy
4. Third level of hierarchy, and so on
5. Terminal characters (leaflets): Refer to Figure 1.4.1. [b] and [c]
(a) base of leaf blade (rounded, truncate, cuneate, cordate);
(b) apex (rounded, mucronate, acute, obtuse, acuminate);
(c) apex (rounded, mucronate, acute, obtuse, acuminate);
(d) surfaces (color, hairs etc.)
(e) venation (apo-, hypho-, acro-, ptero-, actinodromous)
Fig. 1.4.1. (b) From left to right: sheath, stipules, and ocrea.
Fig. 1.4.1. (c) The simple classification of leaf venation
Fig. 1.4.1. (d) Terminal leaf characters

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CHAPTER 4

1.1. Plant Structure

1.2.1. Root structure

Epidermis – a protective outer layer of cells and

Vascular tissue – located inside the ring of food-

a. Phloem – is a kind of vascular tissue

1.2.3. Root Adaptations

1.3.1. Stem Structure

Two common types of leaves are:

1.4.1. Leaf Structure

Fig. 1.4.1. (a) Leaf levels of hierarchy

1. General characters (leaf as a whole). Refer to Figure 1.4.1. [a]

Fig. 1.4.1. (c) The simple classification of leaf venation

Fig. 1.4.1. (d) Terminal leaf characters

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