How Should Critical Thinking Be Conceptualized?

how we define CT is the subject of some debate, due to the multiplicity of definitions, rather
than an encompassing or definitive one, dominating the field

1. Is critical thinking a product (i.e., a set of discrete skills) or a process?

2. Does critical thinking involve both skills and dispositions? If so, which skills and which
disposition

Trends in defining critical thinking

Mohamed (2001) classify the trends in defining critical thinking as follows:

The first trend: critical thinking as a process of evaluation or judgment.

The second trend: critical thinking and logical thinking are two aspects that go hand in hand.
The third trend: critical thinking as a problem solving skill.

The fourth trend: critical thinking is a mental dispositional process.

It can be summarized in three trends: First: Processes where the focus is on mental processes.
Second: Skills where the focus is on critical thinking skills. Third: Results, where the focus is
on the outcome of critical thinking, whether it is for evaluation and issuance of judgments or
other goals and objectives of the critical thinking process, such as solving problems and the
like

Critical Thinking definitions

According to Ennis (1985:45) defines “critical thinking is reflective and reasonable thinking
that is focused on deciding what to believe or do”. The definition of critical thinking as “the
use of cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome”.
Facione (2000) stated critical thinking is judgment, reasoning, reflective, and purposeful
thinking processes, which allow people to find reasonable meaning to their problem solving
tasks. In the same way, critical thinking is posited as an “art of analyzing and evaluating
thinking” (Paul & Elder, 2008:2), which enables people to “raise vital questions and
problems, formulate them clearly, gather and access relevant information, use abstract ideas,
think open-mindedly, and communicate effectively with others”. In brief, questioning,
reasoning, analyzing, evaluating, and problem solving are some features that should be
considered to become a rational, fair, and independent critical thinker. T he proposals
developed by Ennis, Facione, and Paul, Elder and Bartell encompass all critical think ing
definitions above mentioned, which have common aspects such as:

• Cognitive skills like interpreting, augmenting, inferring, analyzing, evaluating, making

proposals, creating, and making decisions according to the context; seeking relevant and
reliable information; being adaptable and flexible about changes.

• Values like prudency, humility, intellectual integrity, and empathy. The presence of
cognition and values means that being aware of the context and being empathetic play a
crucial role in being a critical thinker. Thus, cognitive skills and intellectual capacity are not
highly useful if they are not aimed to meet the needs of a given situation or at least to improve
its conditions. Besides, these two qualities open the door to recog nition of diversity in ways
of thinking and acting, tolerance towards divergent views brought about by,

What are the components of critical thinking?

1. The knowledge base and what the individual possesses of previous knowledge that serve as
his/her assumptions.
2. The tendency to critical thinking as a result of an exciting stimulus through which an
individual feels to stimulate critical thinking.
3. Using critical thinking skills.
4. Conclusion, so that the outcome of the critical thinking process is reached through the
issuance of judgments, decisions, and the like.

For Paul ,Critical thinking, then, has three dimensions: an analytic, an evaluative, and a
creative component. As critical thinkers, we analyze thinking to evaluate it. We evaluate it to
improve it.

Types of Critical thinking

Paul (1991) distinguished between two types of CT. In the first type, sets of discrete skills,
categorized, codified, and systematically transmitted in their entirety through directed
pedagogical practice are characterized as “CT in the weak sense” (p. 5). On the other hand,
CT in “the strong sense” (p. 5) emerges through the individual thinker‟s or learner‟s exercise
of capacity to entertain multiple conceptual perspectives, in view of multiple and individual
demands for perception, insight, and interpretation. This rather elevated and uniquely
contrived cognitive perspective demanded a requisite, accompanying intellectual disposition:
to wit, openness to understanding points of view not ostensibly taken to be one‟s own and,
moreover, perceived as in disagreement with one‟s usual take on the given matter at hand
(1991). Strong CT demanded openness toward and confidence about acting upon points of
view and interpretations which contradicted well thought out perspectives, supported by facts
and data, and necessitated by available empirical evidence (Scriven, 2005). Siegel (1988), in
attempting to simplify understanding of this complex and elevated conceptual perspective,
referred to it as “a critical spirit manifesting certain attitudes, dispositions, habits of mind, and
character traits” (p. 39).

What are the critical thinking skills?

A skill is the ability to do something efficiently so that the required task can be performed
efficiently (Smith, 2002: 661). In educational contexts, a skill is the role of the teachers to
teach learners not just language skills, but also CT skills. Through listening, speaking, reading
and writing the learners use their CT skills to reflect their thoughts and beliefs consciously or
unconsciously. These skills are highly helpful for learners in learning assignments. Therefore,
CT skills are recommended to be taught in educational contexts to make students become
creative, independent and confident. According to Edwards and Briers (2000), thinking skills
are divided into two levels: lower-order thinking and higher-order thinking .Although some
researchers postulate critical thinking is interchangeable with higher-order thinking, a
counterclaim categorizes critical thinking under the umbrella of higher-order thinking skills.
Bloom (1984) also believed critical thinking is a type of higher- order thinking. “Higher-order
thinking includes critical, logical, reflective, metacognitive, and creative thinking”, whereas
critical thinking is “reasoned, purposive and reflective thinking used to make decisions, solve
problems, and master concepts” .Whether critical thinking is under higher-order thinking or is
in the highest categories in thinking, the expectation is practically similar.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain

Teachers may comprehend more about critical thinking when it is associated with the
cognitive domains of Bloom‟s taxonomy because it has proven to be a useful and an
influential tool .Brown (2004:76) asserted Bloom‟s taxonomy is a significant structure to
foster critical thinking, which generally gives guidelines for students to “establish clarity and
accuracy, assess relevance, and demonstrate the ability to think in depth”. Teachers can make
use of Bloom‟s taxonomy in their teaching as a reference for writing learning objectives,
developing lesson plans, asking questions of students, organizing class activities, and
preparing tests and examinations to access students‟ critical thinking. Bloom‟s taxonomy is a
“convenient, quick, efficient, testable, measurable and accountable” multi-tiered model of
knowledge production and thinking. Bloom‟s taxonomy classifies six levels of thinking: “(a)
knowledge, (b) comprehension, and (c) application represent lower-order thinking skills; (d)
analysis, (e) synthesis, and (f) evaluation signify higher-order thinking or critical thinking
skills” (Bloom, 1984: 18). The levels are ordered from simple to complex in terms of the
development of critical thinking. The steps to engage in critical thinking are the higher order
skills of Bloom‟s taxonomy, which only can be reached based upon prerequisites of the lower
level (Brown, 2004). Furthermore, some categories in Bloom‟s hierarchy embodied terms that
confuse teachers and learners in their effort to optimize the usage of Bloom‟s hierarchy .
Regardless of new recognitions of the cognitive domains, Bloom‟s taxonomy is still
recognized as an essential tool in education. By using Bloom‟s taxonomy, teachers can
incorporate appropriate strategies to develop student thinking and help “students master
different types or levels of objectives” in their learning (Anderson,1994: 134). By and large,
teachers are responsible to incorporate strategies that encourage students to optimize their
learning more effectively.

Metacognition
The metacognitive approach is significant to enhance students‟ critical thinking. Yet, there are
inconsistencies in defining metacognition as well. The metacognition associate with
“metacognitive beliefs, metacognitive awareness, metacognitive experiences, metacognitive
knowledge, feeling of knowing, judgment of learning, theory of mind, memory,
metacognitive skills, executive skills, higher-order skills, metacomponents, comprehension
monitoring, learning strategies, heuristic strategies, and self-regulation” and the lists go on
(Veenman,et al, 2006: 4). Flavell (1979:906) defined metacognition as “knowledge and
cognition about cognitive phenomena”. Metacognition as “higher-order thinking that involves
active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning”. In particular, teachers are
accountable to make changes in their teaching and to incorporate strategies that motivate
students to enhance their learning. Also, critical thinking can help students to develop other
think skills. Metacognition is used to emphasize thinking about teaching in developing
teachers‟ own teaching concepts which called meta-teaching (Timpson, 1999). Accordingly,
teachers and students gain benefits from this metacognition process and it helps to develop
and improve their thinking skills

to Kuhn (1999) who holds that developing cognitive competencies most relevant to critical
thinking are metacognitive – rather than cognitive – competencies. Kuhn's meta-knowing
entails three broad categories: metastrategic, metacognitive and epistemological. Briefly
elaborating, the distinction between metastrategic and metacognitive knowing is the same as
the widely-employed dichotomy in cognitive psychology between procedural knowing
(knowing how) and declarative knowing (knowing that): Procedural or strategic knowing
entails the exercise of strategies to achieve certain goals, thus invoking a metastrategic form
of knowing which selects and monitors the strategies from the repertoire of potentially
available strategies; Metacognitive knowing operates on the basis of declarative knowledge.
Simply put: What do I know, and how do I know it? Finally, epistemological knowing is
related to an individual's broader understanding of knowledge and knowing: "It has both a
general, philosophical aspect – How does anyone know? – and a personal aspect – What do I
know about my own knowing?" (Kuhn, 1999). The development of metacognitive
understanding is essential to critical thinking because "critical thinking by definition involves
reflecting on what is known and how that knowledge is justified" (Kuhn, 1999). Therefore,
individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills take control of their own beliefs so that
they can exercise conscious control over their evolution in the face of external influences. In
other words, they both know what they think and can justify why.

Is critical thinking limited to the cognitive aspect of reasoning? Or does the

affective side of individuals have a say too?

Mc Peck (1981, as cited in Garrison, 1991) conceives of critical thinking as involving both a
propensity and skill – “one must develop the disposition to use those skills”, hence, teaching
someone to be a critical thinker entails both the cognitive and the affective domains of
reasoning. Furthermore, Brookfield (1987, as cited in Simpson & Courtney, 2002) proposes
that critical thinking entails more than cognitive skills, such as logical reasoning or
scrutinizing arguments. Brookfield agrees that emotions are paramount to the critical thinking
process, because as one attempts to think critically and assist others to do so, one cannot help
but become conscious of the importance of one‟s emotions to this activity (Simpson &
Courtney, 2002). As such, critical thinking comprises two dimensions: (a) cognitive skills and
(b) affective dispositions. Having the requisite cognitive critical thinking skills is essential to
being a good critical thinker, but it is not enough. The concept of critical thinking has also to
do with a set of personal attitudes or dispositions that can be used to describe an individual
who is inclined to use critical thinking. Therefore, in thinking critically, not only does a
person attempt to determine judiciously what to do or what to believe, but a person is also
able to apply the core critical thinking skills to one another. In other words, in thinking
critically, one may analyze one‟s own inferences, explain one‟s own interpretation or evaluate
one‟s own analysis (Simpson & Courtney, 2002). A word of caution needs to be mentioned
here. Different scholars have their own varying definitions for critical thinking with certain
unique elements such as knowledge, active argumentation, reasoning, initiative, intuition,
application, analyzing complex meanings, identification of problems, seeking alternatives and
making related value judgments. However, critical thinking is substantially larger than the
sum of its parts, because it is a developmental process – an orientation of mind –, rather a
static product or method to be learned, that promotes attitudes to continuously explore,
redefine or understand

The following is a summary of these more recent attempts to provide a set of skills
which take the learner from lower level thinking to a higher level thinking
 5. Understanding
When we read or listen to a text, we process it and then try to understand it. The teacher might
need to ask questions such as „What kind of text is it? Is it from a newspaper? Where would
you read it?‟.
2. Applying
Having studied a text, we take the new information and apply it to something. In the
language classroom this often means answering some comprehension questions or filling in a
table with some facts or figures in the text. In other words, it is about task completion with the
new information that we have understood.
3. Analysing
The analysis stage is where we return to the text and start to question how the author‟s
information is presented. For example, the students might have found information in the text
but next we want them to find evidence supporting the main point(s). Often the task involves
identifying how a text or its arguments are constructed. In other words, students are becoming
more critical of the text and not accepting it at face value.
4. Evaluating
Evaluating is one of the key „higher-order‟ critical thinking skills. It‟s the stage at which
students have isolated the author‟s arguments and views and start to evaluate the validity and
relevance of the information. This could involve asking students to assess how much of the
text is fact supported by evidence and how much is the opinion of the author. If they are going
to use the information in the text to support their own writing then they need to be sure it is
both valid and relevant. Evaluating is probably the most complex stage for many language
learners as it can require very high-level language skills.
5. Creating
This is the last of the five sub-skills. Having studied a topic by drawing on a number of texts,
students need to apply their new knowledge and to create something of their own out of it.
For example, perhaps they are writing an essay expressing their own opinion but based on the
facts and evidence they have researched. Or perhaps they do a group presentation with other
students in which they present all the arguments for and against a view before then presenting
their own conclusions

Why the need for Critical Thinking and Educational environments

There are various factors that affect student‟s ability to communicate in EFL/ESL classes.
Here, we can mention motivation, classroom environment, and other factors such as teaching
and learning contexts and ability to think and act critically. Good teachers know how to
challenge students (Ur, 1996). One of the factors that affect learner‟s communication is the
learner‟s ability to think and act critically. Through critical thinking, learners develop the
ability to communicate in English very well. Therefore, fostering critical thinking stimulates
autonomous learning. Language learning is not an easy process. Exploiting means and
possibilities of practicing language in the classroom is one of the teacher‟s and learner‟s
concerns too. Tasks and assignments used in class affect student‟s perception of the language.
The role of the teacher in a language class is very important. It is the teachers‟ role to teach
learners not just language skills, but also critical thinking skills. Through writing a paragraph,
the learners use their critical skills to synthase and evaluate a passage. Sometimes they use
these skills unconsciously. In the course of writing an assignment, these skills are utmost
helpful for learners. Recently, the fostering learners‟ critical thinking is considered to be one
of the teacher‟s tasks. Critical thinking skills make students reflect and to become creative.
Through critical thinking, students become autonomous and self-confident. Critical thinking
skills can be taught at all levels of studies from secondary and high –school students to
university students as well. While thinking critically, students try to relate the known
information with the unknown, draw schemes, and relate thoughts with meanings. It is the
teacher‟s task to show them how to do this, to resolve and draw conclusions. Through critical
thinking, students develop creativity and enlarge their vocabulary, language knowledge, and
cultural knowledge as well. The question raised is Why? When? And How? To teach a
student uses critical thoughts: in a reading passage by relating his/her own experience to that
of the character of the passage; in a writing exercise whereby a student prepares an outline of
opening, body and close remarks, taking into consideration the time given (if it is a writing
exercise given in class, 10-15 min or an essay that a student has to prepare at home); in a
listening exercise (listen and fill in blank, draw conclusion); while speaking, example: debate,
discussion (when the topic is known or unknown) .In summary, critical thinking is essential
for student success in education and beyond. By incorporating strategies for promoting
critical thinking in the classroom, educators can provide their students with the necessary
skills to succeed academically and in their future careers.

Strategies for promoting critical thinking

Socratic questioning

Socratic questioning is a technique used to promote critical thinking by asking a series of

questions that challenge assumptions, clarify concepts, and uncover evidence. It is named
after the Greek philosopher Socrates, who was known for using this method to lead his
students to deeper understanding and insight. The importance of Socratic questioning in
critical thinking lies in its ability to help individuals examine and evaluate their own thinking
and the thinking of others. By asking thought-provoking questions, Socratic questioning can
help individuals identify biases, clarify concepts, and consider alternative perspectives. It can
also help individuals identify gaps in their understanding and develop more robust arguments.
Several research studies have shown the effectiveness of Socratic questioning in promoting
critical thinking. For example, a study by Paul and Elder (2006) found that students who
received instruction in Socratic questioning showed significant improvements in their critical
thinking skills. Paul and Elder's (2006) study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of
Socratic questioning in improving critical thinking skills among undergraduate students. The
study suggests that Socratic questioning can be an effective strategy for improving critical
thinking skills in students. Another study by Selvia (2020) found that Socratic questioning
was an effective strategy for promoting critical thinking in nursing students. When it comes to
the implementation of this strategy in the classroom for the sake of improving students‟
critical thinking skills, the strategy can encourage students to engage in active and critical
inquiry. Teachers can use the Socratic method to facilitate classroom discussions by asking
open-ended questions that prompt students to reflect on their own thinking and reasoning
processes. By challenging students to examine the assumptions, biases, and implications of
their own arguments and those of their peers, the Socratic method can help students develop
their critical thinking skills (Copeland, 2005). In fact, to use the Socratic method effectively,
teachers should encourage students to ask questions of their own, rather than simply
answering the teacher's questions. The teacher should also model critical thinking by
examining his or her own assumptions and biases and by asking follow-up questions that
encourage deeper reflection. The Socratic method can be particularly effective when used in
small group discussions or debates, as it allows students to learn from each other's
perspectives and to develop their own ideas in collaboration with their peers (Tredway, 1995).
Thus, the Socratic method is an effective strategy for promoting critical thinking in the
classroom by encouraging active inquiry, challenging assumptions, and fostering
collaboration and reflection among students.

In essence, Socratic questioning is a powerful tool for promoting critical thinking, and its
importance lies in its ability to help individuals develop the skills they need to analyze
information, evaluate evidence, and make informed decisions.

Collaborative learning

' Collaborative learning is a teaching strategy that involves students working together in small
groups or pairs to solve problems, complete tasks, or discuss concepts. This approach can be
particularly effective in improving critical thinking skills as it provides students with the
opportunity to engage in active learning, exchange ideas, and challenge each other's
perspectives (Gokhale, 1995). Indeed, collaborative learning, the practice of grouping and
pairing students with the aim of achieving an academic objective, has been extensively
studied and recommended in academic literature. This approach involves students of different
skill levels working together in small groups to accomplish a shared goal, with each member
being accountable for their own and their peers' learning. As a result, the achievement of one
student contributes to the success of the entire group (Gokhale, 1995). To employ
collaborative learning in the classroom to improve critical thinking, instructors can: 1. Assign
group projects or assignments that require critical thinking skills, such as analyzing case
studies or solving complex problems. 2. Encourage group discussions and debates where
students can share their thoughts and ideas and challenge each other's assumptions. 3. Provide
clear guidelines and expectations for group work and facilitate communication between group
members to ensure that everyone is participating and contributing equally. Collaborative
Learning can improve college students' critical thinking skills in writing, and assess the class
atmosphere during the implementation of Collaborative Learning. Additionally, Collaborative
Learning enhanced the class climate, resulting in better attention, more lively conditions,
increased responsibility, and improved selfconfidence and expression abilities. Given the
positive results, it is recommended that English lecturers use Collaborative Learning to foster
critical thinking and create an engaging classroom environment. Overall, collaborative
learning can be an effective strategy for improving critical thinking skills in the classroom,
particularly when it involves structured activities and clear expectations for participation and
communication.

Inquiry-based learning

Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is a teaching method that involves students actively engaging in
the learning process by asking questions, investigating and exploring information, and
creating their own understanding. This approach can improve critical thinking by encouraging
students to think deeply, analyze information, and draw conclusions based on evidence. To
employ IBL in the classroom, teachers can start by posing open-ended questions that
encourage students to think critically and investigate the topic further. Teachers can also
provide resources for students to explore and analyze, such as case studies, primary sources,
or experiments. As students work through the inquiry process, teachers can facilitate
discussions and provide guidance to help students develop their critical thinking skills. As a
matter of fact, Inquiry-based learning is important in enhancing critical thinking among
students in the classroom for several reasons. First, it promotes active engagement and
curiosity among students, encouraging them to ask questions, seek information, and explore
new ideas. This process of inquiry challenges students to think and creatively, as they
evaluate and analyze information, identify patterns, and develop hypotheses. Inquiry-based
learning also provides students with opportunities to collaborate and communicate with their
peers, which enhances their ability to think critically about different perspectives and ideas.
Through group discussions, students learn to listen to and respect diverse opinions, and
construct evidence-based arguments to support their own ideas. Moreover, inquiry-based
learning encourages students to connect classroom learning to real-world problems and
issues, helping them develop problem-solving skills and the ability to apply their knowledge
to new situations. This approach to learning fosters a deeper understanding of concepts and
ideas, and promotes lifelong learning. Taken together, inquiry-based learning is an effective
way to enhance critical thinking among students in the classroom, as it encourages active
engagement, collaboration, and problem-solving, while providing opportunities to connect
classroom learning to real-world issues.

Concept mapping

Concept mapping is a visual tool that helps students organize and represent knowledge in a
meaningful way. The process of creating a concept map requires critical thinking skills such
as analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information. By using concept maps, students are
encouraged to connect new information to their prior knowledge and develop a deeper
understanding of complex concepts. This can ultimately lead to improvements in their critical
thinking skills. Roberts et al. (1995) state that the use of concept mapping as a pedagogical
technique necessitates students to identify, visually present, and connect fundamental ideas
present in the instructional materials they are studying. Despite being validated in various
fields to encourage selfdirected learning and critical thinking, its efficacy in diet therapy
remains unexplored. The concept mapping group also demonstrated a more integrated
understanding of the concepts, indicating that the process of creating concept maps helped
them to see how the various concepts were interconnected. To sum up, the use of concept
mapping as a teaching tool has shown promise in improving critical thinking skills among
students in various disciplines. By encouraging students to actively engage with the material
and make connections between concepts, concept mapping can help students develop a deeper
understanding of complex topics and ultimately improve their ability to think critically.

Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method that involves students working

collaboratively to solve authentic, real-world problems. PBL has been found to improve
critical thinking skills in students by providing them with opportunities to analyze complex
problems, evaluate evidence, and develop and defend arguments based on evidence.A study
by Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn (2007) found that PBL can be effective in improving
critical thinking skills in a variety of subject areas, including science, mathematics, and social
studies. The researchers found that students who participated in PBL were able to transfer
their critical thinking skills to new and unfamiliar contexts, indicating that PBL can have
long-lasting benefits for students' critical thinking abilities. The study aimed to explore the
impact of PBL on enhancing critical thinking skills across various subject areas, including
science, mathematics, and social studies. By engaging students in authentic, real-world
problem-solving activities, PBL can help students develop the analytical and evaluative skills
necessary for success in college and beyond. Argument mapping Argument mapping is a
visual representation of arguments that helps to identify the logical structure of an argument
and to evaluate its validity. By using argument mapping, students can learn to recognize the
underlying assumptions and evaluate the evidence used to support a claim. This, in turn, can
improve their critical thinking skills. Several studies have investigated the effectiveness of
argument mapping in improving critical thinking skills. Van (2015) suggests that most college
faculty members consider the development of critical thinking skills to be a crucial goal of
undergraduate education. The statement is based on a survey conducted by the Higher
Education Research Institute (HERI) in 2009, which found that 99% of the surveyed faculty
members rated the development of critical thinking abilities as "very important" or "essential"
for undergraduate education. the importance of critical thinking in undergraduate education
has long been recognized by college educators and administrators for its academic,
professional, and personal advantages. All things considered, these studies suggest that
argument mapping can be an effective strategy for improving critical thinking J

Information-Gap Activities: Students work in pairs, they share information with each -other
(example: a listening or a speaking exercise).

Role -play Activities: Students work in pairs, they play roles (example: situations from real
life: in an airport, in a doctor‟s office, in a shop, etc)

Simulation Activities : Students work in groups, they play roles (example: situations from
real life: at a railway station, in a mall, etc.).

Jigsaw Activities : the teacher divides the class into groups. Students collaborate with each -
other, share opinions, and discuss about the topic given. students share information. Example:
exercises on a reading passage.

Surveys : Students have to work together to write a report on a survey that they have
prepared ( example: environmental issues, climate changes, pollution, etc.)

Interviews: Usually, interviews are individual. Students prepare questions at home as a

homework assignment and then use them in class(Wal & Jickling, 2002:229).

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Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2009b). Critical thinking: ethical reasoning and fair-minded thinking,
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