Pharmacognosy Book of Pharmacy Technician

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CHAPTER 1
PHARMACOGNOSY
Pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs of plant and

animal origin. The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines
Pharmacognosy as;
"The study of the physical, biochemical and biological
properties of natural drugs and their chemical constituents.
As well as the search for new drugs from natural sources."
Introduction of Pharmacognosy `
The word "Pharmacognosy" is derived from the Greek words

pharmakon “drug”, and gnosis "knowledge”. The term Pharmacognosy was
used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811 and 1815 by
Seydler in a work.
Originally - during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century -
"Pharmacognosy" was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with
drugs in their crude, or unprepared, form.
John Adam Schmidt Schmidt Cognosy
PUNJB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE

Block No. 7, LDA Flats, Huma Block, Allama Iqbal Town, Lahore, 042-99260298
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Scope of Pharmacognosy
Pharmacognosy is the branch of science which deals with the

biological, biochemical and economic features of natural drugs and their
constituents. It also deals with the study of;
 Classification of Crude Drugs to know about the class of the Drug
 Cultivation, Collection, Drying, Storage, Preservation, Packing,

Evaluation and adulteration of Crude Drugs.
 Plant growth hormones, for rapid & better growth of plants.
 Allergens & allergic preparations, to overcome the problems of Allergy.
 Enzymes, to cure & manage the diseases caused by Enzymatic

Deficiency.
 Poisonous Plants to prevent poison.
 Herbal drugs, used in traditional practice.

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CHAPTER 2
Crude Drugs
A crude drug is any naturally occurring, unrefined substance

derived from organic or inorganic sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs
or whole organisms intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, treatment, or
prevention of disease in man or other animals.
Classification Of Crude Drugs
Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.
1. Morphological Method
2. Taxonomical Method
3. Pharmacological Method
4. Chemical Method
1- Morphological Method
In this method, drugs are classified according to their part used. e.g.

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 Organized Drugs
These are the drugs obtained from direct parts of the

plant and containing cellular tissues are called as organized drugs. For example
flowers, seeds, leaves, rhizome, bark etc.
 Unorganized Drugs
The drugs which are prepared from plants by

physical process such as incision, drying or extraction with a solvent and
not containing any cellular plant tissues are called unorganized drugs. For
example Latex, Tragacanth, Gum acacia.

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Table 1. Morphological Classification of Drugs
1.Organized Drugs
Plant Part Example of drugs
 Leaves Digitallis, Pudina, Senna, Squill

Hyoscyamus, Belladona
 Barks Cinchona, Cinnamon, Cascara
 Flowering Parts Clove, Saffron
 Fruits Cardamom, Caraway, Fennel,

Colocynth, Capsicum
 Seeds Bitter Almond, Cardamom,
Nux vomica, Strophanthus
 Roots & Rhizomes
Ginger, Glycyrrhiza, Ipecac,
Rauwolfia, Rhubarb
2.Unorganized Drugs
 Dried Latex Opium, Papain
 Dried Juice Aloe
 Gums Acacia, Tragacanth
 Resins Asafeotida, Benzoin, Tolu Balsam
 Fixed oils Castor, Almond
 Waxes Bees wax, Carnauba wax
 Animal Products Gelatin, Cod liver oil, Cantharides
 Minerals Kaolin, Talc
Book follows this method;

 Pharmacognosy by Wallis
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2- Taxonomical Method ;
In this method, drugs are classified according to

their natural relationship and distinguishing characteristics. They are grouped in
phylum, order, family, genus and species.
Table 2. Taxonomical Classification of Drugs
Phyllum Order Family Genus Species Drugs
Angiosperms Rosales Rosaceae Prunus amygdalus Almond
Rhodophyta Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium cartilagineum Agar
Gymnosperms Genetales Ephedraceae Ephedra sinica Ephedra

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Taxonomical Classification
3- Pharmacological Method ;
In this method drugs are classified according to their

therapeutic effects.
Pharmacological Class Drugs
Anticancer Cinnamon bark,
Purgative Aloe, Senna, Castor oil
Antispasmodic Belladona, Hyoscyamus
Astringent Catechu, Tannic acid
Expectorant Glycyrrhiza, Tolu balsam

Digitallis, Strophanthus
Cardio tonic

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Pharmacological Classification
4- Chemical Method ;
In this method drugs are classified according to their principle

constituents.
Sr.No. Chemical Constituents Drugs
1. Carbohydrates Agar, Acacia, Tragacanth, Starch
2. Glycosides Aloe, Senna, Glycyrrhiza, Digitalis
3. Volatile oils Cinnamon, Fennel, Clove, Caraway
4. Alkaloids Belladona, Hyoscyamus
5. Resins Ginger, Asafeotida, Benzoin,
6. Tannins Black catechu
7. Proteins Papain, Bromelain, Gelatin

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CHAPTER 3
TERMINOLOGIES IN PHARMACOGNOSY
Following are the most frequent terminologies used in

Pharmacognosy.
Acaulescent: stem less
Acerose: needle-shaped
Acicular: needle-shaped, as applied to some kinds of foliage
Acute: tapering to a sharp-pointed apex with more or less straight sides along
the tip
Angular: having sharp angles or corners, generally used in reference to

structures such as stems to contrast them with rounded stems
Axis: the main stem
Basal: at or near the base, often describing leaves and where they attach
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Basifixed: attached by the base (compare dorsifixed, versatile)
Capillary: very slender and hair like
Deltoid: broadly triangular in shape
Dense: congested, describing the disposition of flowers.
Dentate: with sharp, outward-pointing teeth on the margin
Exudate: a substance exuded or secreted from a plant
Gall: an abnormal growth on a plant that is caused by insects
Glabrous: smooth, without hairs
Gland: a depression or protuberance that exists for the purpose of secreting
Glandular: producing tiny globules of sticky or oily substance
Glans: a dry dehiscent fruit born in a cupule, such as aco n
Habit: the overall appearance of a plant
Leaflet: one segment of a compound leaf
Ovary: the basal portion of a pistil where female germ cells develop into seeds
after germination
Poly-: prefix meaning many
Rhizome: an underground stem capable of producing new stems or plants at its

nodes
Vaginate: provided with or surrounded by a sheath
Xylem: the water-conducting tissue of vascular plants

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Leaves :Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like,

that are attached to a stem are called leaves.
Stems :Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like
the plant's plumbing system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and
food in the form of glucose from the leaves to other plant parts. All plants have
stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the light. The leaves and flowers
are on the stems.
Flowers:A flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of

plants have always been popular in traditional medicine. Examples include clove
and chamomile flowers.
Fruit: A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily used
for medicinal purposes. Dried whole fruits or portions of fruits can be used.
Many members of the carrot family have fruits that are used in medicine
including fennel fruit and anise.
Pulp: The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.
Seeds: A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed
coat, usually with some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used for their
medicinal properties. Seeds may be contained within a fruit or are sometimes
used on their own.
Roots: The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support,

typically underground, conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant
via numerous branches and fibers. The fleshy or woody roots are used for

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medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous (stinging nettle), or

fleshy (devil’s claw).
Bark:The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living
cells above the wood. Active ingredients are often found in higher
concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used for medicinal properties are
quinine bark, oak bark.
Wood: The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is
called wood. Thick stems or the wood of trees or shrubs are used for medicinal
properties.
Bulb:A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of

leaf bases otherwise known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs are
popular for medicinal uses.

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Rhizomes: A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that

usually grows horizontally below the ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves
above the ground and roots into the ground. Several medicinal plants are used
primarily for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine, and bloodroot.
Herb: Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in
temperate climates usually dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the
roots (perennial herb) by the end of the growing season.
Gum: Gums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are
water-soluble and are in part digestible by humans.
Resins:Resins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not
soluble in water. They are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of plants.
Examples include frankincense, myrrh, and mastic.

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CHAPTER 4
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
Identification of a drug and determination of its quality

& purity is called Evaluation of Drug. Following methods are frequently
employed for the determination of quality & purity of Crude Drugs.
 Organoleptic Evaluation
 Physical Evaluation
 Chemical Evaluation
 Biological Evaluation.
1- Organoleptic Evaluation
Organoleptic Evaluation refers to evaluate the crude

drug by using organ’s senses which include its external features &
morphology.
 Study of Morphological Characters ;
To study morphology of drug, its shape & size, color,

external marking, fracture, odour and taste are examined. The organized
drugs are classified into;
 Barks e.g. Cinnamon

 Leaves e.g. Senna & Tulsi
 Flowers e.g. Clove
 Seeds e.g. Nux-Vomica
 Herbs e.g. Pudina

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Morphology of plants
The external marking can be studied on the following mentioned terms;
 Annulations.
 Nodules.
 Projections
 Wrinkles.
.
Annulations (Ipecac) Wrinkles (Cinchona)

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The drugs like Ginger & capsicum have pungent taste while glycyrrhizin &
honey are sweet in taste. Crude drugs belong to class fixed oils have bland taste
 Study of Microscopic Characters
Microscope is also used for a quantitative evaluation of drugs

and adulterated powders. This is done by counting specific features such as
stomatal number.
 Stomatal Number;
The average number of stomata per square millimeter

of epidermis is known as stomatal number.
Microscope Stomata

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2- Physical Evaluation
Physical constants are frequently applied to Alkaloids,

Glycosides, Volatile Oils, Fixed oils, Tannins & Sugar drugs to check their
quality & purity.
Physical Constants such as;
 Elasticity in fibers
 Viscosity of drugs containing gums
 Swelling factor of mucilage
 Melting & Boiling point of crude drugs
Spectroscopic Analysis (UV, IR, NMR, and MASS) and

radioimmuno assays are applied frequently to check the Physical constants of
herbal drugs. Chromatographic techniques such as Paper Chromatography,
Thin Layer chromatography, HPLC & Gas liquid Chromatography provide
information about the chemical constituents present in the Crude Drug.
Uv Spectrophotometer

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3- Chemical Evaluation
Chemical Evaluation involves the determination of

quality; quantity & purity of Crude Drugs through Chemical Test. Chemical
test for Alkaloids, Amino Acids, Carbohydrates, Glycosides, Tannins,
Volatile Oils and Fixed oils are performed to ensure their quality.
Titrimmetric Assay, Ester Value, Saponification Value,

Acid Value and Ash Value are determined in chemical evaluation.
4- Biological Evaluation
Biological Evaluation (biological assay) is a type of scientific

experiment carried out on intact animals, animal preparation, isolated living
tissues or micro-organisms.
Since living organisms are used the assays are called “biological assay”.
Techniques of Biological assay:
There are basically two types of Biological evaluations, Quantal & Graded.
Following are the Techniques which are used in Biological evaluation of Crude
Drugs;
 Matching Biological Assay

 Interpolation Biological Assay
 Bracketing Biological Assay
 Multiple Biological Assay

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CHAPTER 5
ENZYMES
Enzymes
The enzymes can be defined as “These are the catalysts of biological

system that are produced by the living cell which are capable of catalyzing the
biological reaction.
OR
The enzymes are the organic catalysts produced by the living organisms
that’s why called as Biological Catalysts.
Catalysts
Catalyst is a chemical which is inorganic in nature used to boost up

chemical reaction but it is not utilized itself in the chemical reaction.
All enzymes are catalyst but all catalysts are not enzymes.
Organic substances
All the chemicals that contain mainly carbon are called organic
substances.
Inorganic substances
All the chemicals that are not containing carbon are called inorganic
substances.

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Substrates
These are the molecules on which enzymes can act.
(Enzyme Substrate Complex)

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Difference between Enzymes & Catalyst
Enzymes Catalysts
 All the enzymes are organic  All the catalysts are inorganic
substances. substances.
 Enzymes mostly destroyed  Catalysts are not destroyed in

during the reaction. the chemical reaction.
 Enzymes are more specific in  Catalysts are non-specific in

Nature. Nature.
 Enzymes are very complex in  Catalysts are very simple

nature. compounds or substances.
 Speed of the enzyme reaction  Speed of catalyst reaction will

does not depend on the depends upon the concentration
concentration of enzyme. of catalyst.

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PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
1. Catalytic Property
Small amount of enzymes can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in a

Biological reaction.
Example
Sucrase enzyme in its small amount easily catalyzed the hydrolytic
reaction of the sucrose.
2. Solubility
Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and dilute alcohol solution. The
Enzymes can precipitate in the following solvents.
1- Concentrated Alcohol
2- Ammonium Sulphate
3- Tricholro Acetic Acid.
3. Enzymatic Property
The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increases as the concentration of

the substrates increases up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time
it decreases.
4. pH
Acids:
Acids deactivate those enzymes that act at alkaline PH e.g. Trypsin

act at alkaline PH 8.57. At acidic PH it will destroy. Trypsin is an enzyme that
secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper digestion of food.
Bases:
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Bases deactivate the enzymes that act at acidic PH e.g. pepsin act
at acidic PH 1-2. At alkaline PH, it will destroy.

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5. Temperature
Optimum temperature is 96 F-to-99F
The optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is regard between

35 centigrade to 40 centigrade.
 At 0 °c ---------------- Inactive
 10° c to 20° c ---------------- Very little active
 35° c to 40° c ---------------- Maximum active
 50° c ---------------- Inactive
 60° c ---------------Destroy
 In solid Condition it may be stable up to 100 ° c.

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Bromelain
It is a protolytic and milk clotting enzyme.
→ Biological Source
→ Molecular weight
→ Color
→ Solubility
→ Uses
(Pineapple)
1. Sources of Bromelein
It is obtained from juice and stem of “Ananas comosus”.
Family;
Bromeliaceae
2. Molecular weight:
2800 mmol
3. Color:
Light yellow color Or Buff Color.
4. Solubility:
It is very much soluble in;
 Water.
 Alcohol
 Chloroform

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5. Uses:
 It is used as a Supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation

and edema.
 It is widely used in leather factory.
 It is used in the production of protein.
 It is very effective agent that can easily tenderize the meat.

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Papain
It is a protolytic enzyme.
→ Source
→ Color
→ Solubility
→ Molecular weight
→ Uses
1. Source
Papain is dried latex obtained from green fruits and leaves of

“Carica papaya”
Family: Caricaceae
Preparation
The latex is obtained by making 2-4 longitudinal incisions, on the

surface of nearly mature but green fruits while still on the tree. The incisions are
made early in the morning, at intervals of 3-7 days. The exudate is collected in
non-metallic container.
Papain Powder
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2. Color
It has amorphous light whitish color powder.

3. Solubility
It is incompletely soluble in water But insoluble in alcohol, ether and

acetone.
4. Molecular weight
25710 moles
5. Uses
 Tenderizing of meat.
 Used as protein digestant, as Antihelmintic (nematode)
 Clarification of beverages. (Soft & Hard drinks)
 It is used to remove the protein molecules from contact lenses.

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Classification of Enzymes
 Old Method
 New Method
 Old Method
By using this method, the Enzymes are named by adding Suffix “Ase”
to the name of the substrate.
e.g.
Lipase _____________ Hydrolyzing the Fats
Cellulase ____________ Hydrolyzing the Cellulose.
1- Esterases
It is the group of enzymes that hydrolyzed the lipids.
e.g.
Lipase: It is present in pancreatic juice of animals and human body and oily
seeds. Lipase hydrolyses the fat Molecules to fatty acids & Glycerin.
2- Amindases
These are the enzymes that are present in liver and intestinal mucosa.
They will be catalyses the ammonia related break down reaction.
e.g.
Arginases:It converts Arginine to Urea.
Ureases: It is found in liver cells and soyabean seeds. It converts urea into
ammonia and carbon dioxide.

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3- Nucleases
These are the group of enzymes that act on the nucleotides. e.g.
Ribonucleases → RNA
Deoxyribonucleases → DNA
4- Carbohydrases
This class is named after those enzymes that can catalyses breakdown of
sugar molecules in a biological reaction.
e.g.
Sucrase:It is present in yeast and intestinal juice. It causes hydrolyses of
sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Maltase: It is also present in Intestinal Juice. It converts maltose to glucose.
5- Proteolytic Enzymes
Proteolytic enzymes are the protein digestive enzymes.

These enzymes catalyses the protein breakdown reactions.
e.g.
Pepsin: It is found in gastric juice of animals. It digests the protein by

converting then into proteases and peptone.
Rennin: It is a milk coagulating enzyme found in the mucous membrane of

fresh stomach of mammals. It curdles protein of Milk.

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 New Method
This method is also known as IEC Method (International
Enzymes Commission).In new method, the fundamental principals of giving
the names to the enzymes are their basic function in addition of “Ase”.
1. Dehydrogenase
It is an enzyme that acts on the substrates and remove their hydrogen

molecule.
2. Oxidases
It is an enzyme that catalyses the oxidation reaction without any regard of

the substrate.
3. Hydrolases
These are the enzymes that boost up the speed of the hydrolysis reaction
without any regard of the substrate.
4. Ligase or Synthetase
It is an enzyme that promotes or boost up the speed of the reactions in

which new bonds are formed with the cleavage of ATP (Adenosine Tri
Phosphate.)

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CHAPTER 6
Hypersensitivity
Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction) refers to undesirable

(damaging, discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal) reactions produced by
the normal immune system.
Introduction
The term allergy was first defined by Von Pirquet in

1906. He described that a change or altered reaction in the body is called allergy.
Allergy
Definition
According to British Immunological society. The allergy can be

defined as;
“Allergy is a specific hypersensitivity of an individual to foreign particles
usually a protein to which a specific individual is exposed.”
OR
Allergy is a hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system.Allergic reactions

occur to normally harmless environmental substances known as allergens.
Strictly, allergy is one of four forms of hypersensitivity and is called type I (or
immediate) hypersensitivity.
Antibody:
An antibody is a type of protein. The body's immune system
produces antibodies when it detects harmful substances, called
antigens.

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Sings & Symptoms Of Allergy
Common symptoms of allergy

Affected organ Symptom
Nose swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis)
Sinuses allergic sinusitis
redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic

Eyes
conjunctivitis)
Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and

Airways
dyspnea (shortness of breath) , sometimes attacks of asthma,
Ears Feeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing.
Skin rashes, such as eczema and hives (urticaria)
Gastrointestinal
abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, Diarrhoea
tract

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Allergen
The allergen (the foreign substance that provokes a reaction), it is a substance

that can cause an allergic reaction. Allergens are particle that, in some people,
the immune system recognizes as "foreign" or "dangerous" but cause no
response for most people.
Common allergens include:
 Pollen
 Dust
 Chemicals
 Drugs (such as antibiotics or medications you put on your skin)
 Foods (such as milk, chocolate, strawberries, wheat)
 Perfumes
 Plants
 Smoke

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Types Of Allergen:
Inhalant Allergens
These allergens are dispersed in air .when we inhaled air these

allergen are also enter in our Respiratory tract and cause of allergy.
 Pollens
 Dust
 Smoke
 Perfumes
Pollen:
What is pollen?
Pollen is the cells of flowering plants, including trees, grasses, and weeds. Pollen
is microscopic in size.
Pollen is the most common cause of seasonal allergic rhinitis, sometimes known
as "hay fever."
Dust Mites:
Dust mites are microscopic organisms that can live and thrive throughout homes
and schools. The mites and their waste products present in the following:
 bedding and pillows

 upholstered furniture
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 carpets
 clothes
Sy mpto ms
Sneezing, swelling of nasal cavities & eyes lacrimation

Smoke:
The allergic attack due to bad environment is termed as Environmental Allergy.

If a person lives in a smoky, or in an industrial area we can easily examine that
he is allergic from smoke.

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Ingested allergens
These allergens are present in our food stuff. When we eat that
contaminated food these allergen are also ingested with food
particles
What is food allergy?
 A food allergy is an abnormal response of the body to a certain

food. It is important to know that this is different than a food
intolerance, which does not affect the immune system,
What foods most often cause food allergy?

Approximately 90 percent of all food allergies are caused by the
following eight foods:
 Milk
 Eggs
 Wheat
 Soya beans
 Tree nuts
 Peanuts
 Fish
 Shellfish
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Symptoms
Allergic symptoms may begin within minutes to an hour after

ingesting the food. The following are the most common symptoms of
food allergy.
 vomiting
 diarrhea
 cramps
 hives
 swelling
 eczema
 itching or swelling of the lips, tongue, or mouth
 itching or tightness in the throat
 difficulty breathing
 wheezing
 lowered blood pressure

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Injectable Allergen
 Injections of medication
 Insect sting
Symptoms
 itching and hives over most of the body

 Swelling of the throat and tongue
 Difficulty in breathing and tightness in the chest
 Dizziness
 Shock
 Loss of consciousness
 Hoarse voice or swelling of the tongue
Contact Allergen
 Jewelry
 Cosmetics
 Pets

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Allergy by Jewelry Allergy by Cosmetic

What is an animal allergen?
Allergens found in animals are a common cause of allergic reactions.
They are caused by the protein found in an animal's:
 Skin.
 Dander.
 Saliva.
 Urine.

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Types Of Hypersensitivity
The four-group classification was expounded by P. H. G. Gell and Robin

Coombs in 1963.
Coombs and Gell classification:
Comparison of hypersensitivity types

Often mentioned
Type Alternative names Mediators
disorders
 Hay fever
 Anaphylaxis  IgE
I Allergy (immediate)
 Asthma
 IgM or
Cytotoxic, antibody-
II  Erythroblastosis IgG
dependent
fetalis
 Serum sickness  IgG

III Immune complex disease

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 Contact dermatitis
Delayed-type hypersensitivity
 Chronic transplant
(DTH), cell-mediated immune  T-cells
IV rejection
response, antibody-
 Multiple sclerosis
independent
1. Immediate Hypersensitivities.
These occur quickly after exposure to the allergen. They are usually mediated by
antibodies of the IgE class.
IgE antibodies present on the surface of the basophils, these antibodies have
no effect until and unless they encounter allergens, when this occur the mast
cell discharge their granules. The granules contain a variety of active agents
including histamine etc.

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Local Anaphylaxis:
Release of these substances into the surrounding tissue causes local anaphylaxis:
swelling, redness, and itching.
Examples:
 Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in which airborne allergens (pollen) react

with IgE-sensitized mast cells in the nasal mucosa and the tissues around
the eyes, causing runny nose also called “Rhinorea”
Pollen exposure Inflammation & Secretions
 Bronchial Asthma in which the allergen reaches the lungs either by

inhalation or in the blood; and cause bronchoconstriction.
 Hives (physicians call it urticaria) where the allergen usually enters the
body by food.

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Systemic Anaphylaxis
Some allergens can cause life-threatening collapse of the circulatory and respiratory
systems.
Frequent causes:
 Insect (e.g., bee) stings

 Drugs (e.g., penicillin)
 Food.

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Honey Bee
Penicillin allergy
2. Antibody-Mediated Cytotoxicity:
Cell damage caused by antibodies directed against cell surface antigens. In these
disorders, the person produces antibodies directed against antigens present on the
surface of his or her own cells.
Examples:
 Hemolytic disease of the newborn (Rh disease).

 Myasthenia gravis
Binding of antibodies to the surface of the cell can result in:

 Phagocytosis of the cell
 Lysis of the cell
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (Rh Disease)
Rh antigens are expressed at the surface of red blood cells. During

pregnancy, there is often a tiny leakage of the baby's red blood cells into the
mother's circulation. If the baby is Rh-positive (having inherited the trait from its
father) and the mother Rh-negative, these red cells will cause her to develop
antibodies against the Rh antigen. The antibodies, usually of the IgG class, may not
develop fast enough to cause problems for that child, but can cross the placenta and
attack the red cells of a subsequent Rh+ fetus.

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Myasthenia Gravis (MG):
The hallmark of this autoimmune disorder is weakness of the skeletal muscles,

especially those in the upper part of the body.
3. Immune Complex Disorders:
In this type of hypersensitivity antibodies form complexes with antigens. Damage

caused by the deposition of these complexes in the tissues.
Examples:
 Serum sickness
Serum Sickness:
Serum sickness is caused by the many proteins present in the antiserum. Being
foreign to the recipient, an active immunity develops against these proteins. The
resulting antibodies bind to them forming immune complexes. These are carried
by the blood and deposited in the walls of blood vessels as well as in
the glomeruli of the kidneys.
 fever
 hives
 arthritis and
 Protein in the urine.
4. Cell-Mediated Hypersensitivities:
Because it takes a day or two for the T cells to stimulate following exposure to
the antigen, these responses are called delayed-type hypersensitivities (DTH).
Cell-mediated hypersensitivities can occur with extrinsic antigens or with

internal ("self") antigens.

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Extrinsic Antigens:
The most common example of cell-mediated hypersensitivity to external antigens is
the contact dermatitis caused in some people when their skin is exposed to a
chemical to which they are allergic. Some examples:
 The catechols found in poison ivy, poison oak

 Nickel (often used in jewelry)
 Dyes
 Organic chemicals used in industry
Intrinsic ("self") Antigens

Cell-mediated hypersensitivities to "self" cause autoimmune diseases.
Examples:
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus

 Multiple sclerosis (MS)
 Organ Transplant Rejection
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus:
In this disease, T cells initiate the destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells
of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. The chief culprits are CD8+cytotoxic
T lymphocytes (CTL) also by CD4+ helper T cells of the Th1.
 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
T cells —initiates an attack that destroys the myelin sheath of neurons.

49
Structure Of Neuron
Mechanism of allergy
Three players of allergy:
Allergen, Antibodies, Inflamatory mediators
First Exposure to antigen:
A. When an allergen first enters the body, the B lymphocytes produce an
antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE).
B. The IgE antibodies attach to mast cells, large cells that are found
in connective tissue and contain histamines along with a number of other
chemical substances.

50
Role of Immune System
IInd Exposure to Antigen:

A. The second time any given allergen enters the body, it becomes attached
to the newly-formed Y-shaped IgE antibodies.
B. These antibodies, in turn, stimulate the mast cells to discharge its
histamines and other chemical substances.
C. Mast cell will burst up, Neurotransmitters present in mast cell will enter in
circulation & causes allergy.
Inflamatory Mediators

51
I) Histamine.
II) Bradykynin
III) Prostaglandin
IV) Interleukin I
V) Interleukin II
VI) Thromboxane.
VII) Leukotriene
Role of Mediators:
Diagnosis of Allergy
Medical Case History
Medical Case History is the backbone of Medical Diagnosis.
In Allergy the Medical Case History can be concluded on the

following lines:
General Examination

52
Age, sex, type of environment where he work & live, occupation,

any allergy symptoms.
Vital Signs
Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using

following tools the severity of allergy can be diagnose.
I) B.P
II) Temperature
III) Breathing Rate
IV) Pulse Rate.
V) Cardiac output.
VI) Heart Rate.
Allergy Testing
Allergy testing measures how a person reacts to specific allergens, such as tree
pollen, pet dander, foods, medications or molds. A "positive" allergy test means
that a person has a specific allergic antibody to the substance tested. This often
means that the person is allergic to the substance
 Skin Test
 Blood Test

53
Skin Test
 Scratch test/ Skin Prick test

 Patch test
 Intradermal test
S c r a t c h t e s t O r S ki n P r i c k t e s t
Testing begins with a prick, puncture or scratch method, which involves the
placing a drop of the allergen on the skin. (Usually a commercially available
extract of pollens, molds, foods, pet dander,) the skin is then gently scratched
through the small drop with a special sterile needle. After the skin is scratched,
the tests takes about 15 minutes to develop. If the skin reddens and, more
importantly, if it swells, then the test is read as positive and allergy to that
substance is considered probable. This test is used to diagnose hay fever allergy
(house dust mite, grass pollens).

54
P a t c h t e s t s ( c o n t a c t a l l e r g y t e s t i n g )
Dermatologists apply patch tests in patients with dermatitis, to

find out whether their skin condition may be caused by a contact allergy.
(Patch Test)
Intradermal Test
Encapture the allergen & prepared a solution in fat soluble

solvent(Ether Acetone Alcohols).Which is chemically inert & compatible
with allergen. In this 0.1ml of allergen solution is injected into the dermis or
epidermis, If there is any kind of allergic reaction occur than the patient is
has +ve test for this particular Allergen.

55
BLOOD TESTING:
 RAST
 ELISA
What Is a RAST?
Radioallergosorbent testing (RAST) involves measuring specific allergic

antibodies in a person’s blood. RAST has recently become more useful in the
diagnosis and management of food allergies. Whether a person is truly
allergic to the food, RAST actually measures the amount of allergic antibody
to the food.
ELISA:
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), also known as an enzyme

immunoassay (EIA), is a biochemical technique used mainly
in immunology to detect the presence of an antibody or an antigen in a
sample. An unknown amount of antigen is affixed to a surface, and then a
specific antibody is applied over the surface so that it can bind to the antigen.
This antibody is linked to an enzyme, and in the final step a substance is added
56
that the enzyme can convert to some detectable signal, most commonly a Colour
change in a chemical substrate.
Treatment Of Allergy
Once a person has allergies, the best way to treat allergies is to prevent them
from occurring in the first place, by avoiding the allergic triggers.
There are three general approaches to the treatment of allergic diseases that are:
 Avoidance
 Pharmacotherapy
 Immunotherapy
Avoidance
 Wear a pollen mask when mowing the grass or house cleaning.
 Stay indoors in the morning (when the pollen count is at its highest) and
on windy days.
 Read and understand food labels (for people with food allergies).
 Keep windows and doors closed during heavy pollination seasons.
 Use the air conditioner in the house and car.
 Don't allow dander-producing animals in the house.
 Change feather pillows, woolen blankets and clothing to cotton.
 Enclose mattress, and pillows in plastic barrier cloth.
 Wash sheets, mattress and blankets weekly in hot water.
 Remove carpets.
Pharmacotherapy
Medication:
When avoidance or control of an allergen isn't possible, medications may be

necessary. Common allergy medications are;
1. Antihistamines:

57
Drugs that block the action of histamine. First-generation antihistamines include;

 Diphenhydramine (Benadryl),
 Chlorpheniramine (Piriton).
Newer antihistamines, called second-generation antihistamines, include;
 Cetirizine (Regix),
 Fexofenadine (Fexet), &
 Loratadine. New to the market and available by prescription only, is
an antihistamine nasal spray called Azelastine (Astelin).
2. Leukotrienes inhibitors:
Montelukast (Singulair) antileukotriene medication.

Leukotrienes are chemicals released from a variety of allergic and
immune cells, and may cause allergy symptoms
Immunotherapy
When avoidance, environmental control measures and medications fail to

control allergy symptoms, the doctor may suggest allergy
immunotherapy ("allergy shots").
Immunotherapy involves the injections of allergen extracts to "desensitize" the

person.
58
Duration
Typically, the treatment begins with injections of solution of
allergen given one to five times a week, with the strength gradually
increasing.
It usually takes about three to four years for the patient to be free of
symptoms.
CHAPTER 7
Chromatography
Chromatography is a process of chemistry in which mixture of different

compounds is separated on the basis of their relative polarity difference.

59
Difference extraction or chromatography
Extraction.
The compounds are separated on the basis of relative solubility.
Chromatography.
The compounds are separated on the basis of polarity.
Different techniques of chromatography
1. Ascending Chromatography
2. Descending Chromatography
3. Circular chromatography
4. Radial chromatography
Techniques of chromatography
1. Ascending chromatography
In ascending chromatography the solvent are tends to move

upward and the components of mixture are separated in the form of spot.
2. Descending chromatography
In descending chromatography the solvent tends to move downward.

The compounds of mixture separated in the form of spots.
In circular chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the
different compounds of mixture are separated in the form of rings.

60
In radial chromatography the solvent or mobile phase tends to move in circular

form and the compounds of mixture will separate in the form of arch.
Stationary phase
This phase is a component of chromatographic procedure that is non_mobile or

fixed is known as stationary phase.
Stationary phases use is chromatography are.
1. Paper
2. Talc
3. Mg-oxide
4. Al-oxide
5. Activated charcoal.
Mobile phase
This phase is the components of chromatography procedure which has ability to

move. e.g. solvent used in paper chromatography.
The most popular mobile phase is used chromatography are.
1. Petroleum ether.
2. Propanol
3. Ethanol
4. Acetone.
Rf value
Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to the
distance covered by the Mobile Phase / Solvent.
Rf = Distance covered by substance

Distance covered by solvent.

61
Types of Chromatography
1 Paper chromatography
2. Thin layer chromatography
3. Column chromatography
Paper chromatography
Paper chromatography is the technique of analytical chemistry in which

different compounds of mixture are separated by using chromatographic
technique.
In this type of chromatographic technique those mixture are easily separated that
have color pigment.
Stationary Phase
Chromatographic paper is used as stationary phase in paper

chromatography.
Mobile Phase
Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.
Procedure of paper chromatography
1. First of we will take chromatographic paper and cut it down according to

the style of chromatography e.g. redial , circular ascending descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side & in the
case of descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper.
The line is called baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final
edge is 2.5cm.
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied
into mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time
62
the components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each

component is calculated
4. In case of circular chromatography the sample is applied in the center and
thread has been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move
under the capillary action and components of sample will separate in the
form or rings finally Rf value of all the components is calculated .
5. In case of radial chromatography the sample is applied across the center
and like wised dipped in the mobile phase and components of sample will
separate in form of arch. Finally the Rf value of the components is
calculated.
Styles of paper chromatography
Paper chromatography can be done by following styles

.
1. Ascending chromatography:

63
2. Descending chromatography:
3. Circular chromatography:

64
4. Radial chromatography:
Application of paper chromatography

65
i. it is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of

(API)
ii. It is used to determine the polarity and evaporation power of any given
compound.
iii. It is used in the identification of poison.
iv. It is used in the analysis of different medicine
v. It is used in the separation of different body tissue.
vi. It is used in forensic medicine for investigational purpose.
Rf value


66
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a chromatography

technique used to separate mixtures. Thin layer chromatography is performed on
a sheet of glass, plastic, or aluminium foil, which is coated with a thin layer of
adsorbent material, usually silica gel, aluminium oxide, or cellulose.
Stationary Phase
The layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary phase

.
Mobile Phase
Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile

phase.
Procedure of Thin Layer chromatography
1. First of we will take special thin layer chromatographic sheet coated with
the absorbent and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g.
redial , circular ascending descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side & in the case
of descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line
is called baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 2.5cm.
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the sheet is applied into
mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the
components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component
is calculated
4. In case of circular chromatography the sample is applied in the center and

thread has been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move
under the capillary action and components of sample will separate in the form
or rings finally Rf value of all the components is calculated .

67
5. In case of radial chromatography the sample is applied across the center

and like wised dipped in the mobile phase and components of sample will
separate in form of arch. Finally the Rf value of the components is calculated.
Styles of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC):
Paper chromatography can be done by following styles

.
1. Ascending chromatography
2. Descending chromatography

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Application of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
1. Determination of the components a plant contains.

2. Monitoring organic reactions.
3. Analyzing ceramides and fatty acids.
4. Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water.
5. Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics Sciences.
6. Identifying compounds present in a given substance.
7. Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals.
Rf value


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Column Chromatography
Column chromatography in chemistry is a method used to purify

individual chemical compounds from mixtures of compounds. It is often used
for preparative applications on scales from micrograms up to kilograms.
Stationary Phase
The stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a

solid. The most common stationary phase for column chromatography is silica
gel, followed by alumina. Cellulose powder has often been used.
Mobile Phase
Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile
phase.

70
Procedure of Column chromatography
The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter

from 50 mm and a height of 50 cm to 1 m with a tap at the bottom.
The stationary phase is a powdered adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass

column. The mixture to be analyzed is loaded on top of this column.
The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the loaded column. The solvent
flows down the column, causing the components of the mixture to distribute
between the powdered adsorbent and the solvent, thus separating the
components of the mixture so that as the solvent flows out of the bottom of the
column, some components elute with early collections and other components
elute with late fractions.

71
Application of Column Chromatography
1. It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines.

2. It is used in the Analysis of medicine.
3. It is used for the purification of Water & other organic solvents in
pharmaceutical industry.
4. It is used in the separation of different body tissue.

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CHAPTER 8
EXTRACTION
It is the specialized type procedure of chemistry that involves the

separation of different compounds on the basis of their relative solubility in two
different immiscible solvent / liquids .
OR
The extraction is a complex pharmaceutical procedure in which the

active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) is removed from crude drug (animal or
plant origin) by using.
Menstrum
Any liquid that is used in the pharmacy for extractions procedure is called
manstrum.
Marc
The waste material that left after extraction is called marc.
Need for extraction
With the advancement in medical treatment technologies the demand of

herbal medicine diminished. But still some glycosides alkaloids, resins, fixed
oils volatile oils and tannins have importance to us. So we use extraction process
to purify them.

73
Advantages of extraction
i. Potency can be controlled

ii. Deterioration can be controlled
iii. Different dosage form e.g. tablets capsules, symptoms and injections
can easily synthesize.
iv. Dosage forms of purified compounds are more stable then the no
purified ones.
v. The compounds that are none purified can cause infections.
vi. If the drugs are used in raw form ADRs (adverse drug reactions) can
affect humans.
Theory of extraction
Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these
are very much common in all types of extraction.
i. Suitable size reduction of crude drug
ii. Selection of suitable solvent
iii. Penetration of solvent into the crude drug
iv. The cell should be at right position to collect to solution.
v. Supply of appropriate heat.
vi. Who apply pressing force?
vii. The separation of solvent from the raw crude drug the pressing Force
becomes more important.
viii. Separation of solvent from mark
ix. Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug.
Extraction process or extraction techniques
1. Infusion
2. Decoction
3. Maceration
4. Percolation
5. Digestion
6. Continuous hot extraction

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Infusion
It is a method of extraction in which hot manstrum (water) is used poured on

crude drug or crushed drug and allow them for suitable time.
Decoction
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder
or coarse particles. These drug are together boiled with water for certain are
given period of time.
Maceration
It is the method that require prolong time in this method drug is powdered and
cover up in the porous cloth then it is dipped in the menstrum for
2 to 14 days as required.
Percolation
It is the extraction technique in which the fine powder of drugs are packed in to
the column are packed in to the column after suitable menstrum selection are
allow the menstrum to percolate through the column of packed drug.
Digestion
It is the extraction technique which resemble with the maceration in fact it is a

maceration procedure in the presence of gentle heat.
Continues hot extraction
It is the technique of extraction in which soxhelt apparatus is used .the drug is

always used in hot condition.

75
Infusion
Infusion is a process or technique of extraction which is usually

used for soft natured drugs. So that the menstrum (which is water) can easily
diffuse into the drug b/c of these drugs easily release their active constituents in
the menstrum.
The extracts that are formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only
24 hours so. It is recommended to use these kinds of extracts freshly.
Apparatus use in infusion
The main apparatus in infusion procedure is infusion pot . a simple beaker can
also be used instead of infusion pot.
 Burner (heat burner)

 Filter paper
 Beaker
Procedure
 First of all the nature of the drug is checked

 If the nature of the drug is soft you would not cut it into pieces.
 Although if drug has little harder nature then we cut in to pieces.
 If the drug is the soft nature of drugs are bound with the thread and we
suspend it into the infusion pot. If the drug is of harder nature then their
pieces will be place into the infusion pot.
 Now the menstrum will be warm to 200c to 250c.
 After that the hot menstrum will poured on the drug and allow is 15
minutes
 Finely filter it and the extract is ready to use

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Decoction
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the

form of powder or coarse particles. These drug are together boiled with water for
certain are given period of time.
 Decoction is the technique of extraction in which water is used as

menstrum.
 The drug that have to undergo decoction should be heat stable
 The drug that are selected for decoction procedure should be hard
 The drug is cut into small pieces.
 Now put all the pieces of the drug in large beaker (1000ml) and poured
the menstrum on the drug as mentioned in the monograph.
 The heat burner should be opened and heat the drug and menstrum
mixture to boil.
 After the definite period of time the burner should be closed and allow
the mixture to cool down.
 After the cooling phase filter the mixture.
 The filter mixture is now ready to use as a extract.
 Due to evaporation a certain quantity of water is lost so final adjustment
of volume is very necessary
 Decoction preparation always used freshly because their half life is only
24 hours.
 There is no official example of decoction in I.P and B.P.
Maceration
It is the method that require prolong time in this method drug is powdered and
cover up in the porous cloth then it is dipped in the menstrum for
2 to 14 days as required.
 It is the process in which drugs are communicated to fine powders

 Now these powders will encaptured into pouch.
 A suitable menstrum is selected.
 After this the pouch containing drug powder is suspended in to the
menstrum for 2 to 14 days b/c it is the demand of the procedure to soften
the cellular structures of all drug.
 The pouch is removed after the definite the extract if required .
77
 Finely adjust the volume as required.
Types of maceration
1. Maceration of organized drugs.

2. Maceration of unorganized drugs.
3. Multiple maceration
Maceration of Organized Drugs
Simple maceration involves the following steps.
1. Communication of the crude drug. The drug is converted into coarse

powder rather then fine.
2. Take a pouch of suitable material and captured the coarse particles of drug
into it.
3. Selected the suitable menstrum according to the whole menstrum of drug.
4. Take a whole menstrum in a tank.
5. Suspended the pouch with the help of thread for at least 7 day.
6. Occasionally shake the pouch.
7. After 7 days the manstrum is separated.
8. Now combine the menstrum with the pressed solution/ liquid.
9. If required filter it and finally adjust the volume according to the
requirement.
Maceration of Unorganized Drug
1. First of all the unorganized drug is selected.

2. Communication the drug into fine powder .
3. If the drug in the form of gum are aloe gum resin, their should be no need for
communication.
4. Enclosed the communicated or raw drug in a pouch.
5. The ¾ th volume of menstrum.
6. Dip the pouch in this volume of menstrum for at least 2__7 days.
7. After the specific time period the volume of menstrum is separated and
filters it if required.
8. Do not press the marc
78
9. Adjust the volume by using remaining ¼ th part of menstrum.
Multiple maceration (repeated maceration)
Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as for as its

accuracy is concern. The basis aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining
(API) in to menstrum
In multiple maceration we prefer the alcohol as menstrum on other menstrum
like wise water.
Double maceration
●Firstly selection of drug is done. After selection the drug is communicated.

● Enclosed the communicated drug into a pouch
● According to the nature of crude drug a suitable menstrum is selected
● The menstrum is divided into two portions A and B.
● The crude drug pouch is dipped into menstrum A for specific period of
time. After that time the menstrum A is separated and preserved the
Marc is pressed.
● The marc is again dipped into the menstrum B. for specific period of time.
 After that time the marc is pressed and menstrum B is separated
● The menstrum A and B is unite again and adjust the vol. to get the desire
product.
Triple Maceration
● First of all the selection of drug is done.

● Then the drug is communicated to fine powder
● Now enclose the powder drug in a pouch
● Now suitable menstrum is selected and divide the menstrum into
Three parts A, B, C
● A for specified period of time after that time the marc is pressed and
menstrum is labeled and preserved
● The marc again dipped into menstrum B for particular time after the
specific time.
● The marc is pressed and manstrum is pressed after labeling.
● The marc again dipped in menstrum C for specific time after that time the
marc is pressed and menstrum is preserved after labeling.
● Combine the menstrum A, B, and C and adjust their vol. to get your
desire product.
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Percolation
It is an extraction technique in which a communicated drug

is enclosed in a vessel known as percolator and menstrum is allowed to pass
through the communicated drug. The extract that we obtained from the
percolation and procedure is called percolate. The percolation procedure can be
properly explained under following heading.
Communication of the Drug
The drug is subjected to a suitable size reduction by using technique usually the
drug is crushed moderately to fine powder depending upon the nature of drug.
Advantages
The basic advantages of size reduction in percolation are.

● To enhance the surface area of drug.
● Because of size reduction uniform packing of drug in percolation
become possible.
● Because of size reduction (powder form drug) the movement of
menstrum become slow.
Moistening of drug (imbibitions)
The moistening of crude drug is called imbibitions. The powdered drug is place
with little amount of menstrum for at least 4hours in a close container.
Advantages
The fundamental advantages of moistening the drug are as following

The dry powder may be swell up when it firstly have a contact with menstrum.
This can be overcome by moistening the powder drug.
Due to imbibitions of powder drug the entrapment of air can be minimized.

80
Open percolator
The upper surface of this percolator is open it mainly use for mainly non-volatile
solvent.
Close percolator
The upper surface of this percolator is close and it mainly used for volatile
menstrum e.g. alcohol.
Packing
After imbibitions of powdered crude drug it would be evenly packed in suitable

percolation.
Maceration
After the selection of particular or specific solvent (menstrum). The larger

portion of menstrum is poured on the packed drug in a percolator when the drops
of menstrum trickle down then percolator should be preserved at soft place fro at
least 24 hours.
Percolation
After 24 hours of maceration the lower tap is open and menstrum will collect
into a collector. When ¾ of the poured menstrum is collected the remaining
menstrum will be poured. When all the menstrum is received in the collector
then marc is pressed.
Volume adjustment
Volume adjustment as we required

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Continuous hot Extraction
In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber

and Menstrum is placed in lower flask. A reflex condenser place at the upper
portion. When heat is applied to the Menstrum, it convert it self into vapours
these vapours are condensed by reflux condenser. The drops of Menstrum tickle
down on the drug chamber and purified extract is obtained from collection point.

82
CHAPTER 9
POISONOUS PLANTS
(With Special reference to Pakistan)
There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of
Pakistan. Theses plants have the ability to produce some drastic effects on the
human body.
These drastic plants can be classified as;

 Plants Causing GIT Toxicity
 Plants Causing CNS Toxicity
 Plants Causing CVS Toxicity
 Cyanogenetic Plants
A) Plants Causing GIT Toxicity
I) Mouth or, oral cavity Toxic Plants
Name of plants
(1) Arisaema triphyllum

(2) Colcasia esculanata
(3) Arum jacquemontii
Colcasia esculanata Arisaema triphyllum

Family “Araceae”

83
Habitat
Sindh ,Gilget ,Swat,Ayubia and Nathiagali
Toxicology The fundamental compound due to which mouth

or oral cavity toxicity occour is calcium oxalate.
Symptoms
● Intense burning sensation

● Mouth unless
● Dermatitis
● Blister on tongue
● Increase salivation
● Loss of voice is also reported
II) Plants toxic to Gastric Mucosa
Plant name
(1) Narcissus tazeeta

(2) Amaryllus vittae
(3) Crinum asiatcum
Crinum asiatcum Amaryllus vittae Narcissus tazeeta
Family

84
Amaryllideacea
Habitat
Narcissus tazette is widely found in Gilgat and Swat Wally Amarlllus

vittae and crinium asiaticum both widely found in Punjab, Sindh
Toxicology
There are various alkaloids in these plants but lycorine is the most
dangerous one, that cause multiple symptoms
Symptoms
● Inflammation and burning sensation o mouth

● Gastritis
● Headache
● Increase salivation nasal secretion
III) Gastro Enteric Irritant Plants
A) Plant name
B) Aseculus indica
Family
Hippocastanaceae
Habitat
Kasmir, Ziarat, Quetta,
Muree Swat.
Aseculus indica
Toxicology
This plant contain many chemical substances from which saponin

(glycoride ) is a toxic to our GIT.
85
Symptoms
● Inflammation of gastric mucosa
●Peptic ulcer
● Duodenal ulcer
● Inflammation eye. (Conjunctivitis)
● Vomiting
● Fever
● Headache
● Sever sneezing
(B) Plant name
Podophyllum emodi
Family
Berberidiaceae
Habitat
Kashmir, muree, swat and Gilgit. Podophyllum emodi
Toxicology
Podophyllum emodi contain many resinous compounds among them

podophyllin is the most toxic
Symptoms
● Abdominal or epigastric pain
● Persistent emesis
● Headache
●Dermatitis
● Fever
●Diarrhea
● Inflammation of eye
(C) Plant name
Abrus pectorius
Family
Leguminosae

86
Habitat
Sindh, and Kashmir .it found at 3000__5000 altitude.
Toxicology
The toxic substance of abrus pectorious is abrin.
Symptoms
● Even small amount of ingestion of seeds can cause cardiac Arrest especially
in children
. ●Severe gastroenteritis
● Nausea
● Vomiting
● Trembling of hands
●Muscular weakness
IV) Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth
(A) Plant name

Datura stramonium
Family
Solanaceae
Habitat
Datura stramonium
It is widely available in 5000 to 9000 feet altitude mainly in Swat, Gilgat
Chitral, Muree and Kashmir.
Toxicology
(1) There are different compound present in Datura stramonium mainly

hyoscine and hyosyamine if Any human ingested there raw plants they can cause
Toxicity. (2) If leaves and flowers of this plant eaten by Some animal and their
meat is used by human can Caused toxicity.
Symptoms

87
● dryness of mouth
● dyspnea
●Fatigue
● Eye sight weakness
● Muscular weakness
B) Plant name
Atropa belladona
Family
Solanaceae
Atropa belladona
Habitat
It is present at 6000___1000ft altitude. The place where It is found widely hills
of Muree, Hazara, Mansehra and Chitral.
Toxicology
The main chemical compound which is present in Atropa belladona is

atropine.
Symptoms
●dryness of mouth
● Muscular relaxation
● Fever
● Nausea
● Vomiting
V) Plants Causing Intestinal Motility.
Plant name
Conium maculatum
Family
Umbelliferae
Habitat
Hazara, Abottabad and
hills of muree and Chitral.
88
Toxicology There are many alkaloids present in conium maculatum.

But the toxins that are harmful to humans are coniine, pseudo conohydrine
,N.Methyl coniine.
Symptoms
● increase the intestinal motality

●paralysis of motor Nerve ending
●paralysis of spinal card
● respiratory Depression
● drowsiness
Plant name Nicotiana tobaccum
Family solanaceae
Nicotiana tobaccum
Habitat It is widely available in
Rural Sindh , Punjab and
N.W.F.P
Toxicology ● there are mainly alkaloids available in nicotiana tobaccum
.But the most effective is nicotine.
Symptom
● enhance the motality of Intestine
● Diarrhea
B) Plants Causing CVS Disturbances
Plant name
● Digitalis purpura
● Digitalis lanata
Family Scrophulariaceae
Habitat Hazara , Azad Kashmir
Toxicology these are two plants

contain many
glycosides. In which the Digitalis purpura
most active are Digoxin, Digitoxin and Gitatoxin

89
Symptom
● Ventricular tachycardia ● Vomiting
●Sinus arrythemia
● SOB(shortness of breath ● drowsinss
●fatigue
Plant name Nerium indicum
Family Apocynaceae
Habitat Chitral ,Muree and Digitalis lanata

Azad Kashmir
Toxicology
Root, barks and seeds contain toxins .the most active are
“nerodine” and karabin.
Symptom ●hypertenshion ●cardic arrtheimiya
● venticuler tacky cardia ● increase impulse rate
● nausea ●vomiting ● chest pain.
C) Plants Causing CNS Disturbances
Plant name Cannabis stiva
Family Cannabinacea
Habitat it is widely
available in
N.W.F.P and
Punjab.
Cannabis stiva
Toxicology The glandular trichome of cannabis stiva is
90
secreted a Resin which usually a waste material

called as Narcotic resin and also called tetra hydro
cannabinol.
Symptom ● shrinkage of mouth ● dryness of mouth

● dry cough ●constipation ● depression ● the addict
person will enjoy the color of life ● vomiting
● headache ● hallucination
Plant name Cicuta virosa
Family Umblifeareae
Habitat hilly area of

Azad Kashmir.
Cicuta virosa
Toxicology
In cicuta virosa there is a mixture of toxic substances called cicutoxin is a
slightly alcoholic in nature the barks of the cicuta virosa is more toxic then the
seeds and leaves of this plant.
symptom
●depression ● tremor ●respiratory depression which ultimately leads to
respiratory failure ●increase salivation. ● nausea ●vomiting
D) Cyanogenetic Plants
plant name Manihot esulenta

family
Euphorbiaceae
habitat
it is easily available in the
forests of Northen area .
91
Manihot esulenta
Toxicology
there is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte
which can produce harmful effect on the living systems.
Systems
●convulsion ●muscular weakness ●lever damage ● vomiting
Plant name
Prunus amygdalus
Family
Rosaceae
Habitat
It is widely available in the
Northren parts of Pakistan.
Prunus amgludus
Toxicology
It contain a toxic chemical name amygladin..
Symptoms
● convulsions ●vomiting ●liver damage ● headache

92
CHAPTER 10
Glycosides
These are organic compounds, abundantly present in plants; on

hydrolysis they yield a sugar component called Glycogen and non-sugar
component called A-glycogen.
Classes:
The glycosides are classified as follows;
1. Anthra-quinone Glycosides (example: Senna, Aloe, rhubarb)
2. Cardio tonic Glycosides (Example: Digitalis , Strophanthus)
3. Saponin Glycoside
Medically Important Glycoside Plants
1)
Drug;
Senna
Chemical Class;
Glycoside
Synonym;
Alexandrian Senna
Tinnevelly Senna
Biological Source;
It consist of dried leaflets of “Cassia acutifolia” (Alexandrian
Senna) and “Cassia angustifolia” (Tinnevelly Senna).

93
Family;
Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent;
Sennosides A, B, C, D
Aloe-emodine glycosides
Medicinal Uses;
 Cathartic
 Laxative
 Purgative
2)
Drug;
Cassia
Botanical Name;
Cassia fistula
Chemical Class ;
Glycoside
Family ;
Leguminosae
Sennosides
Medicinal Uses;
(Cassia fistula)
 Cathartic
 Anti Gout.

94
3)
Drug;
Aloe
Synonym;
Gwar Gandal
Chemical Class;
Glycoside
Biological source;
It is dried juice obtained from leaves of “Aloe barbadensis”
(Aloe vera).
Family ;
Liliaceae
Collection ;
V-shaped leaves contain spines on the margins. For collection of
juice the leaves are cut in March & April transversally and put a vessel below it
and then heat the juice in copper vessel on open fire. Poured the juice in canes
and tins and solidify it.
Chemical Constituent ;
Aloin, Barbaloin, Emodine
Medicinal Uses ;
 Purgative
 Skin diseases
 Burns by heat, radiation &sun
 Wound
 Hair tonic

95
4)
Drug;
Glycyrrhiza
Chemical Class;
Glycoside
Synonym;
Liquorice, Mulethi
Biological source;
It is dried root and rhizome of “Glycyrrhiza glabra”
Family ;
Leguminoseae
Collection;
96
It is 1m high herb. It is cultivated by planting rhizome in well

moist sandy soil in March. It grows better near the bank of river under sun shine.
Drug is collected from 3-4 years old plant. Roots and rhizome are dug out and
washed with water and packed.
Glycyrrhizin, Glycyrrhizic acid
Medicinal Uses;
 Demulcent
 Expectorant
 Diuretic
 Emollient
 Flavoring agent
 In Food Industry
5)
Drug;
Digitalis
Chemical Class;
Glycosides
Synonym;
Foxglove, Purple Foxglove
Biological source;
Dried leaves of “Digitalis purpurea” and “Digitalis lanata”.
Family;
Scrophulariaceae

97
Collection;
For its cultivation stained seeds are sown into equal parts of clean
sand are garden soil. When seedlings arise they are transferred to the fields. The
leaves are collected from September to November in afternoon. The leaves are
dried immediately at 60 centigrade after collection. If drying is rapid it will
retain it green colour. Dried leaves are packed in air tight container having a
desiccating substance that is silica gel or calcium oxide.
Digitoxin, Gitoxin & Gitaloxin
Medicinal Uses;
 As cardiac stimulant
 In CHF (Congestive Heart Failure)
6)

98
Drug;
Strophanthus
Chemical Class;
Glycosides
Biological source;
It is dried ripe seeds of “Strophanthus kombe” and “Strophanthus hispidus”
Family;
Apocynaceae
Collection;
It is obtained from wild plants. Fruits are many seeded and consist
of two follicles. Mature fruit are collected in June and July Epicarp and
Mesocarp are separated and seeds are removed. The seeds are washed and then
dried.
Strophanthin K, Choline, Kombic acid

99
Medicinal Uses;
 Cardio tonic
 Diuretic
 Arrow poison

100
Alkaloids
Alkaloids are naturally occurring, nitrogen containing compound. These are

basic in nature and are physiologically active.
Groups:
1. Pyridine-piperidine (Example: areca nut )
2. Tropane alkaloids (Example: Hyoscyamus leafs)
3. Quinoline alkaloids (Example: Cinchona bark)
4. Iso-quinoline alkaloids (Example: Ipecac, Opium)
5. Indole alkaloids (Example: Nux-vomica)
6. Alkaloidal amine (Example: Ephedra)
7. Steroidal alkaloids (Example: veratrum)
8. Purine alkaloids (Example: Tea , Coffee)
Medically Important Alkaloid Plants;
1)
Drug;
Rauwolfia
Synonym;
Snake root, Chota chandan

101
(Rauwolfia serpentina)
Chemical Class ;
Alkaloids
Biological source;
It is dried roots of “Rauwolfia serpentine”.

Family ;
Apocynaceae
Reserpine, Ajmaline (Rauwolfine), Ajmalicine
(Yohimbine), Serpentine, Serpentinine.
Medicinal Uses;
 Sedative
 Hypnotic
 As hypertensive
2)

102
Drug;
Catharanthus
Synonym;
Rattanjot
Chemical Class;
Alkaloids
Botanical Name;
It is dried whole plant of “Catharanthus roseus”

Family;
Apocynaceae
Vinblastine, Vincristine, Vindoline & Catharanthine
Medicinal Uses;
 Anti Neoplastic
 Used in Leukemia

103
3)
Drug;
Ephedra
Chemical Class;
Alkaloids
Biological source;
It consist of whole aerial parts of “Ephedra sinica”
Family;
Ephederacae
Ephedrine, Pseudo-ephedrine
Medicinal Uses;
 Anti asthmatic
 Bronchodilator
 Vasodilator
 Used in flu, fever and allergic conditions
 CNS stimulant
4)
Drug;
Opium
Synonym;
Post, Afim, Heroin, Poppy plant
104
Chemical Class;
Alkaloids
Biological source;
It is the air dried milky latex obtained by incision from the

unripe capsules of “Papaver somniferum”
Family;
Papaveraceae
Morphine, Codeine, Narcotine, Thebaine, noscapine,

Papaverine
Poppy Plant Capsule
Medicinal Uses;
 Narcotic
 Analgesic
 Sedative
 Antispasmodic
 Codeine is used as anti tussive
 Papaverine is smooth muscle relaxant
105
5)
Drug;
Nux-Vomica
Synonym;
Kuchla, Poison nut, Vomit nut
Biological source;
It is the dried ripe seeds of “Strychnus nux-vomica”
Family;
Loganiaceae
Strychnine, Brucine, Vomicine, Novacine, Colubrine
Medicinal Uses;
 Circulatory stimulant
 Bitter tonic
 Increase tone of intestine
 Used in alcohol poisoning
 Improve appetite and digestion
106
6)
Drug;
Cinchona bark
Biological source;
It is dried bark of stem and roots of “Cinchona succirubra”
Family ;
Rubiaceae
Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine, Cinchonidine.
Medicinal Uses;
 Antimalarial
 Anti pyretic
 Analgesic
 Arrythmia
 Dyspepsia
 Hay fever
 Tonsillitis

107
7)
Drug;
Hyoscyamus leaf
Synonym;
Khurasani-ajvayan
Biological source;
It consist of dried leaves and flowering tops of “Hyoscyamus niger”
Hyoscyamus
Family;
Solanaceae
Hyoscyamine (Atropine)
Hyoscine (Scopolamine)
Medicinal Uses;
 Smooth muscle relaxant

 Sedative
 Narcotic
 Mydriatic
 Used in Asthma
 CNS stimulant

108
8)
Drug;
Belladonna
Synonym;
Death herb
Biological source;
It consist of dried leaves and flowering tops of “Atropa

belladonna”
Family;
Solanaceae
Atropine, Hyoscyamine, Asparagaline
Medicinal Uses;
 Muscle relaxant of respiratory tract

 Narcotic
 Sedative
 Antispasmodic

109
Volatile Oil
Rapidly evaporating oil, especially an essential oil that does not leave a
stain.
OR
Any organic oil present in plants, usually containing terpenes and

esters and having the odour or flavour of the plant from which they are
extracted.
Medically Important Volatile Oil Plants

110
1)
Drug;
Fennel
Synonym;
(Saunf)
Chemical Class ;
Volatile oil
Biological source;
It is obtain from ripe fruit of “Foeniculum vulgare”
Family ;
Umbelliferae
Anethol, Fenchone, Phellandrene, Chavicol
Medicinal Uses
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative
 Stomachic
 Expectorant
 Stimulant
2)
Drug;
Caraway
Synonym;
111
(Zira)
Chemical Class;
Volatile oil
Biological source;
It is obtain from dried ripe food of “Carum carvi”
Family;
Umbelliferae
Carvone, Carveol, Limonene
Medicinal Uses;
 Flavoring
 Carminative
 Expectorant
3)
Drug;
Peppermint
Synonym;
Pudina
Biological source;

112
It is obtain from dried leaves & flowering tops of “Mentha

piperita”
Family;
Labiateae
Menthol, Menthone, Jasmine, Limonene, Phellandrene

Medicinal Uses;
 Flavoring agent
 Carminative
 Stomachic
 Expectorant
 vomiting
4)
Drug;
Cinnamon
Synonym;
Darchini
Chemical Class;
Volatile oil
Biological source;
It is obtained from dried bark of”Cinnamomum zeylanicum”

113
Family;
Lauraceae
Eugenol, Phellandrene, Pinene

Medicinal Uses ;
 vomiting
 Flavoring
 Carminative
 Stimulant
 Astringent
5)
Drug;
Cardamom
Synonym;
Ilayachi
Chemical Class;
Volatile oil

114
Biological source;
It is dried ripe seed of “Elettaria cardamomum”
Family ;
Zingiberaceae
Cineol, Borneol, Limonene
Medicinal Uses;
 Flavoring
 Stomachic
 Stimulant
 Diuretic
6)
Drug;
Clove
115
Synonym;
Long
Chemical Class;
Volatile oil
Biological source;
It is dried flower buds of “Eugenia caryophyllus”
Family;
Myrtaceae
Eugenin, Chromone, Vanillin

Medicinal Uses;
 Flavoring
 Carminative
 Anti-septic
 Dental preparation
116
7)
Drug;
Curcuma
Botanical Name;
Curcuma longa
Chemical Class;
Volatile Oil
Family ;
Zingiberaceae (Curcuma longa)

117
Curcumin
Medicinal Uses;
 Anti Inflammatory
 Use in Jaundice
 Use in Gall Stones
(Turmeric)
Resins
Resins are solid or semisolid plant exudates formed in schizogenous

cavities.They are complex mixtures of compounds like resin alcohols (resinols),
resin acids, resinophenols.
Natural resins are usually transparent yellow to brown and can melt and burn.
Most are exuded from trees, especially pines.
Classification of Resins:
Resins are classified on the basis of their occurrence in combination with other
compounds as:
Balsams:
118
Balsams are resinous substances which contain large proportion of

benzoic acid or cinnamic acid either free or in combination with
their esters. Examples are Tolu balsam, Benzoin and Peru balsam.
Oleoresin:
When resin occurs with volatile oils the mixture is called Oleoresin.
Examples are; Ginger, Capsicum etc.
Gum Resins:
When resins are found in combination with gums then such resins
are known as gum resins. Examples include; Asafeotida.
Oleo-gum Resins:
These are associated with gums and volatile oils both. The volatile
oil is removed by steam distillation and gum is separated by
dissolving in water. Examples are; Myrrh, Ipomoea
1)
Drug;
Tolu balsam
Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
It is obtain from by incision of stem of “Myroxylon

balsamum”
Family;
Leguminoseae

119
Ferulic acid, Styrene, Vanillin

Medicinal Uses;
 Expectorant
 Anti-septic
 Flavouring in Pharmaceuticals
2)
Drug;
Sumatra Benzoin
Synonym;
Benjamin, Luban (Hindi)
Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
It is obtain from by incision of stem of “Styrax benzoin”

120
Family;
Styraceae
Balsamic acid, Benzoin acid, Cinnamic acid
Medicinal Uses;
 Expectorant
 Anti-septic
 Carminative
 Diuretic
 In cosmetic
 compound benzoin tincture

121
3)
Drug;
Colocynth
Synonym;
Bitter apple, Bitter cucumber, Bitter gourd, Korh tuma (Punjabi)
Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
It is obtain from dried pulp of unripe but fully grown fruit of

“Citrullus colocynthis”
Family;
Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbitacin-E
Medicinal Uses;
 In Cathartic
 Anti-cancer
4)
Drug;
Asafeotida
Synonym;
Food of god, Hing
Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
122
It is obtain from Oleo-gum-resin from exudation by incision

on roots & rhizome “Ferula Asafeotida”
Family;
Umbellifereae
Ferulic acid, Umbelliferone
Medicinal Uses;
 Carminative
 Expectorant
 Anti-spasmodic(muscle relaxant)
 Laxative
 Hysteria & epilepsy (mental disorder)

123
Hing
5)
Drug;
Ginger
Synonym;
Zingiber, Saunth (Hindi), Adrak (Urdu)
Chemical Class;
Resins
Biological source;
It is obtain from dried rhizomes of “Zingiber officinale”
Family;
Zingiberaceae

124
(Fresh Ginger) (Dry ginger)
Resins constituents are;
Gingerol, Shogaols, Gingediols
Volatile oils are;
Zingerone, Zingiberene
The pungency of ginger is due to Gingerol. Dehydration of Gingerol produces

shogaol which is not present in fresh rhizome.
Medicinal Uses;
 Stimulant
 Carminative
 Condiment
 Used in Cold & Cough
 Used in Asthma

125
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are pollyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone, with at least three

carbon atoms. These compounds are produced by photosynthetic plants and
contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in the ratio 1:2:1.
Example:
Glucose, sucrose and starch.
Source:
The source of carbohydrates is plants. They are widely distributed in plants.
Classification:
Carbohydrates are classified into 3 main classes.
1. Monosaccharides or simple sugars
2. Oligosaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
1. Monosaccharides:
These are the simple sugars and can not be hydrolyzed. Chemical formula is
(C.H2o) n.
For example:

126
Glucose (C6H12O6) Blood Sugar

Fructose (C6H12O6) Fruit Sugar
Pentose (C5H10O5)
2. Oligosaccharide:
They contain the carbohydrates which formed by the combination of 2 or 3

monosaccharide units. And the range is (C1 to C10)
Such as;
 Disaccharides
 Tri-saccharides and so on….
Disaccharide:
In which 2 monosaccharide combine to form disaccharide with
a linkage called Glycosidic linkage
For example;
Sucrose (Table Sugar) it forms by the combination of D-glucose
and D-fructose
3. Polysaccharides:
In which large no. of monosaccharide combine to form polysaccharide and

they are very complex in structure and these are called non-sugar
For example starch, Agar, pectin etc.
Medically Important Carbohydrate Plants

127
1)
Drug;
Acacia
Synonym;
Gum Acacia, Gum Arabica
Chemical Class;
Carbohydrates
Biological source;
It is dried gum obtain from the stem and branches of

“Acacia senegal” and “Acacia arabica”
Family;
Leguminoseae
Collection;
Acacia tree is 6 m high when we cut stem transversely phloem
cells come out and by bacterial attack (Bacterium acaciae) the flume cells
convert into gum and then it is stored in lathery bags for 2-3 months.
Character:
Colour: Dark brown
Shape: 1-3 in diameter and round
Odour: odourless

128
Arabin (Magnesium, Potassium, Calcium salts of
Arabic acid
Medicinal Uses ;
 As emulsifying agent
 As binder
 As demulcent
 As thickner in juices
2)
Drug;
Tragacanth

129
Synonym;
Gondkatera
Chemical Class;
Carbohydrate
Biological source;
It is dried gum obtain from exudates of the stem of

“Astragallus gummifer”
Family;
Leguminoseae
Collection;
The tree is 1 m high and thorny branches of shrubs and
obtains from plant when plant is 1-2 year old by a process called gummosis
When plant is injured the internal layer pith is converted into gum then the
plant absorbed water and swells up and throws the gum on the outer
surface and by the reaction with air it become hard due to the evaporation
of water.

130
Character:
Colour: Pale yellow and off white
Shape: depend upon the type of incision
Odour: Odourless
Tragacanthin and bassorin
Medicinal Uses;
 As emulsifying
 As suspending agent
 As demulcent
 In cosmetics
 In food industry
2)
Drug;
Agar
Synonym;
Japan agar
Chemical Class;
Carbohydrates
Biological source;

131
It is dried hydrophilic complex obtain from of “Gelidium

cartilagineum”
Family;
Gelidiaceae
Collection;
Algae is cultivated on coast and washed for 24 hours in

running water then beaten and shaken to remove sand and shells. Then it is
moved in steam heated digester for 30 hours to extract chemical then a gel
like material is obtain. To remove water gel is freezes, ice block of agar is
obtained crush and melt it and filter through a vacuum rotary sieve agar
flack is obtain.
Character:
Colour: Transparent
Shape: Flattened (tough when damp and brittle when dry)
Odour: Odourless
Agarose and Agaropectin

132
Medicinal Uses;
 As cathartic
 As demulcent
 As nutrient media for bacterial culture
 As laxative
4)
Drug;
Starch
Chemical Class;
Carbohydrates
Biological source;
It is a polysaccharide obtains from seed like grains of

plants
Corn Starch
B.O: Zea mays

Family: Gramineae
Wheat Starch
B.O: Triticum aestrivum

Family: Gramineae
Rice Starch
B.O: Oriza sativa

Family: Gramineae
Potato starch

133
B.O: Solanum tuberosum

Family: Solanaceae
Collection and Preparation;
1. preparation of maize starch:
Firstly the grains are softened by soaking in the aqueous

solution of sulphuric acid at 500 c temperature for 3-4 days then the
grains are crush to separate the embryo and germ milky fluid is obtained
(which have starch and protein). To separate starch the dilute Alkali
solution is added which absorb protein. Starch is dried by flash dryer.
2. Preparation of rice starch:
Firstly broken rice are softened by adding in the aqueous

solution of NaOH then crushed it and mixed with water and to separate
starch the solution is kept on standing position then dried at the 50-60 c
temp.
3. Preparation of wheat starch;
Firstly take wheat and add water to make dough. After that
make small bolls and add in water and shake it. Liquid starch is obtained
then centrifuges it and dried.

134
4. Preparation of potato starch:
Firstly potatoes are washed, crushed and separate

cellular debris by rotary sieves then add water and keep on standing
position starch is separated and then dried it.
Character:
Solubility: Insoluble in cold water and forms a colloidal solution on boiling
Colour: White mass
Shape: Irregular
Amylose and Amylopectin
Medicinal Uses ;
 As binder
 As nutritive
 As anti-dote in iodine poisoning
 In dusting powder

135
 As a filler in tablets
Tannins
These are complex organic, non-nitrogenous, pale yellow to light brown

amorphous substances widely distributed in plants and used chiefly in tanning
leather, dyeing fabric, and making ink. Their solutions are acid and have an
astringent taste.
Medically Important Tannin Plants
1)
Drug;
Catechu
Synonym;
Katha
Chemical Class;
Tannin
(Acacia catechu)
Botanical Name;
It is dried aqueous extract prepared from “Acacia catechu”
Family;
Leguminoseae
Acacatechin, Quercitin, Tannic acid

136
Medicinal Uses;
 As Astringent, applied to boils and skin ulcers

 Digestive
 In cough
 In Diarrhoea
2)
Drug;
Nut gall
Botanical Name;
Quercus infectoria
Chemical Class ;
Tannin
Family ;
Fagaceae

137
Gallic acid (Quercus infectoria)
Medicinal Uses;
 Astringent
 Used in Burns.
Fixed Oils
These are esters of glycerol with long chain fatty acids. They are nonvolatile in
nature obtained from plants (Castor oil, Almond oil) or animals (Cod liver oil).
OR
Fixed Oils are most commonly used in aromatherapy oil blends, toiletries, food
and industry. Fixed Oils are not volatile, they do not evaporate.
Medically Important Fixed Oil Plants
1)
Drug;
Almond Oil
Chemical Class;
Lipids (Fixed Oil)

138
(Prunus amygdalus)
Biological source;
It is dried ripe seeds of “Prunus amygdalus”
Family;
Rosaceae
Sphingolipid
Medicinal Uses;
 Used for moisturizing skin

 Used in eczema
 As flavouring agent in the preparation of toilet articles
 As vehicle for oily injection
 Mild laxative


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Pharmacognosy Book of Pharmacy Technician

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Pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs of plant and

The word "Pharmacognosy" is derived from the Greek words

John Adam Schmidt Schmidt Cognosy

PUNJB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE

Pharmacognosy is the branch of science which deals with the

 Classification of Crude Drugs to know about the class of the Drug

 Cultivation, Collection, Drying, Storage, Preservation, Packing,

 Plant growth hormones, for rapid & better growth of plants.

 Allergens & allergic preparations, to overcome the problems of Allergy.

 Enzymes, to cure & manage the diseases caused by Enzymatic

 Poisonous Plants to prevent poison.

 Herbal drugs, used in traditional practice.

PUNJB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE

A crude drug is any naturally occurring, unrefined substance

Classification Of Crude Drugs

Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.

PUNJB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE

These are the drugs obtained from direct parts of the

The drugs which are prepared from plants by

PUNJB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE

Table 1. Morphological Classification of Drugs

Plant Part Example of drugs

 Leaves Digitallis, Pudina, Senna, Squill

 Flowering Parts Clove, Saffron

 Fruits Cardamom, Caraway, Fennel,

 Dried Latex Opium, Papain

 Dried Juice Aloe

 Gums Acacia, Tragacanth

 Resins Asafeotida, Benzoin, Tolu Balsam

 Fixed oils Castor, Almond

 Waxes Bees wax, Carnauba wax

 Animal Products Gelatin, Cod liver oil, Cantharides

 Minerals Kaolin, Talc

Book follows this method;

In this method, drugs are classified according to

Table 2. Taxonomical Classification of Drugs

Phyllum Order Family Genus Species Drugs

Angiosperms Rosales Rosaceae Prunus amygdalus Almond

Rhodophyta Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium cartilagineum Agar

Gymnosperms Genetales Ephedraceae Ephedra sinica Ephedra

PUNJB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE

In this method drugs are classified according to their

Pharmacological Class Drugs

Anticancer Cinnamon bark,

Purgative Aloe, Senna, Castor oil

Antispasmodic Belladona, Hyoscyamus

Astringent Catechu, Tannic acid

Expectorant Glycyrrhiza, Tolu balsam

PUNJB PHARMACY COUNCIL, LAHORE

In this method drugs are classified according to their principle

Sr.No. Chemical Constituents Drugs

1. Carbohydrates Agar, Acacia, Tragacanth, Starch

2. Glycosides Aloe, Senna, Glycyrrhiza, Digitalis

3. Volatile oils Cinnamon, Fennel, Clove, Caraway

4. Alkaloids Belladona, Hyoscyamus

5. Resins Ginger, Asafeotida, Benzoin,

6. Tannins Black catechu

7. Proteins Papain, Bromelain, Gelatin