Technical English in Mechanical
Technical English in Mechanical
Technical English in Mechanical
for
Mechanical Engineering
The iron ore which we find in the earth is not pure. It contains some impurities which
wemust remove by smelting. The process of smelting consists of heating the ore in a blast
furnace with coke and limestone, and reducing it to metal. Blasts of hot air enter the
furnacefrom the bottom and provide the oxygen which is necessary for the reduction of the
ore. The orebecomes molten, and its oxides combine with carbonfrom the coke. The non-
metallicconstituents of the ore combine with the limestone to form a liquid slag. This floats
on top ofthe molten iron, and passes out of the furnace through a tap. The metal which
remains is pig-iron.
We can melt this down again in another furnace - a cupola - with more coke and limestone,
andtap it out into a ladle or directlyinto moulds. This is cast-iron. Cast-iron does not havethe
strength of steel. It is brittleand may fracture under tension. But it possesses certain
properties which make it very useful in the manufacture of machinery. In the molten state it
isvery fluid,and therefore it is easy to cast it into intricate shapes. Also it is easy to machine
it. Cast-iron contains small proportions of other substances. These non-metallic constituents
of cast-iron include carbon, silicon and sulphur, and the presence of these substances
affectsthe behaviour of the metal. Iron which contains a negligible quantity of carbon, for
example wrought-iron, behaves differently from iron which contains a lot of carbon.
The carbon in cast-iron is present partly as free graphite and partly as a chemical
combination of iron and carbon which we call cementite.This is a very hard substance,and
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itmakes the iron hard too. However, iron can only hold about 1 % of cementite. Any carbon
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content above that percentage is present in the form of a flaky graphite.Steel contains no
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freegraphite, and its carbon content ranges from almost nothing to l %. We make wire and
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tubing from mild steel with a very low carbon content, and drills and cutting tools from
highcarbon steel.
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temperature, and then allow it to cool at different rates. At this critical temperature, changes
begin to take place in the molecular structure of the metal. In theprocess known as
annealing, we heatthe steel abovethe critical temperatureand permit it to cool very slowly.
This causes themetal to become softer than before, and mucheasier to machine. Annealing
has a secondadvantage. It helps to relieve any internal stresses which exist in the metal. These
stresses are liable to occur through hammering orworking the metal, or through rapid cooling.
Metal which we cause to cool rapidly contracts more rapidly on the outside than on the inside.
Thisproduces unequal contractions, which may give rise to distortion or cracking. Metal
which cools slowly is less liable to have these internal stresses than metal which cools
quickly.
On the other hand, we can make steel harder by rapid cooling. We heat it up beyond
thecritical temperature, and then quench it in water or some other liquid. The rapid
temperature drop fixes the structural change in the steel which occurredat the critical
temperature, and makes it very hard. But a bar of this hardened steel ismore liable to fracture
than normal steel. We therefore heat it again to a temperature below the critical temperature,
and cool itslowly. This treatment is called tempering. It helps to relieve the internal stresses,
and makesthe steel less brittle than before. The propertiesof tempered steel enable us to use it
in the manufacture of tools which need a fairly hard steel. High carbon steel is harder than
tempered steel, but it is much more difficult to work.
These heat treatments take place during the various shaping operations. We can obtain
barsand sheets of steel by rolling the metal through huge rolls in a rolling-mill. The roll
pressures must be much greater for cold rolling than for hot rolling, but cold rolling
enables the operators to produce rolls of great accuracy and uniformity, and with a better
surface finish. Other shaping operations include drawing into wire, casting in moulds, and
forging.
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The rotating shaft bears on a stationary bush or tube. We therefore have two metal
surfaces in close contact with each other, and sliding over each other often at high speed.
This will cause frictionand the bearing will become heated. So we have to protect the metal
surfaces from overheating and damage. First of all, we avoid making the shaft and the bush of
the same material. The shafting itself is generally of steel, but we use another metal such as
cast-iron or bronze or white metal for the bush. At a certain temperature, the metal in the bush
willseize or run, and thiswill prevent damage to the shaft. But of course it will not prevent
overheating from occurring.
However, we can reduce the danger of overheating by lubrication. We have a thin film of
oil between the two metallic surfaces to keep them apart. The internal friction of oil is
muchless than the friction between two solids, and generates less heat. Lubrication also
offers another advantage. A film of oil on the metal surfaces will prevent themfrom
corroding by protecting them from the air.
The sort of lubricant which we use depends largely on the running speed of the bearing.
We can use grease in low-speed bearings, but greaseoffers more resistanceto the
turningmovement of the shaft. A lighter oil causes less friction, and so an oily lubricant is
better for high-speed bearings. The rotation of the shaft carries the film of oil round the
inside of thebearing and keeps the shaft from contact with the bush which houses it. We can
feed the oilinto the bearing in several ways. Sometimes we allow it to drip down under the
influence of gravity. More commonly, a pump or gun feeds it in under pressure. In motor-car
and other engines, we half cover the bearing in an oil-bath, and oil splashes up into it.We can
reduce the amount of frictioneven more with rolling bearings. The hardened steel balls in this
type of bearing roll round in a finely-ground ball race, and make little more than point contact
with the race.
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The headstock incorporates the driving and gear mechanism, and a spindle which holds
theworkpiece and causes it to rotate at a speed which depends largelyon the diameter of the
workpiece. A bar of large diameter should naturally rotate more slowly than a very thin
barthe cutting speed of the tool is what matters. Tapered centres in the hollow nose of the
spindleand of the tailstockhold the work firmly between them. A feed-shaft fromthe
headstock drivesthe tool-post along the saddle, either forwards or backwards, at a fixed and
uniformspeed. This enables the operator to make accurate cuts and to give the work a good
finish.Gears between the spindle and the feed-shaft control the speed of rotation of the
shaft, and therefore the forward or backward movement of the tool-post. The gear which
the operator will select depends on the type of metalwhich he is cutting and the amount of
metal he has to cut off. For a deep or roughing cut the forward movement of the tool should
be less than fora finishing cut.
Centres are notsuitable for every job on the lathe. The operator can replace them by
various types of chucks, which hold the work betweenjaws, or by a front-plate, depending on
the shape of the work and the particular cutting operation. He will use a chuck, for example,
tohold a short piece of work, or work for drilling, boring or screw-cutting. A
transverse movement of the tool-post across the saddle enables the tool to cut across the
face of theworkpiece and give it a flat surface. For screw-cutting, the operator engages the
lead-screw, a long screwed shaft which runs along in front of the bed and which rotates with
thespindle. The lead-screw drives the tool-post forwardsalong the carriage at the correct
speed, and this ensures that the threads on the screw are of exactly the right pitch. The
operator can select different gear speeds, and this will alter the ratio of spindle and lead-
screw speeds andtherefore alter the pitch of the threads. A reversing lever on the headstock
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enables him toreverse the movement of the carriage and so bring the tool back to its original
position.
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Section 5: Welding
There are a number of methods of joining metal articles together, depending on the type of
metal and the strength of the joint which is required. Soldering gives a satisfactory joint
forlight articles of steel, copper or brass, but the strength of a soldered joint is rather less than
ajoint whichis brazed, riveted or welded. These methodsof joining metal arc
normallyadopted forstrong permanent joints.
The simplest methodof weldingtwo piecesof metal together is known as pressure welding.
The ends of metal are heated to a white heat - for iron, the welding temperature should be
about 1300° C -in a flame. At this temperature the metalbecomes plastic. The ends are then
pressed or hammered together, and the joint is smoothedoff. Care must be taken to ensure
thatthe surfacesare thoroughly clean first, fordirt will weaken the weld. Moreover, the heating
of iron or steel to a high temperature causes oxidation, and a film of oxide is formed on the
heated surfaces. For this reason, a flux is applied to the heated metal. At welding heat, the
flux melts, and the oxide particles are dissolved in it together with any other impurities
which may be present. The metal surfaces are pressed together, and the flux is squeezed out
from the centre of the weld. A number of different typesof weld may be used, but for fairly
thick bars of metal, a vee-shaped weld should normally beemployed. It is rather stronger than
the ordinary butt weld.
The heat forfusion welding is generated in several ways, depending on the sort of metal
which is beingwelded and on its shape. An extremely hot flame can be produced from anoxy-
acetylene torch. For certain welds an electric arc is used. In this method, an electriccurrent is
passed across two electrodes, and the metal surfaces are placed between them. The electrodes
are sometimes madeof carbon, but more frequently they are metallic. The work itself
constitutes one ofthem and the other is an insulated filler rod. An arc is struck betweenthe
two, and theheat whichis generated melts the metal at the weld. A different method isusually
employed forwelding sheets or platesof metal together. This is known as spot welding.
Two sheets or plates are placed together with a slight overlap, and acurrent ispassed between
the electrodes. At welding temperature, a strong pressure is applied to the metal sheets,
The oxide film, and any impurities which are trapped between the sheets, are squeezed out,
and the weld is made.
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Modern boilers which employ solid fuels arc usually too large to be hand-stoked, and
stoking is then carried out by mechanical stokers, which ensure that an adequate quantity of
fuel is conveyed into the furnace at the proper speed. The air which is needed by the fuel
forcombustion is blown across the fire grate by steam jets or fans. The amount of air which
isallowed to enter is just more than sufficient for complete combustion of the fuel. An
insufficient supplyof air willprevent complete combustion, but any air in excess of
theminimum merely reduces the temperature of combustion. The hot gases which are
produced by the combustion of the fuel are circulated round banks of water-tubes. These are
inclined atan angle over the furnace, and connect the upper and lower steam drums. A large
proportionof the heat is absorbed by the water in the boiler. The remainder may be used to
heat up theincoming air-supply through an air-heater. The water and steam in the boiler
should circulatefreely. The water and steam circuits are designed to allow the greatest
possible fluid velocityto be attained, and rapid movement of the fluid is achieved by forced
circulation. This assistsrapid heating and also prevents the formation of steam pockets in the
tubes.
Loss of efficiencyin the boiler will be caused by the dissipation of heat through thewalls
of thecombustion chamber. This heat loss can be considerably reduced by the use of
firebricksround the walls of the chamber. This helps to insulate the chamber and to conserve
the heat which is generated. However, at the temperatureswhich areattainable in modern
boilers, the solid walls of the furnace are liable to be damaged by excessive heat. To
avoidthis, they are often lined with water-tubes, and some of the heat of combustion is
absorbed by the water.
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The steam from the boiler is passed through a superheater and out past a stop
stop-valve athigh
pressure. A fresh supply of water is fed by pumps into the boiler to replace it. The feed
feed-water
should be pure, and free from dissolved salts which will cause deposits on the tubesand lead
to overheating.
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There are two fire-boxes inside the boiler, an inner one and an outer one, which extenda
long way forward. The inner fire-box is linked by tubes to the fire-plate at the front of the
boiler. Practically the whole of theheating surface, which includes these fire-tubes, is
surrounded by water. A high rate of evaporation in the boiler is essential, in order to
generatethe large quantities of stain which are required. For this purpose a powerful draught
of air isblown over the fire. The steam which is evolved ispassed through assuper-heater,
which raises its temperature and makes it as dry as possible. Rapid evaporation at the heating
surface tends to make the steam wet. The use of wet steam necessitates excessively high
pressures in the cylinder.Super-heating the steam enables the requisite power to be obtained
with considerably lower pressures.
This is effected by superheating the steam in the boiler and also by fitting steam
jacketsRound the cylinder. These are fitted into the annular space between thecylinder and
thecylinder liner, and are connected to thesteam supply. By raining the temperatureof
thecylinder walls in this way, the outward flow of heat is greatly reduced.
Steam which is exhausted from the cylinder still has a considerable heat content, and
inorder that this heat energy should not be wasted, the steam is condensed and passed back
tothe boiler as hot feed water. Rapid condensation is accomplished by means of a condenser.
In this condenser, a liquid coolant is circulated through banks of metal tubes. By flowing over
these tubes, the steam is caused to transmit some of its heat to the liquid, and a rapid drop
intemperature occurs. The steam condenses, and iscollected at the bottom of the condenser as
condensate. By ensuring that there is no contact between the condensate and the coolant, a
pure distilled water can be produced which is ideal for boiler feed water. This type of
condenser is commonly used where pure water is not plentiful. The condensate is usually
reheated, so that it may be circulated back to the boiler at an adequate temperature.
In other types of condensers, which are known as jet condensers, the steam is cooled
byallowing it to mix intimately with jets of cold water which are injected into the
condenser.Bythis means, rapid condensation takes place, and the mixture of condensate
and coolant is withdrawn by means of an extraction pump. The water which is normally
used as a coolantcannot usually be utilised in the boiler, and cannot therefore be re-
circulated. It is eitherpumped up to a cooling tower or it gravitates into a cooling pond,
and is stored for lateruse in the condenser.
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The simplest form of governor consists of a pair of balls which are attached to a
verticalshaft by means of arms. These balls act as weights. While they are stationary, they are
acted on only by gravity. Now the vertical shaftis geared to the engine, and rotates with it.
Whenthe engine starts, it causes the shaft to rotate, and this forces the rotating balls outwards
underthe influence of centrifugal force. This movement of the balls at the end of their arms
istransmitted to a sleeve which is free to slide up and down the shaft. As the engine increases
speed, it rotates the shaft more quickly, and the weights rise further against the force of
gravity. The sleeve also rises up the shaft, andwhen it rises beyond a certain point, it
operatesa throttle valve lever, and so reduces the low of steam. The engine speed will then
decrease,and as the sleeve slides down, it opens the throttle valve again. When the engine is
running at constant speed, it produces a state of equilibrium in the governor, with the
centrifugal force equal and opposite to the controlling force - that is, the weight of the
governor and its gear.Governors which arerequired to work at very high engine speeds are
normally weight-loaded. A weight is attached to the sleeve, and serves to prevent the sleeve
from rising too far.
Both the simple and weight-loaded governors depend on gravity and must therefore be
kept in a vertical position. This is often a disadvantage, and may be obviated by the use of
aspring instead of a weight. The spring performs the same function as the weight, and keeps
thesleeve depressed. It can be mounted in any position. By making simple adjustments to
theloading on the spring, the governor speed caneasily be altered. The governor is mounted
ina dome-shaped housing which contains the spring and the bell-crank levers, on which
the rotating balls are pivoted. Ball bearings at the pivots and at the top of the spindle serve
toreduce wear and friction. As the spindle rotates, it causes the weights to fly outwards, and
thismovement about the pivotraises the sleeve against the pressure of the spring. Equilibrium
isattained at a constant engine speed by the balancing of thecentrifugal force and the
compressive load on the spring.
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On emerging from the nozzle at its maximum velocity, the steam impinges on the rowof
moving blades which project radially from the turbine shaft. In this axial-flow type of turbine,
the steam flow is along the axis of rotation of the shaft, and therefore the blades radiate
outwards from the shaft. On entering the blades, which are set at a definite angle tothe steam
flow, the steam is deflected from its original path. In being deflected, it exerts animpulsive
force on the blades, which causes them to rotate. While passing over the blades,the steam
suffers a slight reduction in velocity through friction. In a simple turbine, it is then passed out
into the atmosphere, or to a condenser, where it is condensed and led back to the boiler.
However, after leaving the blades of the turbine, the steam still possesses a
considerablevelocity, and this may be utilised in another type of turbine by passing it through
a series oftwo or more turbine wheels. This is known as velocity-compounding. On passing
through thefirst row of moving blades, the steam encounters a row of stationary blades which
deflect thesteam on to a second row of moving blades, and so on. Each time part of the
kinetic energyof the steam is lost through friction, and therefore the velocity of the steam is
progressivelyreduced. In order to compensate for this, the blades in each successive row are
made progressively larger in cross-section, and their pitch is increased. In this way, a
largerproportion of the kinetic energy of the steam can be utilised than in the simple turbine.
Air enters the engine through a divergent inlet duct, in which its pressure raised to some
extent. It then passes to a compressor, where it is compressed, and from which it is delivered
to the combustion chambers. These are arranged radially round the axis of the turbine, into
which the products of combustion pass on leaving the combustion chambers. A proportion of
the power developed by these gases is utilised by the turbine to drive the air-compressor, and
the residual energy provides the thrust where by the aircraft is propelled. Due to the
expansion of the exhaust gases in the jet-pipe behind the turbine, their exit velocity is very
high.
In each of the combustion chambers, there is a perforated flame-tube, into which kerosene
is sprayed and ignited. Owing to the need to limit temperatures in the combustion chambers, a
large volume of excess air is required. The air/fuel ratio necessary to reduce combustion
temperatures to an acceptable level is about 60:1. However with this ratio of fuel to air, the
mixture would lie difficult to ignite. Therefore only a small proportion of the compressed air
is fed into the flame-tube, where it is ignited in a ratio of about 15:1. The remainder enters the
flame-tube further down, or mixes with the products of combustion as they leave the tube. By
virtue of this dilution of the hot gases with cooler air, the temperature at which they reach the
turbine is reduced to about 850° C.
On entering the turbine, the gases pass through nozzles, by means of which they are
directed through a ring of blades. These blades, the shape of which is determined by the need
to reduce the torque to a minimum, rotate at high speed. Because of the tendency of fast-
running blades to creep and change their shape, a special high-nickel alloy is used for them.
After passing through the turbine, the gas expands down the jet-tube and is ejected into the
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atmosphere. Owing to the high proportion of unburnt oxygen in this efflux, after
after-burners are
often provided in the jet-pipe,
pipe, where by the hot gases are again ignited. This increases their
velocity, and provides extra thrust for take-off.
take
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In the turbo-jet, the turbine is required to develop enough power to drive the compressor
only, whereas in the turbo-prop engine, it must supply power also for the propeller, to which
it is coupled by means of reduction gearing. As the propeller rotates, it drives rearwards a
much larger column of air than that which is expelled from the jet-tube of the turbo-jet, but at
a much lower velocity. Consequently it is quieter than the turbo-jet, since the volume of noise
produced by an aircraft engine increases with the velocity of the air column. Most airports are
situated in or near large centres of population, with the result that any reduction in the noise
level is a decided advantage. Furthermore, a large proportion of the energy of the products of
combustion is needed to drive the compressor and the airscrew. As this proportion increases,
so the amount of thrust developed in the jet-pipe diminishes. In consequence, the destructive
blasts of hot gas which emanate from the jet-pipe of the turbo-jet while taxiing on runways or
taking-off are greatly reduced.
The main disadvantage of the turbo-prop engine is of course the limitation imposed on
speed by the airscrew, as a result of which it is likely to become obsolete on all except short-
haul aircraft.
A more recent development in jet propulsion is the ducted-fan jet, in which the turbine
drives a multi-bladed fan enclosed in a duct. A certain proportion of the air which enters the
engine by-passes the compressor and combustion chambers, and is impelled by the fan down
the outside of the duct, so that it is expelled at considerable velocity from the rear of the
engine. It amplifies the mass of hot exhaust gases, and thus serves to augment the thrust
derived from them. Consequent on the more moderate speed of this ducted air, the noise level
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is kept reasonably
asonably low. In addition, this type of engine performs well both below and above
the speed of sound, whereas
as the other types of engine are efficient only at certain speeds.
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region of low pressure above the wing and produces a vortex, which may be so violent as to
produce vapour trails at the wing--tips.
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Where both electrodes areof thesame material, the potentials developed will be equal and
opposite. But if dissimilar metals are used, the potentials will differ, and an electromotive force
is set up. The cell may then be used as a sourceof electric energy. In primary cells, energy is
produced only until the anode is consumed. Secondary cells, or accumulators, however, unlike
the primary cells, can be recharged by passing a reversed current through them.
The principle of cathodic deposition, as it is called, has many industrial applications. It is
employed, for instance, in the production of pure metals, such as aluminium or sodium, by
using a fused ore of the metal as the electrolyte.Another application is in the process known as
electro-plating, in which a thin surface of some metal such as chromium or tin is deposited on a
metallic base so that it adheres firmly to the base. Electro-forming, as distinct from electro-
plating, involves growing metal on to a base in such a way that the base can subsequently be
melted out or removed, leaving only the electro- formed deposit. Assuming that all the factors
involved, such as temperature andcurrent density, can be closely controlled, a surface of
theexact shape and thickness required can be produced. Supposing it was desired to produce
certain components of very complicated shape. If this were done by normal machining
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processes,, it would be very costly and difficult to makewithinn the required tolerances. But
bymaking a cast of the component to be produced, and metallising it so that it acts as a cathode,
a deposit of exactly the correct shape and dimensions can be grown on to it.
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suction and delivery sides of the pump. Excessive speed of rotation of the impeller is liable to
cause the pressure on the suction side to fall so low that the liquid will vaporise, thus causing
damage to the impeller.
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A second purpose of the surveys will be to take samples of the different soils encountered
at different depths by boring, in order to decide whether they are suitable for use or whether
they must be replaced by imported fill. This is of great importance, since various types of soil
have properties which result in low bearing capacities. Failures in road surfaces arc usually
attributable to insufficient preparation and compaction of the sub-grade - that is, the soil on
which the surface of the road is laid. Certain soils, such as clay or peat, are unstable, either
because they are largely impermeable and hence difficult to drain or because they cannot be
properly compacted. It is sometimes possible to stabilise some soils with cement, but in most
cases it will be necessary to excavate the soil to a considerate depth and to replace it by a
suitable granular soil. The most stable sub-grade soils are gravel or sand, both being readily
compaction and easy to drain. It is often unnecessary to excavate these soils to a depth of
more than three or four inches, and, if sufficient supplies are available they can be used as
filling material, particularly on embankments, where the soil must be capable of a high degree
of compaction.
Mechanical excavation is carried out by a variety of machines, including the shovel and
drag-line excavator. The choice of plant used will depend on how deep a cut is required and
also on how accessible the cut is. After the soil has been excavated to the appropriate depth
and filled, it is compacted by a roller until it is firm. Following this, it is common practice to
lay a sub-base over the sub-grade soil in order to strengthen it, and to ensure that the traffic
load shall be distributed as widely as possible over the foundations. The sub base is normally
composed of granular material with good drainage characteristics, and will vary in depth
according to the nature of the sub-grade, and also according to what thickness of concrete is
to be laid above it. It is essential that the sub-base should be compacted to a uniform density,
since the density of a soil is closely related to its bearing capacity. The compacted soil is then
covered cither with a sealing coat of tar, or with rolls of waterproof paper, the object of which
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is to prevent liquid cement from the concrete base from seeping into it, thus weakening the
lower layers of the concrete and increasing the moisture content of the base.
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The cement for the concrete is mixed with fine aggregate, or sand, and coarse aggregate,
which may be gravel or crushed stones accurately graded in one or more sizes. The mix varies
in its proportions, a 1:2: 4 mix being fairly common, although in some cases a lean concrete
one part of cement to about 10 or 14 parts of aggregate may be used in accordance with the
specifications. The mixing is carried out in a batching plant, and water is added to make the
cement workable.
Concrete is laid between steel forms, the purpose of the formwork being to retain the
concrete in place until it has hardened. The forms may also act as rails on which the vibrating
plant can be moved along the roadway. Pavements which are more than seven or eight inches
thick are best laid in layers to ensure adequate compaction. Where reinforcement is used, it is
most conveniently placed between the layers. It is now common practice to reinforce
pavements with steel mesh or with rods. This ensures that any cracking which does occur will
be prevented from opening out. The steel is subject to corrosion, and it is normally specified
that it should be covered by at least two inches of concrete.
The length of each slab is governed by the need to provide expansion joints, and this will
depend partly on the season in which the concrete was laid and partly on the thickness of it.
Expansion joints may be spaced at regular intervals of up to 200 feet, and may require a gap
of as much as ¾ inch between slabs. Since these joints must be watertight to prevent
rainwater from draining down into the sub-grade, they are filled with some resilient material
such as cork, and sealed with a sealing compound. Any tendency of the slab to warp or move
relative to the next slab is resisted by the use of dowel-bars embedded in the slabs, or by
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grooving the joints. Contraction joints are perhaps even more important, and aim to control
the effects of contraction of the concrete by providing planes of weakness at certain regular
intervals along the pavement.
Once the surface has been laid, it is compacted by tamping, or by some form of vibrator,
and then it is cured. The object of curing is to prevent the concrete from drying out too
quickly, and this is achieved by covering the wet concrete with waterproof paper or
polythene, or alternatively by spraying on a liquid resin which insulates it from the air.
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The majority of piles are installed by being driven into the ground and displacing the soil
through which they pass. Certain soils, however, are difficult to displace by this method, clay
being one example, and for this and other reasons an alternative method is adopted, in which
the soil is cored out and the hole is then filled with compacted concrete. Such piles are known
as in situ piles, since they are actually cast in the position in which they are required.
In the case of driven piles, a mechanical pile-driver is required, to hold the pile firmly
while it is being driven into the ground by blows from a hammer moving up and down the
frame. The frame in some machines can be adjusted so that the pile is driven either vertically
downwards or at the required rake.
The amount of penetration with each blow will vary with the force of the impact and the
resistance of the ground. The piles are liable to be damaged by the repeated blows of a
hammer which may weigh as much as eight tons, and the heads must therefore be protected
by a helmet of cast steel, packed with hardwood or some similar material.
Steel piles, commonly in the form of H-beams, have a greater strength weight ratio than
concrete piles, and are capable of being driven through hard material with less risk of
damage. Extra lengths may be butt-welded on to the driven sections to increase their length.
Where concrete piles are used, they are pre-cast except for those cast in situ, and this involves
difficult handling and transportation problems, since they are very heavy and may be as much
as 100 feet in length. Partly for this reason, driven concrete piles usually require
reinforcement, whereas for the in situ piles this is not normally essential, as they are subject
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to no handling stresses and are not hammered into the ground. When the pile has been driven
to the required depth, the reinforcement bars must be exposed at the top by breaking out the
concrete, and they are then tied in to the rest of the foundations.
found
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The cables are composed of thousands of wires, made of high-tensile steel, which are
galvanised to resist corrosion. Two or three hundred of these wires, each of about 0-19 inch in
diameter, are clamped together to form a single strand, and the whole cable may consist of a
considerable number of such strands compacted and bound together with wire. In
constructing the cable, two distinct methods may be adopted. The wires may cither be twisted
into strands, the strands then sometimes being twisted round a central strand to form the
completed cable, or they may be spun parallel to each other, and clamped together at
intervals. This latter method obviously involves a much longer spinning operation, since each
wire or small group of wires must be spun and adjusted to the correct sag individually,
whereas the strands of twisted wire can be erected as units, provided that they are not so
heavy as to be unmanageable. However, on bridges with very long spans, there are certain
advantages in the parallel wire method of spinning the cable.
The cables are normally made continuous through the tops of the towers, down through
side towers, where these exist, and thence into the anchorage. They bear on specially
constructed saddles on the towers, which are shaped to accommodate them, the saddles being
either fixed so that the cables may slide over them, or mounted on rollers so that they move
with any movement of the cables. In view of the enormous pull exerted by the heavy cables,
their ends must be secured in firm anchorages, and unless they can be embedded in sound
natural rock, constructions of masonry or concrete must be provided strong enough to
withstand the severe pressures put upon them. The cable strands are normally looped round
strand-shoes, which are in turn connected by chains to an anchor-plate embedded in the base
of the anchorage.
At intervals along the main span, cast-steel cable-bands are attached to the cables,
gripping them firmly and excluding moisture from them, and from these bands suspenders of
wire-rope or chains hang down. Since these suspenders have to take the weight of the deck to
Technical English 56
which they are attached, they must have a high tensile strength. One advantage of using the
braced-chain
chain suspenders is that they largely dispense with the need for a system of stiffening,
being themselves rigid. This stiffening is necessary to resist deformations of the deck of the
bridge due to moving traffic loads and also to resist lateral pressures from wind. In the case of
wire-rope
rope suspenders, the stiffening must
must be provided by trusses constructed at the level of
the deck, the depth of the truss varying with the length of the span.