FORCED OSCILLATIONS

Occur when an oscillating system is driven by a

periodic force that is external to the oscillating
system.

In such a case, the oscillator is compelled to

move at the frequency 𝜔 of the driving force.

The physically interesting aspect of a forced

oscillator is its response—how much it moves
due to the imposed driving force.
Forced Oscillation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
 FORCED OSCILLATIONS

Two entities of importance:

1. The oscillator
cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑘
Frequency = 𝜔0 without damping =
𝑚
2𝛽
forced oscillation spring mass - Google Search 2. The periodic force
Frequency = 𝜔 (not the same as frequency
with damping)

𝐹0
𝑥ሷ + 2𝛽𝑥ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑓0 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑚

- An inhomogeneous differential equation.

Forced Oscillations: Solution
Microsoft Word - Notes-2nd order ODE pt2 (psu.edu) 𝑥ሷ + 2𝛽𝑥ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 𝑓0 cos 𝜔𝑡
Strategy
𝑥= 𝑥𝐶 + 𝑥𝑃
Complementary solution Particular solution

- Solution of the corresponding - Necessarily a solution of the

homogeneous equation full inhomogeneous equation for
𝑥ሷ + 2𝛽𝑥ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0 some particular initial conditions

- Never a solution of the full

inhomogeneous equation
Dies out with time
Survives at long times
(damped oscillations)
Solution of interest
Insignificant at long times
Forced Oscillations: The Complementary Solution
𝑥ሷ + 2𝛽𝑥ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0
Recall:
Assume 𝑥 = 𝑒 i𝜔𝑡 , that leads to 𝜔2 + 2𝑖𝛽𝜔 + 𝜔02 = 0 ⇒ 𝜔 = −𝛽 ± 𝜔02 − 𝛽2

Define 𝜔𝛽 = 𝜔02 − 𝛽2

CASE 1: 𝜔0 >β UNDERDAMPED

x 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 cos(𝜔𝛽 𝑡 + α)
Forced Oscillations: The Complementary Solution

𝑥ሷ + 2𝛽𝑥ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0

CASE 2: 𝜔0 <β OVERDAMPED

𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜔𝛽 = 𝑖𝛽𝜔 , 𝛽𝜔 = 𝜔02 − 𝛽 2

The solution is:

𝑥𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 (𝐶𝑒 𝛽𝜔 𝑡 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝛽𝜔 𝑡 )

Forced Oscillations: The Complementary Solution
𝑥ሷ + 2𝛽𝑥ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0

CASE 3: 𝜔0 = β CRITICALLY DAMPED

The solution is:

𝑥𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 (𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑡)
 Forced Oscillations: The Particular Solution
𝑥ሷ + 2𝛽𝑥ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 𝑓0 cos 𝜔𝑡
For the sake of mathematical simplicity, let us write the equation in its ‘complex’ form as:
𝑧ሷ + 2𝛽𝑧ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑧 = 𝑓0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 ……….(1)
Observe the behavior of the function at RHS:
- It doesn’t change on taking first or second derivative, except for the
constant coefficients.
Then, the solution can be taken as a general form of the function at RHS. Say,
𝑧 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 ……….(2) (C could be complex, C=A 𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 , 𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙)

The solution, then, will be:

𝑥𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 ……….(3)
Forced Oscillations: The Particular Solution
𝑧ሷ + 2𝛽𝑧ሶ + 𝜔02 𝑧 = 𝑓0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 ……….(1)
𝑧 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝜔𝑡−𝜙 ……….(2)
Putting (2) in (1)

⇒ −𝜔2 + 2𝑖𝛽𝜔 + 𝜔02 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝜔𝑡−𝜙 = 𝑓0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

⇒ −𝜔2 + 2𝑖𝛽𝜔 + 𝜔02 𝐴 = 𝑓0 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑓0 cos 𝜙 + 𝑖𝑓0 sin 𝜙
Equating real and imaginary parts:
⇒ −𝜔2 + 𝜔02 𝐴 = 𝑓0 cos 𝜙 and 2𝛽𝜔𝐴 = 𝑓0 sin 𝜙
𝑓0 2𝛽𝜔
⇒𝐴= and 𝜙= tan−1
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2𝛽𝜔 2 𝜔02 − 𝜔 2

𝑥𝑃 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 oscillations with the frequency of the periodic force

This is the solution which survives after some time.
 Forced Oscillations: The Particular Solution
𝑥𝑃 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
𝜷→𝟎
𝑓0
𝐴=
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2𝛽𝜔 2
f0

−1
2𝛽𝜔 A
𝜙 = tan
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2
Phase lag with respect to forcing frequency

Specific points:
𝑓0
1. When 𝜔 ⟶ 0, 𝐴 = , 𝜙=0
𝜔02
𝑓0 𝑓0 𝜔0 𝜋 𝜔 𝜔0
2. When 𝜔 ⟶ 𝜔0 , 𝐴 = = , 𝜙= - Remember Q = ≈ for
2𝛽𝜔0 𝜔02 2𝛽 2 2𝛽 2𝛽
underdamped oscillations
3. When 𝜔 ⟶ ∞, 𝐴 ⟶ 0, 𝜙 = 𝜋
Forced Oscillations: The Particular Solution
𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝜷 𝑓0
𝐴=
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2𝛽𝜔 2

2𝛽𝜔
𝜙= tan−1
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2

Resonance The damping ensures that the amplitude

does not blow up at 𝜔 = 𝜔0 and it is
finite for all values of 𝜔.

The amplitude is maximum at

𝜔= 𝜔02 − 2𝛽 2

Verify yourself.
 Forced Oscillations: The Full Solution
𝑥= 𝑥𝐶 + 𝑥𝑃
⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎0 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 + 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
The frequency of the forced oscillator ≡ 𝜔𝐹
Corresponds to (under)damped oscillation ≡ 𝜔𝐷

⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) ≡ 𝑎0 cos 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + 𝛼𝐷 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 + 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝐹 𝑡 − 𝜙𝐹

Beats in the beginning (transients) Oscillations later (steady state)

Damped Driven Oscillator (virginia.edu)

Forced Oscillations: The Full Solution
𝑥(𝑡) ≡ 𝑎0 cos 𝜔𝐷 𝑡 + 𝛼𝐷 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 + 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝐹 𝑡 − 𝜙𝐹

Transients Steady state

Transients Steady state Here’s a pair of examples: the same

driven damped oscillator, started with
zero velocity, once from the origin
and once from 0.5.

Notice that after about 70 seconds,

the two curves are the same, both in
amplitude and phase.

Damped Driven Oscillator (virginia.edu)

Forced Oscillations: The Quality Factor (Q-factor)

𝜔0
𝑄= At Resonance
2𝛽

Remember
𝜔
Q= for underdamped oscillations
2𝛽

The Q factor is a measure of the ‘quality’ of an oscillator.

It is a measure of how many oscillations take place during the time the energy
decays by the factor of 1/e.
Forced Oscillations: The Amplitude at Resonance
𝑥𝑃 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
𝑓0
𝐴=
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2𝛽𝜔 2

The amplitude is maximum (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑠 ) at

𝜔= 𝜔02 − 2𝛽2
𝑓0
⇒ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑠 = Resonance
𝜔02 − 𝜔02 + 2𝛽 2 2 + 2𝛽 2 𝜔02 − 2𝛽 2

𝑓0 𝑓0 𝑓0
⇒ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑠 = ≈ ≈ 2𝑄
2 2
2𝛽 𝛽 + 𝜔0 − 2𝛽 2 2𝛽𝜔0 𝜔0
 Forced Oscillations: The Average Energy

𝑥𝑃 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = −𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙

1 2 1
𝑈 𝜔, 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑥 (𝑡) 𝐾𝐸 𝜔, 𝑡 = 𝑚𝑥ሶ 2 (𝑡)
2 2
1
1 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
= 𝑚𝜔02 𝐴2 cos2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) 2
2
1
1 ⇒ 𝐾𝐸 𝜔 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
⇒ 𝑈 𝜔 = 𝑚𝜔02 𝐴2 cos 2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) 2
2
1 1
⇒ 𝑈 𝜔 = 𝑚𝜔02 𝐴2 ⇒ 𝐾𝐸 𝜔 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
4 4
 Forced Oscillations: The Average Energy….

1
𝑈 𝜔 = 𝑚𝜔02 𝐴2
4
1
𝐾𝐸 𝜔 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
4
⇒ 𝐸 𝜔 = 𝑈 𝜔 + 𝐾𝐸 𝜔
1
= 𝑚(𝜔2 +𝜔02 )𝐴2
4
𝑚𝑓02 𝜔2 + 𝜔02 𝜔
=
4 𝜔02 − 𝜔 2 2 + 4𝛽2 𝜔 2 𝑓0
𝐴=
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2𝛽𝜔 2
Forced Oscillations: Average Power put in the system by Driving Force
𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = 𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙
Work done: Ԧ 𝑑𝑥Ԧ
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹.
𝑑𝑊
⇒ Power: 𝑃 𝜔, 𝑡 = Ԧ 𝑣Ԧ = 𝐹𝑣 = −𝐹0 𝜔𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 cos 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐹.
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑇
⇒ 𝑃 𝜔 = −𝐹0 𝜔𝐴 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑇
sin 𝜙
= 𝐹0 𝜔𝐴
2

𝐹02 𝜔 sin 𝜙
=
2
2𝑚 𝜔02 −𝜔2 + 2𝛽𝜔 2 𝑓0
𝐴=
𝜔02 − 𝜔 2 2 + 2𝛽𝜔 2
Forced Oscillations: Average Power put in the system by Driving Force…
𝐹02 𝜔 sin 𝜙
𝑃 𝜔 =
2
2𝑚 𝜔02 −𝜔2 + 2𝛽𝜔 2

Width at half-peak power = 2𝛽

Verify yourself
Forced Oscillations: Examples
1. Electrical resonance When we turn the knob, the capacitance
keeps on changing till the resonant frequency
becomes equal to the frequency of the
channel which we want to hear.

2. Acoustic resonance

3. Pohl’s pendulum

4. Optical resonance
5. Nuclear magnetic resonance
…….
 Catastrophic: Collapse of Tacoma Bridge

July 01, 1940 September 07, 1940

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tacoma_Narrows_Bridge_destruction.ogv
COUPLED OSCILLATIONS

Pushing Back and Forth: Coupled Oscillators | FOS Media Students' Blog (cmb.ac.lk)
COUPLED OSCILLATIONS
k k
m m
Each individual system
(oscillator) executes SHM.
INDEPENDENT
Oscillators get coupled.
k k Motion of one mass affects
m k0 m
the other.
Chaotic motion of individual
COUPLED oscillators as well as of the
combined system.
 COUPLED OSCILLATIONS
k k
m k0 m

COUPLED

CHAOTIC MOTION: Can it be resolved into two

(or more) simple, but mutually independent
components (oscillations, modes)? Like vectors?

Need to analyse it mathematically.

vectors - Google Search
The displacements
k k
m k0 m

𝑙 𝑙0 𝑙

𝜉1 (𝑡) 𝜉2 (𝑡)
k k
k0

𝑙 + Δ𝑙1 𝑙0 + Δ𝑙2 𝑙 + Δ𝑙3

Eventually:
Δ𝑙1 = 𝜉1 Δ𝑙2 = 𝜉2 − 𝜉1 Δ𝑙3 = −𝜉2
Δ𝑙1 + Δ𝑙2 + Δ𝑙3 = 0
The forces (consider stretched condition)

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹2 𝐹3
k k
k0

In non-equilibrium, the amounts of forces will change, but the directions of

the forces will not change.
 Consider: Force to be +ve towards right
The force equations Force to be -ve towards left

𝑚𝜉1ሷ = −𝐹1 + 𝐹2
= −𝑘𝜉1 + 𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝜉1
⇒ 𝑚𝜉1ሷ + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝜉1 − 𝑘0 𝜉2 = 0
……(1)

𝑚𝜉2ሷ = −𝐹2 + 𝐹3
= −𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝜉1 − 𝑘𝜉2
⇒ 𝑚𝜉2ሷ + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝑘0 𝜉1 = 0
……(2)

(1) and (2): a coupled system of linear second order differential equations
 The force equations: an alternative way
Then,
𝜕𝑈
Force on the 1st mass = 𝑚𝜉1ሷ = −
𝜕𝜉1
= −𝑘𝜉1 + 𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝜉1
⇒ 𝑚𝜉1ሷ + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝜉1 − 𝑘0 𝜉2 = 0 ……(1)
𝜕𝑈
1 1 1 nd ሷ
Force on the 2 mass = 𝑚𝜉2 = −
𝑈 = 𝑘 ∆𝑙1 2 + 𝑘0 ∆𝑙2 2 + 𝑘 ∆𝑙3 2 𝜕𝜉2
2 2 2
= −𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝜉1 − 𝑘𝜉2
1 2 1 2
1 2
= 𝑘𝜉1 + 𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝜉1 + 𝑘 −𝜉2 ⇒ 𝑚𝜉2ሷ + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝑘0 𝜉1 = 0 ……(2)
2 2 2

(1) and (2): a coupled system of linear second order differential equations
Solving the force equations
𝑚𝜉1ሷ + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝜉1 − 𝑘0 𝜉2 = 0 ……(1)
𝑚𝜉2ሷ + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝑘0 𝜉1 = 0 ……(2)

Method 1: ADD and SUBTRACT

(1) + (2) ⇒ 𝑚 𝜉1ሷ + 𝜉2ሷ + 𝑘 𝜉1 + 𝜉2 = 0 ……(3)

- a differential equation exclusively in a single variable 𝜉1 + 𝜉2 ≡ 𝑌1
(1) - (2) ⇒ 𝑚 𝜉1ሷ − 𝜉2ሷ + 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝜉1 − 𝜉2 = 0 ……(4)
- a differential equation exclusively in another single variable 𝜉1 − 𝜉2 ≡ 𝑌2
Then, (3) ⇒ 𝑚𝑌1ሷ + 𝑘𝑌1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑌1 = 𝑌10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 - Mode 1
and (4) ⇒ 𝑚𝑌2ሷ + 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝑌2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑌2 = 𝑌20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2 - Mode 2
SLOW FAST 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 𝑌1 − 𝑌2
𝑘 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝜉1 = 𝜉2 =
𝜔1 = 𝜔2 = 2 2
𝑚 𝑚 - a linear combination - a linear combination
 Normal Co-ordinates
Normal coordinates are coordinates in which the equations of
𝜉1 + 𝜉2 = 𝑌1 motion take the form of a set of linear differential equations with
constant coefficients in which each equation contains only one
𝜉1 − 𝜉2 = 𝑌2 dependent variable.
(Here, simple harmonic equations are in Y1 and Y2 only)
𝑚𝑌1ሷ + 𝑘𝑌1 = 0
𝑚𝑌2ሷ + 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝑌2 = 0
Normal modes
A vibration involving only one dependent variable is called a
normal mode of vibration and has its own normal
𝑚𝑌1ሷ + 𝑘𝑌1 = 0 frequency.
The importance of the normal modes of vibration is that
they are entirely independent of each other.
𝑚𝑌2ሷ + 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝑌2 = 0 The energy associated with a normal mode is never
exchanged with another mode; this is why we can add the
energies of the separate modes to give the total energy.
Normal mode: A way in which the system can move in a steady state, in which
all parts of the system move with the same frequency. The parts may have
different (zero or negative) amplitudes.

Breathing mode C-H Bending mode C-C Stretching mode

30
Normal modes of Vibration of molecule

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Modes

31
 Solving the force equations: More Appropriately
(1) + (2) ⇒ 𝑚 𝜉1ሷ + 𝜉2ሷ + 𝑘 𝜉1 + 𝜉2 = 0 ……(3)
- a differential equation exclusively in a single variable 𝜉1 + 𝜉2 ≡ 2𝑋1
(1) - (2) ⇒ 𝑚 𝜉1ሷ − 𝜉2ሷ + 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝜉1 − 𝜉2 = 0 ……(4)
- a differential equation exclusively in another single variable 𝜉1 − 𝜉2 ≡ 2𝑋2

Then, (3) ⇒ 𝑚𝑋ሷ1 + 𝑘𝑋1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑋1 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 - Mode 1

and (4) ⇒ 𝑚𝑋ሷ 2 + 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝑋2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑋2 = 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2 - Mode 2
SLOW FAST

𝑋1 + 𝑋2 𝑋1 − 𝑋2
𝑘 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝜉1 = 𝜉2 =
𝜔1 = 𝜔2 = 2 2
𝑚 𝑚 - a linear combination - a linear combination
Solving the force equations
𝑚𝜉1ሷ + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝜉1 − 𝑘0 𝜉2 = 0 ……(1)
𝑚𝜉2ሷ + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝜉2 − 𝑘0 𝜉1 = 0 ……(2)

Method 2: The MATRIX method

Assume 𝜉1 𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 and 𝜉2 𝑡 = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 - same frequency to start with.
- Find 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 and roots of 𝜔.
Putting in (1) and (2):
−𝜔2 𝑚𝐴1 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝐴1 − 𝑘0 𝐴2 = 0
⇒ −𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝐴1 + (−𝑘0 )𝐴2 = 0 …….(5)
and
−𝜔2 𝑚𝐴2 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝐴2 − 𝑘0 𝐴1 = 0
⇒ (−𝑘0 )𝐴1 + −𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝐴2 = 0 …….(6)
Solving the force equations
−𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝐴1 + (−𝑘0 )𝐴2 = 0 …….(5)
(−𝑘0 )𝐴1 + −𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝐴2 = 0 …….(6)
Write in the matrix form
−𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 −𝑘0 𝐴1 0
=
−𝑘0 −𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 𝐴2 0
The solution exist only when the determinant of the coefficient matrix vanishes.
⇒ −𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 2 = 𝑘02 ⇒ −𝜔2 𝑚 + 𝑘 + 𝑘0 = ±𝑘0

𝑘 𝑘 + 2𝑘0
⇒ 𝜔1 = and 𝜔2 =
𝑚 𝑚

Putting 𝜔1 in the matrix, we get 𝐴2 = 𝐴1 , i. e., in-phase oscillations (mode 1).

Putting 𝜔2 in the matrix, we get 𝐴2 = −𝐴1 , i. e., out-of-phase oscillations (mode 2).
Solving the force equations
Normal mode frequencies/
𝑘 𝑘 + 2𝑘0 Characteristic frequencies/
𝜔1 = , and 𝜔2 = Eigenfrequencies/
𝑚 𝑚
Frequency eigenvalues
In-phase mode Out-of-phase mode
𝐴2 = 𝐴1 𝐴2 = −𝐴1
𝐴1
Eigenvectors
𝐴2
𝐴1 1 1
Eigenvector of in-phase mode 𝐸1 ≡ = (normalized)
𝐴1 2 1
𝐴1 1 1
Eigenvector of out-of-phase mode 𝐸2 ≡ = (normalized)
−𝐴1 2 −1
 Solving the force equations
INNER PRODUCTS
1 1 1
𝐸1 , 𝐸1 = 1 1. =1
2 2 1
⇒ 𝐸1 is normalized.
• The differential equations are linear, so
1 1 1 any linear combination of the two
𝐸2 , 𝐸2 = 1 −1 . =1
2 2 −1 normal mode solutions is also a solution.
⇒ 𝐸2 is normalized. •

• In fact, the most general solution of the

1 11 equations is an arbitrary linear
𝐸1 , 𝐸2 = 1 1. =0
2 −1 2 combination of the two normal modes.
⇒ 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 are orthogonal.

This is the reason the two modes 𝐸1 and 𝐸2

are called ‘NORMAL’ modes.
Detailed solutions for different cases
Remember

𝑋1 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1
𝑋2 = 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2

𝑋1 + 𝑋2 1
𝜉1 = = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 + 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2 2
𝑋1 − 𝑋2 1
𝜉2 = = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 − 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2 2
 Detailed solutions for different cases
1
𝜉1 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 + 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2
1
𝜉2 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 − 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2
Case 1: Both the masses are displaced to one side by the same amount and released
⇒ 𝜉1 0 = 𝜉2 0 = 𝐴 (say)…..(7)
and 𝜉1ሶ 0 = 𝜉2ሶ 0 = 0 …..(8)
1
(7) ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜙1 + 𝑋20 cos 𝜙2 ……(9) and
2
1
𝐴= 𝑋10 cos 𝜙1 − 𝑋20 cos 𝜙2 …….(10)
2
1
(9)+(10) ⇒ 2𝐴 = 2𝑋10 cos 𝜙1 ⇒ 𝑋10 cos 𝜙1 = 2𝐴………(11)
2
(9)-(10) ⇒ 𝑋20 cos 𝜙2 = 0………(12)
𝑋10 𝑋20
𝜉1 = cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 + [cos 𝜔2 𝑡) cos(𝜙2 − sin 𝜔2 𝑡) sin(𝜙2 ]
2 2
cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
 Detailed solution: Case 1 𝜉1 =
𝑋10
cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 = 𝜉2 𝑘
𝜉1ሶ 0 = 𝜉2ሶ 0 = 0 …..(8) 2 𝜔1 =
𝑚
𝑋10 cos 𝜙1 = 2𝐴………(11)

𝜔1 𝑋10
(8) ⇒ − sin 𝜙1 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙1 = 0
2
⇒ 𝑋10 = 2𝐴 using (11)
⇒ 𝜉1 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 = 𝜉2 ≡ NORMAL MODE 1

≡
2𝑘
Oscillations of center of mass at frequency .
2𝑚

CENTRE OF MASS MODE

 Detailed solutions for different cases
1
𝜉1 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 + 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2
1
𝜉2 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 − 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2
Case 2: The masses are displaced to either side by the same amount and released
⇒ 𝜉1 0 = − 𝜉2 0 = 𝐴 …..(7’)
and 𝜉1ሶ 0 = 𝜉2ሶ 0 = 0 ……(8’)
1
(7’) ⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑋 cos 𝜙1 + 𝑋20 cos 𝜙2 and
2 10
1
−𝐴 = 𝑋 cos 𝜙1 − 𝑋20 cos 𝜙2
2 10
1
⇒0= 2𝑋10 cos 𝜙1 ⇒ cos 𝜙1 = 0
2
𝑋20
⇒ 𝜉1 = −𝜉2 = cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2
Next, 𝑋20 cos 𝜙2 = 2𝐴
 Detailed solution: Case 2 𝜉1 = −𝜉2 =
𝑋20
cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2 𝑘 + 2𝑘0
2 𝜔2 =
𝜉1ሶ 0 = 𝜉2ሶ 0 = 0 …..(8’) 𝑚

𝑋20 cos 𝜙2 = 2𝐴
𝜔2 𝑋20
(8’) ⇒ − sin 𝜙2 = 0 ⇒ 𝜙2 = 0
2
⇒ 𝑋20 = 2𝐴 using (11)
⇒ 𝜉1 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 = −𝜉2 ≡ NORMAL MODE 2

1
𝑘෨ = 𝑘 + 2𝑘0
2

≡
Center of mass remains fixed.
BREATHING MODE
 Detailed solutions for different cases
1
𝜉1 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 + 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2
1
𝜉2 = 𝑋10 cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝜙1 − 𝑋20 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜙2
2
Case 3: Pull one mass either left or right and other at zero displacement and release
⇒ 𝜉1 0 = 0; 𝜉2 0 = 𝐴 …….(7”)
and 𝜉1ሶ 0 = 𝜉2ሶ 0 = 0 …..(8”)
𝐴
(7”) ⇒ 𝑋10 cos 𝜙1 = − 𝑋20 cos 𝜙2 = and
2
(8”)⇒ 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 0
𝐴
⇒ 𝑋10 = −𝑋20 =
2
𝐴 𝐴
⇒ 𝜉1 = cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + cos 𝜔2 𝑡 ; 𝜉2 = cos 𝜔1 𝑡 − cos 𝜔2 𝑡
2 2
Verify yourself.
 Detailed solution: Case 3
𝐴 𝐴
𝜉1 = cos 𝜔1 𝑡 + cos 𝜔2 𝑡 ; 𝜉2 = cos 𝜔1 𝑡 − cos 𝜔2 𝑡
2 2

𝜔1 + 𝜔2 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 - Beats
⇒ 𝜉1 = 𝐴 cos 𝑡 . cos 𝑡
2 2
𝜔1 + 𝜔2 𝜔2 − 𝜔1
𝜉2 = 𝐴 sin 𝑡 . sin 𝑡 - Beats
2 2
Consider weak coupling: 𝑘0 ≪ 𝑘

𝑘 + 2𝑘0 𝑘 𝑘0 𝑘0
⇒ 𝜔2 = = 1+2 ⇒ 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ≈ ; 𝜔1 + 𝜔2 ≈ 2𝜔1
𝑚 𝑚 𝑘 𝑘𝑚
(Taylor’s expansion)
𝑘0
⇒ 𝜉1 = 𝐴 cos 𝑡 . cos 𝜔1 𝑡
2 𝑘𝑚 Resonance
𝑘0
𝜉2 = 𝐴 sin 𝑡 . sin 𝜔1 𝑡
2 𝑘𝑚
 Detailed solution: Case 3 (RESONANCE)
𝑘0 𝑘0
𝜉1 = 𝐴 cos 𝑡 . cos 𝜔1 𝑡 𝜉2 = 𝐴 sin 𝑡 . sin 𝜔1 𝑡
2 𝑘𝑚 2 𝑘𝑚
𝜉1 (𝑡)

𝑡
𝜉1 (𝑡)

File:Coupled oscillators.gif - Wikipedia

𝑡
 ko >> k
Connecting two masses with rigid rod

2 >> 1
On a small time scale ~ 1/2 , we will not see the oscillation.

45
𝐸2 (in units of cos 𝜔2 𝑡)
Coupled Oscillations: A symbolic view
𝐴 𝜉1,𝐵
𝑘 𝑘 + 2𝑘0
𝜔1 = , and 𝜔2 =
𝜉1,𝑅 𝑚 𝑚

𝐴
𝜉1,𝐶
𝜉2,𝐶

𝐴 𝐸1 (in units of cos 𝜔1 𝑡)

𝐴
𝜉2,𝑅 𝐶 ≡ Centre of mass Mode
𝐵 ≡ Breathing Mode
𝐴 𝑅 ≡ Resonance
𝜉2,𝐵
3-Coupled Oscillators
𝑚𝑥ሷ 1 = −𝑘𝑥1 − 𝑘 ′ 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝑚𝑥ሷ 2 = −𝑘 ′ 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 𝑘 ′ 𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑚𝑥ሷ 3 = −𝑘 ′ 𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑘 𝑥3

Assume
𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
3-Coupled Oscillators
The Matrix Equation:
𝜔2 𝑚 − 𝑘 − 𝑘 ′ 𝑘′ 0 𝐴 0
𝑘′ 𝜔2 𝑚 − 2𝑘 ′ 𝑘′ 𝐵 = 0
0 𝑘′ 𝜔2 𝑚 − 𝑘 − 𝑘 ′ 𝐶 0

⇒ Three Eigenfrequencies
𝑘 + 𝑘 ′
𝜔02 =
𝑚
2 1
𝜔± = 𝑘 + 3𝑘 ′ ± 𝑘 + 3𝑘 ′ 2 − 8𝑘𝑘 ′
2𝑚
3-Coupled Oscillators
𝐶

𝐸3 𝜔3
VECTORS

𝐵
𝐸2 𝜔2

𝐴
N-coupled Oscillators
⇒ N Eigenfrequencies (N Modes)

N→ ∞
⇒ Waves