DR.

DEBANJALI CHAKRABARTI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY,
KPC MEDICAL COLLEGE AND HOSPITAL
 Neuron or nerve cell is defined as the structural
and functional unit of nervous system.
 Neuron is similar to any other cell in the body,
having nucleus and all the organelles in
cytoplasm.
 However, it is different from other cells by 2
ways:
1. Neuron has branches or processes called
axon and dendrites
2. Neuron does not have centrosome. So, it
cannot undergo division.
Myelin Sheath

Myelinated axon
 Neurons are classified by 3 different methods.
A. Depending upon the number of poles
B. Depending upon the function
C. Depending upon the length of axon.
 DEPENDING UPON THE NUMBER OF POLES

From a single pole, Axon arises from one One of the poles gives rise
both axon and pole and dendrites to axon and many
dendrite arise arise from the dendrites arise from the
other pole. cell body
e.g.  bipolar cells of e.g. spinal motor
retina neuron
 DEPENDING UPON THE FUNCTION
1. Motor or efferent neurons
2. Sensory or afferent neurons.

1. Motor or Efferent Neurons

 Neurons which carry motor impulses from central
nervous system to peripheral effector organs like
muscles, glands, blood vessels, etc.
 Generally, each motor neuron has a long axon and
short dendrites.
2. Sensory or Afferent Neurons
 Neurons which carry the sensory impulses from
periphery to central nervous system.
 Generally, each sensory neuron has a short axon and
long dendrites.
 DEPENDING UPON THE LENGTH OF AXON
1. Golgi type I neurons
2. Golgi type II neurons.

1. Golgi Type I Neurons

 Golgi type I neurons have long axons.
 Cell body of these neurons is in different parts of
central nervous system and their axons reach the
remote peripheral organs.
2. Golgi Type II Neurons
 Neurons of this type have short axons.

 present in cerebral cortex and spinal cord.

(1) NERVE CELL BODY
 Nerve cell body is also known as soma or perikaryon.
 It is constituted by a mass of cytoplasm called
neuroplasm, which is covered by a cell membrane.
 The cytoplasm

contains a large
nucleus,
Nissl bodies,
neurofibrils,
mitochondria and
Golgi apparatus.
(2) DENDRITE
 Dendrites are numerous short extensions from the cell
body of neuron
 Help in increasing surface area for receiving information
 Dendrites receive incoming signals from other cells
transmit it towards the nerve cell body.
 (Neurotransmitters)
Axon
Axon
terminal

Neuromuscular
Muscle junction
(3) AXON
 Axon is the longer process of nerve cell.
 Each neuron has only one axon.
 Axon arises from axon hillock of the nerve cell body
 Axon hillock continues as the initial segment
 In Motor neurons  Action Potential is generated at the
initial segment
 In Sensory neurons  AP is generated from the 1st Node
of Ranvier
 Axon extends for a long distance away from the nerve
cell body.
 Length of longest axon is about 1 meter.
 Axon transmits impulses away from the nerve cell body
 Axons can be myelinated or unmyelinated.
Initial
segment

Axon Node of Ranvier

hillock
 Each nerve fiber (axon) is covered by a connective
tissue layer called endoneurium
 Many nerve fibers together form a fasciculus
 Each fasciculus is covered by perineurium
 Several fasciculi form a nerve
 The whole nerve is covered by tubular sheath, called
the epineurium
 For nerve impulses to be transmitted from neuron to
neuron, action potential must be generated and
propagated along the nerve cell membrane
 All these events depend on the activities of different
Ion channels present on the membrane
 Ion channels :
- Na+ ,K+, Ca++ channels  present throughout the
neuronal membrane
- Na+ channels  concentrated at Nodes of Ranvier
- Ca++ channels  mainly present at axon
terminals, important role in neurotransmitter secretion
 In neurons, dendrites gather the information which is
processed in the cell body
 The message transmission then occurs by generation
and propagation of electrical signals in the axon
from one end to the other
 These generated signals may be of 2 types:
(i) Electrotonic Or Graded Potentials
(ii) Action Potentials
(i) Electrotonic potential or local potential
 When the stimulus with subliminal strength is applied,
only electrotonic potential develops and the action
potential does not develop
 it only alters the resting

membrane potential and

produces slight
depolarization or
hyperpolarization
 Non-propagated

 Decremental

 Shows summation

 No Refractory period
(ii) Action potential or nerve impulse
 Action potential develops in a nerve fiber when it
is stimulated by a stimulus with adequate
strength.
 Adequate strength of
stimulus, necessary for
producing the action
potential in a nerve fiber,
is known as threshold or
minimal stimulus.
 Propagated
 Obeys All-or-None Law
 Summation not possible
 Has Refractory Period
 Propagation Of Action Potentials
 Once formed, Action potential is regenerated at
regular intervals to be transmitted from the initial
segment to the axon terminal as nerve impulse.
 Depolarization occurs first at the site of stimulation in
the nerve fiber which then causes depolarization of
the neighboring areas.
 Like this, depolarization travels throughout the

nerve fiber.
 Depolarization is followed by repolarization of the
previous area
 Speed of conduction depends on 2 factors:

(i) Diameter of axon– larger diameter, faster conduction

(ii) Myelination – more in myelinated fibers
Unmyelinated

Myelinated
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
(in myelinated axons)
 Direction Of Action Potential

• the action potential is transmitted through the nerve

fiber in only one direction that is from axon hillock to
axon terminal  Anterograde conduction
• Opposite not possible because following
depolarization, the area on the membrane where AP was
produced becomes refractory
1) EXCITABILITY-ability to produce AP in response to various
stimuli

2) CONDUCTIVITY- ability of nerve fibers to transmit the

impulse from the area of stimulation to the other areas

3)„„REFRACTORY PERIOD-period at which the nerve does not

give any response to a stimulus

4)„SUMMATION- When 2 or more subliminal stimuli are

applied within a short interval of time, they are summed up
together to become strong enough to produce the response
5) ACCOMODATION -While stimulating a nerve fiber
continuously, the excitability of the nerve fiber is greater in
the beginning but later the response decreases slowly and
finally the nerve fiber does not show any response at all

6) INFATIGABILITY-Nerve fiber cannot be fatigued, even if it

is stimulated continuously for a long time as there is no
expenditure of energy

7) ALL-OR-NONE LAW-when a nerve is stimulated by a

stimulus it gives maximum response or does not give
response at all
 Neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that acts as a
mediator for the transmission of nerve impulse from
one neuron to another neuron or muscle or any target
organ.
 Neuromuscular junction is the junction between
terminal branch of a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.
 Also known as the myoneural junction or motor end
plate
 AP from neuron is transmitted to the muscle fiber
 Neuronal membrane and Sarcolemma remain opposed
to each other but do not touch
 Divided into 3 parts:
(a) Presynaptic part (Axon terminal)
(b) Synaptic cleft (Gap)
(c) Post synaptic part (motor end plate)
NERVE

MUSCLE
Presynaptic membrane

Synaptic Cleft

Post synaptic membrane

 AcetylCoA

Acetylcholine
Na Na
Ch

CHOLINE
ACETATE Ach

7
1

6
7 Acetylcholine-Esterase (AchE) secreted into synaptic cleft breaks
down acetylcholine into Choline and Acetate
• Choline is reuptaken by the presynaptic membrane via a Na+ - choline
cotransporter
• Choline then combines with AcetylCoA to form Acetylcholine again
• Ach gets packed into vesicles
APPLIED
 An autoimmune disorder
 Autoantibodies formed against Ach receptors
 Features fatigue, muscle weakness
 Treatment  AchE inhibitors
 The muscles are broadly classified into 3 types:
1. Skeletal muscle
2. Cardiac muscle
3. Smooth muscle
 Other classifications:

I. Depending upon the presence or absence of

striations
Striated Cardiac M, Skeletal M
Non-striated Smooth M
II. Depending upon the control
Voluntary (under self control ) Skeletal M
Involuntary  Cardiac M, Smooth M
 A skeletal muscle is made up of many muscle
bundles or fascicles and is covered by Epimysium
 Each fascicle is made up of large number of muscle
fibers arranged parallel to each other
 Each fascicle is covered by Perimysium

 Each muscle fiber is surrounded by Endomysium

 The structural and functional unit of a muscle is

Muscle fiber a single skeletal muscle cell ( Myocyte)
 Muscle fibers are attached to a tough cord of

connective tissue called tendon that connects them to

the skeleton ( bones)
Epimysium
 Long cylindrical striated multinucleated cells
 Peripherally placed nuclei
 Cell membrane is known as Sarcolemma
 Sarcolemma transmits the wave of depolarization
originating in the motor end plate over the entire cell
surface to initiate contraction
 No gap junctions
 Cytoplasm is known as Sarcoplasm
 Structures embedded within the sarcoplasm are:
1. Myofibrils
2. Nuclei
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER)
6. Ribosomes
 MYOFIBRIL
◦ Myofibrils are the fine parallel filaments present in
sarcoplasm of the muscle cell.
◦ Myofibrils run through the entire length of the muscle
fiber
◦ Light microscopic studies show that, each myofibril
consists of alternating light and dark bands throughout
the length of the fiber which forms the striations of the
skeletal muscle
◦ The two bands are:
1. Light band or ‘I’ band ( Isotropic)
2. Dark band or ‘A’ band (Anisotropic)
◦ I band is divided into two portions, by means of a
narrow and dark line called ‘Z’ line
 Z Line

SARCOMERE
 SARCOMERE
◦ Sarcomere is called the basic contractile unit of the muscle.
◦ Each sarcomere extends between two ‘Z’ lines of myofibril.
◦ Sarcomere consists of many threadlike structures called
myofilaments (muscle proteins)

◦ Myofilaments are of two types:

1. Actin filaments (thin filament)
2. Myosin filaments (thick filament)

◦ A band is formed of thick filaments

◦ I band, bisected by Z line, continues into adjacent sarcomeres
and includes those portion of the thin filaments that do not
overlap the thick filaments
◦ H zone portion of A band not overlapped by thin filaments
◦ M line  Runs through the middle of H zone, made up of
proteins, helps to hold the thick filaments
SARCOMERE
 There are 3 types of proteins in skeletal
muscle:
(1) Contractile proteins : Actin, Myosin
(2) Regulatory proteins : Troponin ,
Tropomyosin
(3) Attachment proteins : Titin, Nebulin,
Desmin, Alpha actinin, Myomesin, Dystrophin
 „MYOSIN
 Each myosin molecule is made up of 6 polypeptide chains, of
which two are heavy chains and four are light chains
 Each myosin molecule has two portions:
1. Tail portion 2. Head portion.
 Tail portion is made up of two heavy chains, which twist around
each other in the form of a double helix
 Head portion – Two light chains are attached to each part of the
head portion of myosin molecule
 Each myosin head has two attachment sites-One for actin
filament and the other one for 1ATP molecule
 Bundle of myosin molecules form Myosin filament (thick
filaments), arranged in such a way that the tail ends are
directed towards the middle of the thick filament while globular
heads are pointed away
H ZONE is devoid
of any Myosin
head
 „ACTIN
 Actin molecules are the major constituents of the
thin actin filaments.
 Each actin filament is called F-actin which is made
up of globular molecules of G-actin.
 F-actin is arranged in the form of a double helix.
 F-actin has binding sites for Myosin, Troponin,
Tropomyosin and other actin molecules
 F-actin takes half a turn every 7 G-actin
monomers
G-Actin
 „TROPOMYOSIN
 Located in the groove formed by 2 chains of actin
 In relaxed condition of the muscle, the tropomyosin
molecules cover all the active myosin binding sites of
F-actin molecules.

 TROPONIN
 It is formed by three subunits:
1. Troponin I  attached to F-actin, inhibits binding
of Actin to Myosin
2. Troponin T  attached to Tropomyosin
3. Troponin C  attached to Calcium ions
G-Actin
 Actinin attaches actin filament to ‘Z’ line.
 Desmin  binds ‘Z’ line with sarcolemma.
 Nebulin  runs in close association with and parallel
to actin filaments thus stabilizing them
 Titin  connecting ‘M’ line and ‘Z’ line.
Each titin molecule forms framework for
sarcomere and provides elasticity to the muscle thus
preventing overextension
 Myomesin attaches tail of Myosin filaments to M
line
 Dystrophin connects actin filament to dystroglycan
(a transmembrane protein, present in the sarcolemma
 (Sarcolemma) Dystroglycan

Dystrophin Alpha
Desmin Actinin

Myomesin
 The Sarcotubular system is a system of
membranous structures in the form of vesicles
and tubules that surrounds the myofibrils
embedded in the sarcoplasm

 formed mainly by two types of structures:

1. T-tubules
2. Sarcoplasmic reticulum.
T-Tubules
 T-tubules or transverse tubules are narrow
tubules formed by the invagination of the
sarcolemma.
 These tubules penetrate all the way from
one side of the muscle fiber to an another
side.
 Because of their origin from sarcolemma,
the T-tubules open to the exterior of the
muscle cell and therefore in contact with
ECF
 SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM OR L-TUBULES

 Sarcoplasmic reticulum form a closed tubular system

around each myofibril and do not open to exterior like
T tubules.
 At regular intervals, throughout the length of the
myofibrils, the L tubules dilate to form a pair of lateral
sacs called terminal cisternae.
 Each pair of terminal cisternae is in close contact with T
tubule.
 The T tubule along with the cisternae on either side
forms the triad of skeletal muscle.
 In human skeletal muscle, the triads are situated at the
junction between ‘A’ band and ‘I’ band.
 Calcium ions are stored in L tubule and are released
from the cisternae into sarcoplasm during contraction.
T Tubule at the
A-I junction
 CHANNEL PROTEINS IN STS

 T-Tubule protein  Dihydropyridine receptor(DHP)

which is a calcium channel but acts more like a voltage
sensor

 Terminal cisternae protein(i) Ryanodine receptor

that acts as calcium release channel

(ii) SERCA( Sarcoplasmic Endoplasmic Reticulum

Calcium ATPase) pumps back calcium into SR during
muscle relaxation
 Sarcolemma
-------------- --
ECF + - Sarcoplasm
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
-
+ -
-
T-Tubule

+
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ - SERCA

+ -
 STS transfers Action Potential from the surface of
muscle fiber to the interior, closer to myofibrils
leading to release of Calcium from SR that is required
for muscle contraction
Sarcolemma

+++++ +++++++++
ECF - +
- + Sarcoplasm
- +
-
T-Tubule

- +
- +
- +
- +
- +
- +
- +
SERCA

- +
 Muscle response to Action Potential (through release
of calcium from SR)  Excitation
 Mechanical response  Contraction
 This pairing of electrical event with mechanical event
is called Excitation-Contraction Coupling
 This happens following the Sliding Filament Theory
 Shortening of muscle fiber occurs due to sliding
of thin filaments over thick filaments towards the
centre of sarcomere such that Z-lines move closer
together thus decreasing H zone and I band but
A band remains unchanged
 EXCITATION IN
SKELETAL
MUSCLE

A = Opening of few Na+

channels
B = Opening of many Na+
channels
C = Closure of Na+
channels and opening
of K+ channels
D = Closure of K+
channels
 Cytoplasmic Calcium concentration is low
 Troponin I and Tropomyosin cover Myosin binding sites on Actin
thus inhibiting their interaction
 When myosin head is not attached
to actin, cytoplasmic ATP gets
attached to its specific site on
myosin head

Intrinsic ATPase activity of

Myosin head breaks ATP to
ADP and Pi

 This results in positioning of

the myosin head at an angle of
90° in relation to thick filaments
but not attached to Actin
(“Energized state” /
Myosin-ADP-Pi complex)
 AcetylCoA

Acetylcholine
Na Na
Ch

CHOLINE
ACETATE Ach

7
  Propagation of action potential in the motor axon

 Release of Acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction that generates

action potential in the sarcolemma

 Inward spread of AP along the T-Tubules into the muscle

 Opens voltage gated Ca++ channels in DHP receptor in T-Tubules

 Conformational change in Ryanodine receptor in terminal cisternae

 Release of Ca++ into sarcoplasm

 Ca++ binds to Troponin C

 Conformational change in Troponin C and Troppmyosin

 Uncovers myosin binding sites on actin

 Attachment of myosin head to actin to form cross bridge (ATTACHED

STATE)
  Attachment of myosin head to actin to form cross bridge
 This has 2 effects:

(i) Pi released helps in Power Stroke  Tilting of myosin head

making an angle of 45° and pulling actin filaments towards the
centre of sarcomere
(ii) Release of ADP forms a rigid actomyosin complex

 Decrease in sarcomere length producing muscle shortening

(MUSCLE CONTRACTION)

 Actomyosin complex quickly bind to a new molecule of ATP

 Detachment of crossbridge (DETACHED STATE) and returning of

myosin head to original position

 ATP again broken down into ADP and Pi to form the energized
state, attachment of myosin head to new actin site, dragging of
actin filament– cycle goes on till contraction required with ATP
and Calcium being available
  Autoactivation of Ca ATPase (SERCA)

 Ca pumped back into SR

 Decreased Ca level in sarcoplasm

 Detachment of Ca from troponin

 Cessation of actin-myosin interaction (sites again covered)

 Muscle relaxation
ROLE OF ATP
RIGOR MORTIS