Introduction

All aerodynamic forces and moments are generated by two main sources:
pressure distribution and shear stress distribution. The experiment described in
this report gives a way to determine the lift, drag and the moments (at least part
of them) on a body from the pressure distribution. The pressure and shear are
natures only two ways of communicating a force acting on a body The
experiment does not deal with shear stress, so some of the drag, called skin
friction drag should not accounted for. If all of the pressure and shear forces are
summed up over the whole body, the resulting force and moment will be the
total aerodynamic force and moment

Airfoil Test Model the NACA0012 airfoil with 150 mm chord and 300mm span
and 2 kg weight is used in the current test. The Airfoil Model is a symmetrical
NACA0012 segment airfoil that spans the entire width of the wind tunnel. There
are 20 pressure-tapping locations on the airfoil., Ten points are above the chord
line, and ten points are below it Tapping was spaced, so that those on the bottom
are positioned at differing locations relative to those on the top. They are
attached to the airfoil inside of small metal tubes that emerge from the airfoil
and attach to flexible labelled pipes with adaptors to join a larger pipe. Included
in the package is a manifold plate that makes it possible to make the smaller
tubes into the larger pipes. Pressure taps of (1mm) diameter were mounted on
the upper (10 tap) and lower surface (10 tap) of airfoil in the midspan through
models to provide measurements of static pressure
Rough Surfaces
Models Before starting the experiment, the rough surface is prepared. Stainless
steel 304L woven wire is applied to introduce surface roughness. A wide
selection of grades of woven wire are used for this experiment. The size of the
mesh of a rough surface is dependent on the relative amount of rough woven
wire that is being used. The surface roughness increases as the number of holes
(mesh per in) of the woven wire decreases. 40 Grades of surface roughness have
more roughness than (60, 80, 100,120 and 200 Grade) Table (3.2) using the
(300*150 mm) sizes of woven wire to cover the airfoil surface. Rough surfaces
were applied on 50% of the airfoil area, for the purpose of pasting rough surface
(woven wire) to the airfoil surface, the surfaces are fixed by using double sided
adhesive tape.

Measurement Devices
Pitot Static Tube
The pitot-static probe or pitot-static tube is one of the most devises used for
calculate the local velocity of air. It also used for airspeed measuring in
aircraft. The principal of operation is very simple based on Bernoulli’s
equation to determine the dynamic pressure (pressure difference) which given
by
P dynamic= 1/ 2 ρ v 2 = p stagnation – p static

Pressure Display Unit

The pressure display module is part of wind tunnel. The module fits into the
control and instrumentation frame of the wind tunnels. It provides a means to
measure and display 32 different pressures from models. The module contains
32 calibrated pressure transducers rated at a maximum of +7 kPa. The module
has an integral liquid crystal display with a scroll control that allows the user
to read all 32 channels at any time. All pressures are measured with respect to
atmosphere. The 32-Way Pressure Display can be interfaced to a PC that
allows pressure measurements to be displayed, captured, conveniently
tabulated, graphed, and exported to a spread sheet package for further
processing
Description of Test Equipment and Procedure
The experiment setup is shown in Figures 1 and 2. A 2 ft. by 2 ft. open circuit
wind tunnel was used to test the airfoil.

A monometer inside the tunnel was used to test the dynamic pressure inside the
tunnel. A NACA 0012 airfoil, with chord 6 inches and a 2 ft. span that spanned
the entire width of the test section. Since the airfoil spanned the whole width of
the test section, the flow could be modeled as a 2D flow. 18 pressure ports on
the upper surface of the airfoil were used to measure the pressure distribution
for angles of attack at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 degrees, each at 30, 60, and 90
feet per second. Additionally, a 16 degrees angle of attack was also measured
only at 90 feet per second. Then the process was repeated for the negatives of
these angles so as to have the flow from the lower surface in part one to be on
the upper surface where the pressure ports were in part two

Airfoil and Lift

Airfoil, in aerodynamic terms, is the cross-sectional shape of an object, such as
wings, rotors, or sails, that is used to generate a lift. The airfoil is streamlined
in shape and can be of many designs for different speed requirements. When
the airfoil is subjected to flow, its streamlined shape allows the flow to split
between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The pressure in the upper
part of the airfoil decreases as the flow stretches over the curved upper surface
as compared to the flat lower section where the speed and pressure of the flow
remain the same. The resulting pressure difference helps in creating a lift

This is the exact mechanism that allows aircraft such as planes or helicopters to
stay up in the air. As the rotor blade passes through the air, the downward force on
the airfoil helps to develop a significant lift, enabling a successful flight.

However, the lift produced is different depending upon the shape of the airfoil.
Usually, the airfoil can be classified based on geometry as either asymmetrical or
symmetrical airfoil.
Symmetrical Airfoil

The airfoil is considered to be symmetrical or uncambered when the upper section

of the airfoil from the centerline mirrors that of the lower section, i.e., the upper
and lower surfaces are identical. Symmetrical airfoil produces less lift than
asymmetrical airfoil.
Velocity and Pressure Distributions

For the following explanations it is assumed, that a stream of air is directed

against an airfoil, which is fixed in space. This is equivalent to an airfoil
moving through the air - just a question of the reference system. A typical
wind tunnel works in the same way

Instead of looking at a wing, we will simplify our model to two dimensions

by building a wing of very large span (infinite, if we have enough material...)
and by looking at a section close to the center of this wing: the result is a two
dimensional airfoil.

When the airfoil is located in a stream of air of velocity , the flow has to part
near the leading edge and pass along the upper and the lower airfoil surface.
At the location, where the flow is splitting up, the flow velocity is reduced to
zero. This point is called stagnation point. It is located close to the leading
edge of the airfoil, but its position moves with angle of attack.
 Starting from v/ =0 in the stagnation point, the velocity v increases rapidly
to 1.38 times the velocity of the onset flow near the location
x/c=0.1. Further downstream the velocity gradually decreases and
reaches at the trailing edge approximately 85% of the free stream
velocity .
 The velocity of the flow on the lower surface looks similar, but its level is
considerably lower. In this example, it always stays below the free
stream velocity.
Velocity and pressure are dependent on each other - Bernoulli's
equation says that increasing the velocity decreases the local pressure and
vice versa. Thus the higher velocities on the upper airfoil side result in lower
than ambient pressure whereas the pressure on the lower side is higher that
the ambient pressure. It is possible to plot a pressure distribution instead of
the velocity distribution (usually not the pressure, but the ratio of the local
pressure to the stagnation pressure is plotted and called pressure
coefficient Cp):

.
Summing up the pressure acting on the airfoil results in a total pressure force.
Splitting up this total pressure force into a part normal to the flow and another
one tangential to the flow direction, results in a lift force L and a drag force D.
In some regions, the pressure force acting on the airfoil is of lower pressure
than the surrounding pressure and in other regions, it is higher. The following
image shows the pressure forces for the E64 at 2° angle of attack. It also
shows, how the total force is split into lift and drag forces (the drag force due
to pressure is usually very small, see below). The figure also shows, that most
of the lift is caused by the low pressure area above the wing.

It should be appreciated that the flow over any wing of finite span will be
inherently three-dimensional and further complicated by the effects of the
vortices that trail behind the wing, as shown in the figure below. The presence
of these vortices produces a downwash flow over the wing, affecting the local
angles of attack throughout the wing and, therefore, its lift and overall
aerodynamic characteristics. The flow can be assumed nominally two-
dimensional only at sections well away from the wing tip vortices.

In the first instance, it seems obvious to understand the aerodynamic behavior

of a wing without the influence of the wing tip vortices. To that end, it is
possible to think of a case where the wing span and corresponding aspect ratio
become infinitely large. Under these conditions, the effects of the tip vortices
are moved so far away from the central part of the wing that they will have a
negligible impact, the principle being shown in the figure below. Of course, in
a practical sense, a wing of infinite span is impossible. Still, with higher aspect
ratios, the effects of the wing tip vortices are sufficiently far removed that an
airfoil at mid-span behaves effectively as if it were in a two-dimensional flow.
Therefore, it is possible to mimic two-dimensional wings
theoretically and experimentally, deriving much understanding about the
aerodynamics of the airfoil section by itself

Procedure:

1- Mount the airfoil model between the two side of the test section of the wind
tunnel at specified angle of attack.
2- Insuring a perfect Closing two windows of the test section.
3- Fixing the pitot static tube at the entrance section of the test section.
4- Resetting the micromanometer with zero pressure values.
5- Open the doors of the laboratory.
6- Switch on the motor of axial fan using the controlling unit.
7- Note the reading of the micromanometer and motor ampere value of
controlling unit.
8- Read the static and total pressure of the pitot-static tube by using
micromanometer.
9- Reading the static pressure over the airfoil surface from the rubber tubes.
10-Bring the regulation to zero position and switch off the motor

Measurements
Results:
1-Calculate the test section velocity VS for table (1) for two angles of attack :
the dynamic pressure (0.066 kpa)

2-Calculate the pressure coefficient over the airfoil:

Results:
3-Find the Reynolds number:

4- Making two samples of calculations:

For (0) angle of attack

At upper surface:

Lower surface:

For (5) angle of attack

At upper surface:

At lower surface :

5- Plotting the pressure coefficient with the pressure tops number at (0) angle
of attack
 Cp for AOA=0
0.35

0.3

0.25

CP upper
0.2
cp lower

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Plotting the pressure coefficient with the pressure tops number at (5) angle of
attack

CP of AOA=5
0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2 CP upper
cp lower

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Discussion:
Discuss the relation between pressure coefficient distribution
The distribution of the pressure coefficient in a symmetrical airfoil at the zero
angle of attack is almost equal at the upper and lower surfaces, meaning that
there is no lift around the airfoil, but when the attack angle increases, this
leads to a rise in pressure at the lower surface, so the flow decreases and leads
to a difference in pressure between The upper and lower surfaces ,so increase
the lifting force around the airfoil