Contributions of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Market Research: Obstacles and Perspectives
Contributions of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Market Research: Obstacles and Perspectives
Contributions of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Market Research: Obstacles and Perspectives
12
CONTRIBUTIONS OF FUNCTIONAL
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING IN
MARKET RESEARCH: OBSTACLES AND
PERSPECTIVES
DOPRINOSI SNIMANJA
FUNKCIONALNOM MAGNETSKOM
REZONANCIJOM ISTRAŽIVANJU
TRŽIŠTA: PREPREKE I PERSPEKTIVE
Market-Tržište
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UDK 658.82:612.82:658.8.012.12
DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.22598/mt/2021.33.2.185
Original scientific paper
Abstract Sažetak
Purpose – The purpose of this research is to determine Svrha – Svrha je istraživanja utvrditi način korištenja
the way functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), funkcionalne magnetske rezonancije (fMRI) kao istraži-
as a research tool in neuromarketing, is used and to ana- vačkog alata u neuromarketingu te analizirati sve važne
lyze important elements of conducting such research, as elemente njegove provedbe, kao i definirati sve relevan-
well as defining all relevant terms regarding neuromar- tne pojmove vezane uz neuromarketing i neuroznanost
keting and consumer neuroscience. potrošača.
Design/Methodology/Approach – The research study Metodološki pristup – Istraživanje je usmjereno na
focused on conducting an fMRI experiment, using the provođenje fMRI eksperimenta pa su korištene metode
observation method, survey, and interview methods. promatranja, anketnog ispitivanja i intervjuiranja.
Vol. 33, No. 2, 2021, pp. 185-203
Findings and implications – By analyzing all steps in Rezultati i implikacije – Analiziranjem svih koraka u pro-
the fMRI experiment procedure and determining how to vođenju fMRI eksperimenta i određivanjem načina na
conduct fMRI research, obstacles in this kind of research koji se provodi fMRI istraživanje definirane su prepreke
were identified to establish what needs to be overcome te je utvrđeno što treba prevladati za nastavak daljnjih
for proceeding with further studies. istraživanja.
Limitations – Numerous limitations included lack of Ograničenja – Brojna ograničenja uključivala su nedo-
adequate equipment and software, huge administrative statak adekvatne opreme i softvera, ogromne admini-
barriers, and finding experts capable of conducting this strativne barijere te pronalazak stručnjaka osposoblje-
kind of research. nih za provođenje ovakve vrste istraživanja.
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Maja Vujičić, Bruno Grbac, Vladimir Mozetič
Originality – This research study combined the topics Doprinos – Istraživanje je kombiniralo teme osjetilnoga
of sensory marketing, neuromarketing, and social mar- marketinga, neuromarketinga i društvenoga marketin-
keting. Furthermore, it contributes to clearing the path ga. Nadalje, istraživanje doprinosi raščišćavanju putova
for this kind of research approach in the future, repre- za ovakvu vrstu pristupa istraživanju u budućnosti kao
senting a new trend that is here to stay. novom trendu koji dolazi.
Keywords – neuromarketing, consumer neuroscience, Ključne riječi – neuromarketing, neuroznanost potroša-
fMRI, social marketing, sensory marketing ča, fMRI, društveni marketing, osjetilni marketing
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Maja Vujičić, Bruno Grbac, Vladimir Mozetič
sic and sscent) stimuli. Different stimuli in the individuals make decisions (Gountas, Gountas,
environment can provide different reactions in Ciorciari & Sharma, 2019; Camerer et al., 2004). It
individuals (e.g., the Mehrabian-Russell model provides findings about consumer behavior in a
explaining that physical surroundings will elicit new way and enables analysis of subconscious
individual’s willingness to interact with or avoid responses. According to NMSBA (n.d.a), neuro-
the surroundings) (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; marketing uses neuroscience and studies brain
Kos Koklič, 2019; Vieira, 2013). Therefore, music and biometric responses and behavior to reveal
and scent were analyzed in the context of edu- subconscious decision-making process, as well
cation, owing to their possible beneficial effects as to understand the manner in which consum-
on individuals’ alertness and, consequently, on ers think and feel.
their better following of and participation in lec-
It ensures avoiding the problems that research-
tures. Hence, the paper is focused on: (1) neu-
romarketing – specifically, the fMRI as a tool of ers encounter in traditional marketing research,
research, (2) social marketing – contributing to such as getting incorrect participants’ answers
education, and (3) sensory marketing – focusing about their preferences because of unawareness
on auditory and olfactory stimuli. of their actual motives and needs or as a result of
willing sabotage of researchers’ questions (Ariely
With regard to the methodology applied, be- & Berns, 2010; Marušić & Vranešević, 2001). Hence,
sides the analysis of new marketing research neuromarketing implies analyzing and under-
methods relating to conducting the fMRI ex- standing individual behavior in the marketing
periment, traditional methods were also used: context, based on the utilization of neuroscience
observation method, as well as survey and in- research methods (Hubert & Kenning, 2008; Lee,
terview methods. Broderick & Chamberlain, 2007). As summarized
The paper consists of five parts. The first one by Lee and others (2007), this field of study could
is introduction, followed by theoretical back- be defined as the use of neuroscientific methods
ground, in which characteristics of neuromar- for analyzing and understanding human behav-
keting and fMRI are explained. Field research, ior related to markets and marketing exchanges.
including field research preconditions, method- The application of neuroscience is one of con-
ology, and findings constitute the central part. temporary key innovations in marketing research
Discussion and limitations are presented next. which is expected to develop further in the com-
The paper closes with a conclusion and future ing years (Ratchford, 2020), making this field wor-
research propositions. thy of exploration.
As Bechara and Damasio (2005) explain, neuro-
2. THEORETICAL biological mechanisms underlie market behav-
iors, indicating that emotions play a key role in
BACKGROUND the interaction between environmental condi-
2.1. The neuromarketing concept tions and decision-making and confirming that
the decision-making process is not only logical
The relationship between marketing and psy-
(as in an ideal model of perfectly rational homo
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thinking: the fast one – automatic and effort- tions to specific stimuli. This kind of “ask brain, not
less, and the slow one – focused on complex person” approach (Camerer et al., 2004) methods
mental activities and reasoned choices. In the could be beneficial in unlocking the answers.
context of dual processing theories and neural
Nowadays, technology provides astonishing pos-
imaging, Evans and Stanovich (2013) analyzed
sibilities to gain a better understanding of individ-
decision-making and found that prefrontal and
uals. Some of the tools used by researchers are:
frontal cortical brain regions are involved in a
functional magnetic resonance imaging, func-
slow processing of mental simulation of future
tional near-infrared spectroscopy, electroenceph-
possibilities (hypothetical thinking and consid-
alography, magnetoencephalography, eye-track-
ering different problem-solving options), while
ing, measurement of physiological responses,
the limbic system is involved in taking fast, im-
face reading, and response time measures (Zu-
mediate decisions.
rawicki, 2010; Fairchild, Aronowitz, Langleben &
Furthermore, this kind of research approach can Wang, 2018). The positron emission tomography
be beneficial in terms of analyzing individual at- [PET] is also mentioned, but as PET studies in-
tention or reactions to stimuli that occur in the clude exposure to ionizing radiation (Fairchild et
environment. In that respect, it is important to ex- al., 2018) by using fluorodeoxyglucose (glucose
plain the so-called bottom-up or exogenous at- molecule artificially attached to an atom of radio-
tention, which refers to the situation in which in- active fluor) (Zurawicki, 2010), this kind of studies
dividual attention is “caught” by a stimulus from should be considered inappropriate if conducted
the environment (unlike the top-down or endog- for marketing research purposes.
enous attention, which refers to voluntarily aim-
In addition to ethical issues concerning the use
ing attention to search for the stimuli/information
of specific tools, the following general ethi-
with some specific characteristics of interest and
cal issues should be emphasized. The basis for
resulting from the explicit decision of an individu-
neuromarketing research has to include primar-
al on where to focus the attention) (Venkatraman
ily the marketing concept of business activity,
et al., 2015; Ciaramelli, Grady & Moscovitch, 2008;
meaning an orientation on the needs of actual
Behrmann, Geng & Shomestein, 2004).
consumers with a view to perceiving and defin-
Hence, consumer neuroscience can be helpful ing marketing as the process of creating the val-
in the exploration of sensory stimuli and finding ue which customers need (Grbac, 2012). In other
out how individuals react to them. Sensory cre- words, the main purpose of neuromarketing re-
ation of a product brand implies a process that search should be a better understanding of in-
begins with an individual gathering information dividuals in the process of decision-making, val-
obtained by all five senses, based on which feel- ue creation, and value exchange. Each research-
ings are created; this is followed by experiences, er is responsible for conducting research in line
resulting, finally, in the emergence of an experi- with the highest ethical standards, ensuring
ence related to a product/business entity (Pav- that the research with all its reported details is
lek, 2008). Hulten, Broweus, and van Dijk (2009) transparent and that all safety standards, proto-
explain sensory marketing as a “firm’s ability to cols, and consent procedures are followed (ICC/
accomplish a supreme sensory experience with ESOMAR, 2016; ESOMAR, 2011; NMSBA Code of
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Maja Vujičić, Bruno Grbac, Vladimir Mozetič
planar review of the body without exposing an fMRI provides excellent insights into the deep-
individual to ionizing radiation (Fučkan, 2012a). est brain structures and individuals’ reactions;
Magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] uses strong on the other hand, tasks in fMRI experiments
magnetic fields to create images of biological should be simplified and repeated several times
tissue (Huettel, Song & McCarthy, 2009). Stud- to reveal brain reactions.
ies of the brain structure represent the basis for
most of the knowledge about the brain, but 2.3. Neuromarketing research
structural studies imply barriers preventing the practices
detection of short-term physiological chang- Based on the fMRI method of research, neuro-
es. These barriers may be overcome through marketing experiments have raised numerous
functional neuroimaging studies by detecting questions regarding human reactions to dif-
different parts in the brain in which particular
ferent stimuli and decision-making to be ana-
mental processes appear and by defining the
lyzed and discussed. Thus, research focuses on
patterns of brain activation associated with
(1) using fMRI in neuromarketing research, (2)
these processes (Huettel et al., 2009). The use
contribution to social marketing, and (3) using
of fMRI enables reading out particular physio-
specific stimuli (auditory and olfactory) to elicit
logical process and can be described as an in-
a response.
direct disclose of metabolic brain activity (Pavić
& Radoš, 2005). Thus, activation of the particular Firstly, motivation and great inspiration for fo-
brain area can be localized very precisely (Pos- cusing on the use of fMRI was one of the most
ner, 2010; Dimoka, 2012). impressive avenues of research on wine pref-
erences conducted by Plassmann, O’Doherty,
The principle of fMRI operating is grounded on
Shiv, and Rangel (2008). Their research revealed
the monitoring of blood flow in the brain tissue.
that participants enjoyed the taste of wine which
This is connected with the so-called Blood Ox-
ygen Level Dependant imaging [BOLD] (Pavić the information provided to them described
& Radoš, 2005). The principle based on which as expensive more than that which, according
BOLD imaging operates is that neuronal acti- to the information provided to them, is cheap-
vation in a specific brain region occurs owing er even though the information referred to the
to a specific stimulus. As neurons are activated, same wine. While this kind of result was expect-
oxygen-enriched blood runs towards the acti- ed, brain scan results were stunning. Researchers
vated brain region (Prelec, 2008). Hemoglobin ascertained that if the information on wine price
is the transporter of oxygen in red blood cells; changes, the activation of the brain regions in-
oxygenated hemoglobin is diamagnetic (hav- volved in taste perception (primary taste areas)
ing the characteristics of week repulsion from a does not change (when the same type of wine
magnetic field), while deoxygenated hemoglo- is concerned). However, changes occurred in
bin is paramagnetic (having the characteristics medial orbitofrontal cortex activation, based on
of being attracted to a magnetic field, although which the researchers concluded that the wine
less so than ferromagnetic objects are). Hemo- taste was more pleasurable when obtaining in-
globin saturated with oxygen moves towards formation that the wine is more expensive. This
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the activated brain part to a greater extent constitutes actual proof of how the information
than “common” blood flow in the brain regions obtained changes personal experience. In a way,
that are not activated by neuronal stimulation. brain deceived itself (Prelec, 2008), raising numer-
As a result, in the “activated” part of the brain, ous questions related to human thinking, reac-
oxygenated hemoglobin increases and displac- tions, and decision-making. It may apply even
es the deoxygenated hemoglobin that was more broadly, for instance, to the analysis of the
suppressing the MR signal intensity, so BOLD placebo effect in terms of various characteristics
contrast occurs (Huttel et al., 2009). Therefore, of the product and its environment, influencing
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Contributions of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Market Research: Obstacles and Perspectives UDK 658.82:612.82:658.8.012.12
perception of the product (Shiv, Carmon & Ariely, neuroimaging techniques, can also help educa-
2005; Plassmann & Weber, 2015). tion (Willis, 2010) that could be more correlated
with individuals’ needs and wants.
By using fMRI in marketing research for the
first time, it is possible to “see” the process of The third area of the research interest concerns
consumer purchasing decisions. Knutson et al. sensory aspects of marketing. Sensory aspect
(2007) identified neural circuits that predict pur- implies creating an offer in which, besides visual
chase, determining that activation of the brain elements, product is enriched by auditory, ol-
region called nucleus accumbens (a part of the factory, tactile and, where possible, gustatory el-
limbic system linked to the responses to re- ements (Pavlek, 2008; Hasse & Wiedmann, 2018).
wards and gains) reveals customer preferences Krishna (2012) defines sensory marketing as ef-
for the product. Also, when an excessive prod- forts in marketing engaging consumers’ senses
uct price is shown to the participants, insula (the based on which their perception, judgment,
brain region linked, among others, to human and behavior are affected. Although analyses of
response to losses) is activated. This is related environmental stimuli (e.g., temperature, music
to the so-called “pain of paying” phenomena and sounds, scent, furniture and its arrange-
(Prelec & Loewenstein, 1998; Prelec & Simester, ment, signs, symbols, decoration style) that af-
2001). Finally, Knutson, Rick, Wimmer, Prelec, and fect individual’s physiological, emotional and
Loewenstein (2007) determined that the medial cognitive responses, go back to a long time ago
prefrontal cortex (a region responsible for con- (Bitner, 1992; Donovan & Rossiter, 1982), contem-
scious appraisal of whether a particular offer is porary neuromarketing methods provide new
favorable for an individual or not, which is im- insights into the stated responses. Different ele-
plicated in gains and losses) is activated prior ments regarding stimuli from the environment,
to the purchase decision if a reduced product such as visual (Stillman, Lee, Deng, Rap Unnava
price is shown and, conversely, deactivated in & Fujita, 2020; Stoll, Baecke & Kenning, 2008), au-
the case of an excessive product price. ditory (Mostafa, 2012; Plailly, Tillmann & Royet,
2007), olfactory (Plailly et al., 2007; Hertz, Elias-
Secondly, the research focus directs neuromar- sen, Beland & Souza, 2004), gustatory (Okamoto
keting research towards the social marketing & Dan, 2013), and tactile stimuli (Stilla & Sathian,
segment. This segment relates to the appli- 2008), even in an online environment (Liu et al.,
cation of marketing with the aim of achieving 2020), are analyzed by fMRI research. An individ-
social goals and influencing changes in society ual’s perception of the environment frequently
by directing public behavior towards generally occurs at an unconscious level (De Luca & Botel-
accepted principles, thus providing welfare to ho, 2019), so fMRI enables deep brain structure
all members of society (Meler, 2003). As regards analysis and differentiating conscious from un-
social marketing, Drapko (2014) emphasizes that conscious processes (Reimann, Schilke, Weber,
social campaigns are selling ideas with the final Neuhaus & Zaichkowsky, 2011). Hence, as em-
goal of reshaping the attitude of individuals. phasized by Petit, Velasco, Cheok, and Spence
Neuromarketing fMRI research in this segment (2015), consumers evaluate experiences through
can be directed at creating food labels that pro- their senses and neuroimaging tools should be
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mote healthy choices to reduce obesity (Gra- used to get better insights into this process.
benhorst, Schulte, Maderwald & Brand, 2013;
Ng, Stice, Yokum & Bohon, 2011) or determining
the impact of anti-smoking health warnings on 3. FIELD RESEARCH
individuals (Liu, O’Donnell & Falk, 2020; Fairchild
et al., 2018). Regarding social marketing with-
3.1. Preconditions
in this research, the motivation lies in the fact The main precondition for putting the idea
that science, connecting cognitive research and of conducting an fMRI experiment into prac-
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Maja Vujičić, Bruno Grbac, Vladimir Mozetič
tice was to provide the tool for it, i.e., an fMRI ed by Dimoka (2012), these conditions include
scanner. This proved to be a problem because certain medical history and use of psychotropic
Croatian universities lacked the equipment and medications. Additionally, the participants were
specialized laboratories for conducting such re- given a note on tattoos and makeup, due to the
search. After analyzing possible options, collab- content of metals and graphite particles in the
oration between a Croatian university’s faculty colors being used, which may cause local tissue
of economics and business and a private poly- heating (Fučkan, 2012a). Finally, the participants
clinic was established. were warned not to drink coffee or energetic
In addition to the equipment, suitable software beverages and not to smoke before undergoing
also had to be provided. Functional imaging is experiment. Furthermore, because of the later-
dynamic, meaning that it can “catch” metabolic alization of brain function and brain responses
activity of specific brain regions in response to to certain stimuli, it is important to know wheth-
specific stimuli. With the help from experts in er the participants are right- or left-handed. The
the field of electrical engineering and informa- commonly used test for this is based on the
tion technology, the appropriate software was Edinburgh Handedness Scale (Oldfield, 1971;
installed to ensure BOLD imaging.1 As this kind Brainmapping, n.d.). Willems, Van der Haegen,
of research requires collaboration of experts Fisher, and Francks (2014) stressed that a more
from different disciplines, an interdisciplinary homogeneous sample would provide better
team was formed including experts with the results because of smaller variances between
economic (marketing) background, medical ex- the subjects, as well as an increase in statistical
perts, and experts in electrical engineering and sensitivity, but also pointed to the need for in-
information technology. cluding lefthanded participants in studies.
Meanwhile, participants were selected and pre- Furthermore, administrative barriers had to be
pared for the experiment. They were students overcome. An Application for Ethical Approval of
at a Croatian faculty of economics and business. Research, for which approval needs to be ob-
Most of them were interested in marketing re- tained, was submitted to the Ethics Committee
search topics, with some actually involved in of the respective faculty of economics and busi-
the activities of the Marketing Department at ness. It took five months for the approval to be
the faculty in question. Potential participants granted, verified, and approved by the Ethics
were interviewed and acquainted with research Committee of the same university, but at the
characteristics, based on which they were to de- faculty of medicine. Since such research had
cide on participation in the experiment. All in- never been conducted there, as far as authors
terviewed participants except one, who did not know, at any other Croatian university, obtain-
feel comfortable in the MRI environment, opted ing the Ethics Committee Approval was extreme-
to participate in the experiment. ly complicated not so much on account of the
The participants were given the Informed Con- nature research, but for the lack of track record
sent document, including all details (of which in this kind of research.
some explained the research objective and
3.2. Methodology
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The scientific problem behind the motivation for part of experiment involving olfactory percep-
research was analyzing the physical environment tion, participants were asked whether they were
for giving classes to draw attention of the target smokers and if they have any kind of breathing
group (students). The aim is to increase the individ- problems (proper airway patency).
ual’s attention towards the content heard. The re-
In order to analyze stimuli (music/scent) which
search goal was to analyze whether an individual’s
could possibly boost participants’ attention
exposure to music/scent stimuli would contribute
during the task (listening to the words) and in line
to increased attention. A pragmatic implemen-
with the research purpose, simple block-design
tation of this idea would relate to, e.g., increasing
of the fMRI experiment was considered suitable.
student attention during classes and encouraging
As pointed out by Huettel et al. (2009), in this
them to participate in classes more easily and ac-
kind of experimental design “the trials from each
tively, especially when attending classes early in
condition are grouped together in time to form
the morning (Dikker et al., 2020) or in the time of
blocks” and, as each condition is presented for
during the day which, according to the circadian
an extended period of time, comparison is made
rhythm, is not a good timing for such activities
between them. Based on this, the experiment
(e.g., late afternoon hours) (Toljan, 2017; Koc & Boz,
was designed in line with the guidelines provid-
2014). This should increase alertness and attention
ed and instructions obtained in the interview
(Lindsley, 1988) of the target audience (students)
with radiology expert Fučkan (2012b). The exper-
and, consequently, encourage a higher activity (in
iment included a series of stimuli and intermit-
the context of participating in classes).
tent pauses (“experimental” and “control” parts).
As an auditory stimulus, background music2 Word listening served as the basic stimulus and
without lyrics was chosen for: its suitability for additional stimuli included firstly background
work environment (Shih, Huang & Chiang, 2012), music and secondly scent. The images of partici-
the fact that music has the ability to reduce pants’ brain response to stimulus and the images
stress and anxiety (Bradt, Dileo & Shim, 2013), of participants’ brain during pauses were to be
and findings of previous research that playing compared. Thus, upon consecutive repeats of
music has positive effects on the level of con- stimuli and pauses, the differences in the activa-
centration, which could in turn contribute to tion of certain brain regions should be detected,
the performance level (Mori, Naghsh & Tezuka, revealing which parts of the brain were activated
2014). As an olfactory stimulus, the peppermint by stimulus. Considering previous research find-
essential oil (Mentha piperita, produced by Pran- ings (Santos, Moutinho, Seixas & Brandao, 2012;
arom), was applied for its potential in helping Huettel et al. 2009), the blocks of stimuli and
to reduce mental exhaustion and stress (Wild- pauses alternated every 10 seconds.
wood, 2002). This essential oil may also stimulate
Three sets of scanning were undertaken, with
affective and cognitive responses of an individ-
each set creating a combination of stimuli and
ual, that is, encourage the individual’s alertness
pauses, so the participants were listening to a
(Raudenbush, Grayhem, Sears & Wilson, 2009).
series of 6 words, representing a stimulus, over
The first step in the experiment consisted in a 10-second period. This was followed by a
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filling out Questionnaire 1, including questions 10-second pause, upon which the stimulus con-
about the participants’ demographic profile sisting of the same 6 words being repeated. The
(gender, age, the year of study), general con- second set implied a combination of stimuli and
dition through semantic differential questions pauses, which again included a series of other 6
about how they felt over the previous month words with the addition of background music
(on a 7-point scale ranging from exhausted to as a stimulus lasting for 10 seconds, followed by
relaxed), and how many hours they slept the a 10-second pause. The third set included lis-
night before the experiment. On account of the tening to the words and a scent applied as an
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Maja Vujičić, Bruno Grbac, Vladimir Mozetič
additional stimulus.3 The described experiment Before entering the MRI room, the participants
design is presented graphically in Figure 1. were interviewed by a radiology technician and
were given the MRI Consent Form to fill in. The
FIGURE 1: Experiment design participants were asked to take off any kind of
metals (pins on their clothes, piercings) or coins
out of their pockets so as not to cause severe
consequences. Upon completion of all prepara-
tory procedures, the participants were ready to
proceed.
Scanning was carried out at the Polyclinic in April
2013. Fifteen healthyrest participants – 7 female
and 8 male students, who were all volunteers,
participated in the research. The participants
were aged between 19 and 25 years (mean age
= 21.7 years; SD = 1.83). In neuroscience market
research, sample size is much smaller than usual
in traditional market research. According to ES-
Source: Authors’ own elaboration. OMAR (2011) guidelines for neuroscience market
research, sample size in this kind of research is
The words used in the experiment were cho- much smaller compared to quantitative tradi-
sen based on consultations with a Croatian tional market research, counting approximate-
language expert; they were equal according ly 15 to 30 participants. As fMRI studies should
to origin (Croatian standard words or foreign involve at least 15 participants per experiment
ones), number of syllables, and position of em- (Huettel et al., 2009), that same number of par-
phasis (accented syllable). Three series of six ticipants was adopted for the purpose of this
words, similar by the level of difficulty, were experimental study.
formed and each word series was run in three
The experiment was conducted using the
different scanning sets. To change the order in
Philips-Achieva model MRI scanne, strength 1.5
these word series, the sets were designed in
Tesla.4 Morphological (anatomical) scanning was
the following way: five participants during the
performed first, followed by functional scan-
first, second and third scanning sets listened to
ning. The participants underwent three sets
the word series 1, 2, and 3. As to the other two
of functional scanning. The characteristics of
groups, each consisting of five participants, the
functional scanning were as follows: slice thick-
word series were rotated as shown in Table 1.
ness = 5mm, matrix size 64 x 64, number of slic-
es = 29, TR (Time to Repeat) = 3 seconds. Upon
TABLE 1: Order of the word series number by set
scanning completion, images were archived
and number of participants included in
and documented in the Picture Archiving and
each set
Communication System.
Number of
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Contributions of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Market Research: Obstacles and Perspectives UDK 658.82:612.82:658.8.012.12
data processing were planned to be performed During the scanning, the control room light was
using the Statistical Parametric Mapping [SPM] switched off in order so that the participants
(n.d.)5 program, available online free of charge could not see the researchers or movements
although running in the MatLab program. in the control room that could distract their
attention. An additional observation relates to
After the participants had passed three sets of
the fact that the participants were instructed
scanning, they filled out a “Word remembering
to close their eyes to avoid any visual stimuli.
test” consisting of three pages. Each page fol-
The entire process is monitored from the con-
lowed each scanning set, including 48 words (all
trol room, shown in Picture 2, where the partici-
of them prepared based on consultations with
pants are observed on the monitor and through
the Croatian language expert), of which only 6
the glass isolating the room for scanning from
were the same words that the participants lis-
the control room. Morphological and functional
tened to during fMRI scanning.
scanning forms are initiated here.
3.3. Research findings
PICTURE 2: fMRI control room
3.3.1. Observation
During the fMRI scanning procedure, partici-
pants have to stay still. As explained in the doc-
ument MRI Consent Form, scanning is painless,
participants should be as relaxed as possible
and stay still during the scanning. Head move-
ments may cause artefacts in images, render-
ing data analysis impossible. Technicians and
the research team can hear each participant
and see them on the monitor during scanning.
Picture 1 shows the radiology technician who,
before scanning, confirms the defined research
procedure to the participant, checks whether Source: Authors’ archive.
everything is in order, and prepares the coil (a
part which helps to receive a signal and gather During the scanning process and upon its com-
high-quality images). pletion, brain images appear on the monitor.
Medical technician analyses each image and en-
PICTURE 1: Preparation for scanning sures its archiving. At this stage, it is possible to
see a morphological scan of the brain. Morpho-
logical scanning is followed by functional pro-
cessing. Although it is possible to see more ac-
tive regions of the brain at this stage, as shown
in Picture 3, further comparison of the results by
means of the software programs foreseen for
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Maja Vujičić, Bruno Grbac, Vladimir Mozetič
PICTURE 3: Example of fMRI brain image in the Philips DICOM Viewer program
of the brain would be activated, (n.d.). Programs TABLE 2: Correctly recognized words by set
contributing to a visualization of a certain active
Participant
area of the brain, such as Talairach Client (n.d.) or 1st set 2nd set 3rd set
number
MRIcron (n.d.), are also suseful during data pro-
cessing. 1st 5 3 6
2nd 6 3 3
3.3.2. Questionnaire and word
3rd 3 1 2
remembering test
4th 3 0 2
Based on Questionnaire 1, it was determined
that none of the participants, except one (par- 5th
4 5 0
ticipant no. 7), had any kind of breathing prob- 6th
3 5 2
lems (airway patency). Nevertheless, this partici- 7th
4 5 2
pant answered that he smelled the scent.
8th
2 1 1
Immediately after passing three sets of scan- 9th
4 2 4
ning, the participants filled out the “Word re-
10 th
4 1 4
membering test.” Out of 48 words given for
each set, the participants had to pick 6 correct 11 th
5 3 4
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Contributions of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Market Research: Obstacles and Perspectives UDK 658.82:612.82:658.8.012.12
In order to obtain a rough picture of results lower when auditory and olfactory stimuli are
achieved by the participants, the following data included. So, by inclusion of the new stimuli, the
are outlined: the average value (mean) of correct participants were potentially disrupted (Dom-
answers (recognized words) in the 1st scanning jan, 2012). A participant stated that, at that time
set was 4.13 (SD = 1.06), in the 2nd set it was 2.47 a scent was introduced into the space, he did
(SD = 1.68), and in the 3rd set 2.87 (SD = 1.77). not concentrate on the words at all because his
After the participants filled out the question- attention was focused on the scent only. Anoth-
naire and the word remembering test, a de- er participant said the scent had distracted her
tailed interview followed in which some of the at the very beginning of that scanning set. Al-
questions were additionally discussed. though the goal was to increase alertness by us-
ing scent, only one participant pointed to being
alert as a result. Given the researchers’ coping
4. DISCUSSION AND with the installation of equipment and imple-
LIMITATIONS mentation of stimuli, a potential threat was that
the participants were sedated instead of staying
In conducting an experiment, it is crucial to en- alert (Goel & Lao, 2006). As regards the analysis
sure that all participants are acquainted with of the scent, an important comment standing
the research and the space in which it will be out was that by the participant who felt fear and
conducted. In this research, before scanning, anxiety during the research. She said the scent
each participant was shown a presentation was the only thing that made her feel relaxed
of the space in which the research was going and calm. Although brain scan analysis should
to be conducted. Some of them had already show the actual state, this is a valuable finding
been there and had undergone trial scanning. showing that a scent might possibly be used for
However, some saw the space only when it was the purpose of helping patients reduce stress
shown to them. One participant felt fear and in diagnostic procedures, potentially together
anxiety during the experiment, although she with other stimuli, e.g., through the adjustment
did not expect it. Therefore, it is recommend- of lighting or music (Charite, 2015; First Komen,
ed for all participants undergo pre-scanning Šepac & Vujičić, 2015).
preparation in real-life conditions. As stated by
Mostafa (2012) and Dong et al. (2005), in their The next problem involved associations to the
experiments, participants had 15 minutes of words the participants listened to, as a poten-
so-called pre-scan training session, after which tial distraction that may result in attention de-
they proceeded to take part in the experiment. crease. This is confirmed by the participants’
It is important that participants are not distract- comments, showing that different participants
ed by any other outside disturbances (e.g., from had different associations to the words.
the control room). During research, it is crucial Following are the research limitations: the first
to ensure that all participants follow the given one relates to the MRI scanner itself. As the Uni-
guidelines and enter the space with no metal versity has no laboratory for such research, the
objects, such as coins in their pockets, to pre- first obstacle was finding both a partner for the
Vol. 33, No. 2, 2021, pp. 185-203
vent serious harm to themselves and others and research and machine available for the scanning.
damage to the scanning room equipment.
Also, the noise made by the machine during
Although the sample of participants is too small scanning represented a major disruption in the
to draw valid conclusions (as the aim of the pa- experiment. The noise occurs owing to rapid
per was to conduct fMRI research analysis), it has gradient coils switching on and off, resulting
been observed that the results achieved by the in its “expansion and shrinkage,” heard as loud,
participants in the word remembering test are rhythmic sounds at different frequencies (Fučkan,
197
Maja Vujičić, Bruno Grbac, Vladimir Mozetič
2012a). Although the participants had earphones marketing-related questions. Hence, the use of
on to reduce that noise, as well as for listening to fMRI for marketing purposes represents an ad-
the music and words, noise during scanning was ditional tool supporting traditional research to
very loud. Another limitation concerning hard- gain a better understanding of consumers in
ware was the absence of additional equipment the market, irrespective of whether in the profit
that provides for easier conduct of the experi- or non-profit segment. Not least, it is important
ment (implementation of auditory and olfactory to stress the ethical considerations of conduct-
stimuli), due to which the experiment was adapt- ing such research experiments, without jeopar-
ed to given conditions. The third set scanning dizing participants (e.g., the authors considered
limitation included the presence of scent over PET scanning completely inappropriate for neu-
the whole set, also during the word pauses. romarketing research purposes).
Other limitations also included the absence of a This research was embarked on with a great
formed database of participants. Therefore, the enthusiasm aiming to analyze the manner in
researchers contacted those who were linked to which fMRI research is conducted. The intention
the Department of Marketing at the Faculty and was to ensure equipment, gather researchers
were, thus, potentially interested in participation. into an interdisciplinary team, and gain a better
understanding or the procedures in such types
Since this type of research was not conducted
of research. Potential problems and limitations
at the University before, another limitation re-
have been identified and knowledge about all
lates to the research administrative segment. It
stages of conducting such an experiment, in
took as long as five months to obtain the Eth-
practice, has been gathered. The experience
ics Committee approval alone. This was a ma-
gained during the research highlighted a need
jor administrative problem encountered by the
to set up a laboratory at the University level.
researchers owing to the absence of a routine
This implies providing both hardware and soft-
and established procedures for conducting in-
ware, but also gathering experts from different
terdisciplinary research.
disciplines who would be involved in similar
Finally, the research limitations also included research. The difficulties encountered point to
lengthy preparations, conduct and analysis of the for defining and establishing committees
the overall research and its results. As the present and laying down procedures for approving in-
research was conducted by few individuals, who terdisciplinary research. Thus, enormous admin-
carried out all the work that is usually performed istrative barriers would be overcome. It is also
by much bigger and more coordinated teams, recommended to consider setting up database
the time necessary for performing the analysis of participants for conducting future research.
was quite long. It also highlighted a lack of ex-
The recommendations for future research in-
perts capable of interpreting the results of such
clude ensuring proper conditions not only
fMRI research. Moreover, the financial aspect
for future research and providing research
was another major challenge because it is very
equipment and software but also capabilities
expensive. Therefore, it might prove rather chal-
for data analysis. As the research is focused on
lenging to continue with similar research without
Vol. 33, No. 2, 2021, pp. 185-203
198
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Endnotes
1
The software used was Statistical Parametric Mapping (explained latter).
2
The musical part played was Ronan Hardiman's Celtic Dream from Michael Flatley's Lord of the Dance musical musical,
based on Irish step-dancing and folklore, which belongs to ambient music that includes elements of electronic and tradi-
tional Celtic and Irish music. A rich sound of the Celtic harp brings the main melody, which is in the minor scale and varies
throughout the musical composition. Rhythm is accurate and written in the two-beat measure (Šantek, 2020).
3
The scent stimulus was introduced by means of a cotton pad soaked with five drops of Mentha piperita (peppermint)
essential oil, attached to the coil which participants in the MRI scanner had around their head. The set which included the
scent was always launched last to avoid its influence on previous sets. Each participant had a set scanning time on a differ-
ent day to ensure that the MRI room is ventilated and free from the scent when the next participant enters the room. This
posed a research limitation, since the scent was present during the rests.
4
Tesla is a measure unit in the International System of Units, expressing magnetic field intensity (Fučkan, 2012a).
5
Other programs besides SPM (n.d.) are also available. As mentioned by Dimoka (2012), they includ FSL (n.d.), AFNI (n.d.)
and BrainVoyager (n.d.).
203