SECTION A

FUNCTION OF REAL VARIABLE

Mapping
A mapping is a relation which assigns every element from the Domain X into/onto a corresponding
element in the Co-domain Y.
The relation is therefore the function which describes the image formed in the Codomain by the object
picked from the domain. The set of all the images formed in the codomain Y is called the Range which
can either be a proper or improper subset of the entire Codomain (.see diagram below)
X Y
f Y=f(x)
x

X = Domain of f , written D(f) where 𝑥 an object in X

Y= Codomain of f, written C(f) where y= f(x) is an image in Y

The Function /Relation / Mapping /Transformation

f assigns to each variable (object) 𝑥 in X to at least a value (image) y in Y. The mapping or function
can be represented symbolically as f : xϵX yϵ Y. if f takes value (x) from the set of real numbers
to form an image (y) in the real line, we then say f is then called a Real-valued function. In other
words, X and Y are sets of real numbers in the mapping above. Suppose f maps the entire X into sets
of image (range) say R(f) that are completely in the Co-domain, (i.e R(f) ⊂Y), we then say that f maps
X into Y with diagram shown below
f
X Y R(f) = Range
c f

D(f) C(f)

f maps X into Y because R(f) ⊂ Y

Suppose f maps the entire X into the entire Co-domain, (i.e. R(f) =C(f)) such that the inverse image
of f (written f-1 ) also exhaust the entire domain, we then say that f maps X onto Y with diagram
shown below

pg. 1
 f
R(f) = Range

f-1

D(f) C(f)

f maps X onto Y because R(f) = Y

Any mapping can also be illustrated as a plant or machine that transforms an object into an image
(see diagram below). Each time an object inserts into the machine plant), an image f(x) is formed. The
object is called the INPUT while the image is called the OUTPUT.
x

f : Machine
/Plant

y=f(x) ∈ Y

Types of mapping (function)

1. One – to – one (Injective) mapping
The mapping (function) f is said to be an injective mapping (or an injection) if where x1= x2,
then f(x1) = f(x2) or vice versa. Similarly, f(x1) ≠ f(x2) ⇒ x1 ≠ x2 this implies, that an object
produces only one image.
Example 1:
Given a function f : IR IR, where IR is a set of real numbers and f is defined as f(x) = 2x
+ 1, then
f(x1) = 2x1 + 1 and f(x2) = 2x2+ 1. And equating both sides gives the following below;
f(x1) = f(x2) ⇒ 2x1 + 1 = 2x2+ 1 which then gives 2x1= 2x2 ⇒ x1 = x2
Therefore, the function f is injective.
Example 2:
2𝑥
Given the function f : 𝑅 𝑥 R, defined by f(x) = where 𝑅 𝑥 = R – (1).
𝑥−1
2𝑥1 2𝑥2
f(𝑥1 ) = and f(𝑥2 ) =
𝑥1 −1 𝑥2 −1
2𝑥1 2𝑥2
f(𝑥1 ) = f(𝑥2 ) ⇒ =
𝑥1 −1 𝑥2 −1

pg. 2
 ⇒ 2𝑥1 𝑥2 − 2𝑥1 = 2𝑥1 𝑥2 − 2𝑥2
⇒ -2𝑥1 = −2𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
∴ f is injective.
2. Surjective mapping (or surjection)
This is a function or mapping that maps the entire domain onto the entire codomain. That is f
map’s X onto Y if R (f) = Y such that f-1(Y)=X. Diagram 2 above describes the mapping.
Example 3
Let f be a mapping from R to R (i.e. f : IR R defined by f(x) = x
R R

1 F(1) =1
f R(f) = IR for every x∈IR
2 F(2) = 2
. . Therefore, f is surjective (ie. f maps. R onto R).
. .
10
F(10) =
. 10

Example 4:
Suppose f is a mapping from N to N where N is a set of natural numbers and f is defined by f(x) = x 2.
(i.e. f: N N defined by f(x) = x2 ; then
X= {1, 2, 3,……….} =D(f)=N
Y = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25,…..} ⊂ R(f) = R for every x∈R

In the case of example 4 above, the range R(f ) doesn’t include some of the natural numbers such
2, 3 5,6 and so on . This then implies that range R(f ) is a subset of the codomain N i.e. R(f ) C IN
and as such the mapping is not surjective (or onto) . Suppose we exchange the domain from N to R
such that f : IR → N then the function f (x) = x2 maps values from the set of real numbers onto the
entire codomain N as described below.
R N

1 F(1) =1= 12 =1
f: F(√2) =(√2)2 =2
√2)
F(2) =22=4
2

.f(10) pg. 3

.
 Where the domain X = IR = [1,√2, √3 , 2…..] and the range R (f) = Y = IN = [1,2,3,4,……]
Therefore, the mapping (function) f is surjective since any natural number picked from the codomain
has an inverse image in the domain (f-1(y) ϵ X).
3. Bijective mapping
f in said to be a bijective mapping (or simply a bijection ) if f is both injective and surjective.
(i.e Bijective = Injection + Surjection. The function f (x) = x is bijective for every domain
and codomain of f.

𝑥1 f F (x1)
𝑥2 F(x2)
f
𝑥N F(xN)
f
f(xi)ϵY ∀ xi = 1, 2
4. Constant mapping: Let f : X → Y. be a function (mapping) from X into Y . If Vx∈ X, f (x) =K
where K is a fixed element in Y, we then say that f is a constant function.
X Y

The range R(f) = K (a fixed element ) or point in Y.

5. Inverse mapping
Suppose f maps from X to Y and g maps from Y to X represented as f: X,→ 𝑌 and g : Y → X. If
for any element 𝑥 in X (i.e xϵ X), the image y = f(x) is formed in Y (i.e. f (x, =y ∈ Y ), then the
function g that maps from Y back to X assigns the image y in Y back to the domain X. Therefore
the function g is the inverse function of f (written g = f-1). Illustratively, f(x) =y ⇒ f-1
[f(x)] = f-1(y).
⇒ Ix =x = f-1 (y) (see diagram below).

pg. 4
 F: X Y

𝑥
f
Y=f(x)

f-1=g
𝑥∈X y∈Y
X Y : f-1
Example 6
Let f be a mapping f : R → R between F (x) = 2x + 1
𝑦−1
Let f(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 = y ⇒ x =
2
𝑥−1
If f : 𝑥 → 2x + 1 implies that g = f-1 = x →
2

Example 6
2𝑥
Suppose f : R → R defined by f(x) - , x≠ 1
𝑥−1
2𝑥 𝑦 2𝑥
Let =y ⇒ x= , therefore f -1 : x → 𝑥≠1
𝑥−1 𝑦−2 𝑥−1

The function f is bijective (i.e. both injective and surjective) on the domain and codomain
excluding the points for which f is undefined. We also note that the objects need not exhaust
the entire domain X . The set of objects say E can be a subject of the domain (i.e. E ⊂D(f)) =
X) to produce a direct image of E (i.e. F (E)) that is also a subset of the codomain Y. (See
diagram below.)

X = D(f) Y = C(f)

f(F)
y
x
f(E)
E⊂X F(E)⊂Y

i.e. F (E) = {f(x) ϵ Y : x ϵ E)

pg. 5
This same concept is also applicable to the inverse mapping of a subject of Y (i.e. H C Y ) to produce
a direct inverse image of H under f.

X Y
F-1(H)

x y H

x𝜖𝑓 -1 (H) ⊂ X f(x) = y𝜖H⊂Y

i.e. 𝑓 -1 (H) = (x𝜖X : f(x)𝜖H)

6. Composite mapping
Let f : X → Y and G → Y → Z. The function g(x)o f(x) = (g o f) (x) = g(f(x)) for every x∈X is
called a composite function of f and g or composition of functions or function of functions.
That is, f : X → Y, g : Y→ Z and h : 𝑍 → N written as h(x) . g(x) o. f(x) = (h o g o f ) (x)

X Y 𝑍 N

x 𝑧
f y g h
h

xϵX y∈Y z∈Z n∈N

Suppose E is a subject of the domain X (i.e. E ⊂ X ), then x∈E, y∈f(E), Ƶ∈g (f (E)) and n ∈ h (g(f(E)))
written as h o g o f = h (g(f(E))) where E⊂X..
Note the following:
1. The composition of two or more function are not commutative for all values of x in X.
i.e. f o g ≠ g o f for all x∈ D(f) or D(g)

pg. 6
 2. (f o g ) -1 (x) = (g-1 o f-1)(x)
3. (f o g ) (a) = (f o g)(x) evaluated at x = a

Example 7
Let F: R → R and g : R →R where R is the set of real numbers and f and g are defined as follows:
F (x) = 2x2 and g(x) = 3x2 + 1, then
f o g = f (g(x) )= f (3x2+1) = 2(3x2+1)2 = 2 (9x4 +6x2+1)=18x4 + 12x2+2
f o g = g(f(x)) = 9 (2x2) = 3(2x2)2 + 1 = 3(4x4) + 1 = 12x4 + 1
Note: This then implies that f o g ≠ g o f for all x.
f :X Y and g : Y Z
⇒ g o f : X Z define by g(f(x)) = f o g

Example 8: Suppose ( g o f) : A I C in the diagram below:

A B C

1 f p g
a
2 f q g
3 b
f r
c
Compute (i) (g o f ) (1) ii (g o f )(2) and iii (g o f )(3) c
Solution f(1) = q, f(2) = p and f (3) = q
i. (g o f )(1) = g (f(1)) =g (q) = c
ii. (g o f) (2) = g (f (2)) = g (p) = q
iii. (g o f ) (3) = g (f (3)) = g (q) = c

Example 9:
Let f define the mapping from A = {1, 2, 3, 4} to B = (x, y, z) written f : A l B describe in
the diagram below
1. Find (a) the Domain of f (b) Co-domain of f (C) and the range of f
2. Find if the function f is (a) Injection (b) Surjection (c) Bijection

1 x
2 y
f
3 Z
4 pg. 7

4
 Solution
a. The Domain = A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
b. The Co-domain = B = (x, y, z)
c. The Range = f(A) =( f(1), f(2) , f (3) , f(4) ) = (x , y, z)

2. (a) Injective mapping is one – to – one, but in f above, f(1) = f(3) = z which implies not injective
(b). surjection mapping is onto – mapping where the range is equal to the co-domain i.e. R(f) =
B
Since R(f) = (x, y, z) B ⇒ onto – mapping or surjection.
(c ). Bijective mapping – injective + subjective mapping; since f is not injective, therefore it is not
bijective.

2𝑥+1 2
Example 10: Given 𝑓(𝑥1 = ,𝑥 ≠ for x ϵ R, find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and state the values of x for
3−2𝑥 3
which the
Inverse function 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is undefined.
2𝑥+1
Solution: let 𝑓 (𝑥) = = 𝑦 ⇒ 2𝑥 + 1 = 3𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦
3−2𝑥
2x + 2xy = 3y – 1 = 2x (1 + y) = 3y
3𝑦−1
Therefore,∴ x =
2(1+𝑦)
3𝑥−1
This implies that 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) ∶ 𝑥 →
2(1+𝑥)

For 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) to be undefined, then 2(1 + x) = 0 ⇒ 1 + 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −1 ∈ 𝑅 which

then
implies that f-1 (x) is undefined at x = -1

Exercises
1. Let f(x) : R →R and g(x) : R → R be define as follows 𝑓 (𝑥): 𝑥 → 9 − 𝑥 2 and
1
𝑔 (𝑥 ) : 𝑥 → , find the range of f and g . Find also f-1 and g-1
2𝑥 2 + 1
2. Compute the following compositions using the mapping in (1) above
(a) f o g (b) g o f (c) f-1 o g (d) f-1 o g-1 (e) f-1 o f (f) g-1 o g (g) f g-1 . f-1b (h) find the
values of (a) to (g) above at x = 2, 0 and -2.
3. Let f X → Y defined by (i) f(x) – 3sin x (ii) f(x) = 3sinx + 4cos x. find the domain and range
of each of the functions

pg. 8
 4. Let f N → N defined by f(x) = x2. Is f (a) Injective (b) subjective (c) Bijective
5. Under what conditions is a relation (mapping or function) said be (i) cummutative (ii) Real
– valued
(iii) Associative (iv) Onto (v) Transitive (v) into (vi) symmetric (vii) Discrete (viii)
reflexive
(ix)Anti – symmetric (x) a set function
6. Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z

X Y Z
a f g
x 1
b f g-1
y
f-1 c g-1 2
z
3

(a) State the Domain of f

(b) State the codomain of f
(c) State the domain of g
(d) State the codomain of g
(e) Find the ranges of the inverse of f and the inverse of g (ie R(f-1) and R (g-1)
(f) Is f or g (i) injective (ii) surjective and or (iii) bijective
(g) Compute the followings
(i) (g o f)(a) (ii) f o f-1 (y) (iii) f-1 o g-1(1) (iv) (f-1 o f)(b) (v) (g-1 o f o g)(a)

7. Let f A → B and h B→ C defined by f(x)= 3x2 – 1 and h(x)= 2x + 3. Find the values of x
for which f and g are commutative (where A, B and C are real valued functions).
1 𝑥−1
8. Given f(x) = and g(x)= , show that (f o g)-1(x, = (g-1 o f-1)(x).
9𝑥−1 𝑥+1

pg. 9
 WEEK TWO (2)
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Suppose the function f(x) approaches the number L as x approaches (tends to) x0, then it can be
mathematically expressed as lim f ( x)  L
xx 0

This can be literally explained as equivalent to “f(x) is close to L when x is close to x 0 (but not x0)”. It
can approach L either as x approaches x0 from the right ( x  x +) or as x approaches x0 from the left
0

( x  x -) 0

Mathematically expressed respectively thus:

(1) lim f ( x)  L
 [the right-hand limit of f(x) as x tends to x0]
xx 0

(2) lim f ( x)  L
 [The left-hand limit of f(x) tends to x0]
xx 0

This can be further buttressed with the diagram below

f(x)
Y = f(x)

2 lim f ( x)  L ≠ lim f ( x)  L
x s x s

x
Since the right-hand limit and left-and limit are not equal, then the limit lim f ( X ) does not
x s

exist. Hence, the following relationship holds if the one-sided (left or right) limits are equal lim f(x) =
x x 0

L If and only if xlim

x0
+ f(x) = lim f(x) = L . The limit L appears on the y-axis and f(x) tends to L
x x 0
-

along the y-axis both from above and below as x tends to the number x0 both from left and right-hand
sides of x.
Theorems (laws) on limits
Let L, M, X0 and K be real numbers where xlim
x0
g(x) = L and xlim
x0
h(x) = m exist. Then the following

rules hold true: -

pg. 10
 (1) Sum Rule: -
lim [g(x) + h(x)] = lim + lim = L + M
x0 x0 x0

(2) Difference rule: -

lim [g(x) – h(x)] = lim g(x) - lim h(x) = L – M
x0 x0 x0

(3) Constant multiple rule: -

lim k h(X) = k lim h(x) = KM
x x 0 x x 0

(4) Product rule: -

lim [g(x) h(x)] = ( lim g(x))( lim h(x)) = LM
x x 0 x x 0 x x 0

(5) Power rule: -

lim [g(x)]n = [ lim g(x)]n = Ln (n is a positive integer i.e n  Z + )
x x 0 x x 0

(6) Quotient rule: -

lim g ( x ) L
lim [ g ( x) ]n = x x 0
= ,M≠0
xx 0
h( x ) lim h( x) M
x x 0

(7) Root rule: -

lim [ h(x) ] 1/n = [ lim h(x)] 1/n = M1/n = n M
x x 0 x x 0

Illustrative examples are given in the next page: -

(i) lim (x3 + 4x2 - 3) = x03 + 4x02 -3

x x 0

( x 4  x 2  1) ( x 0 4  x 0 2  1)
(ii) lim = (provided x0  R)
x x 0 x2  5 x02  5

(iii) lim = 4 x 0 2  3 = 4  4  3  13
x2

Limits of polynomial and rational functions: A polynomial is expressed in the form below: -
n
P(x) =  a x = a0 + a1x1 + a2x + … anxn
i 0
i
i

n
lim p(x) = p(x0) = a0 + a1x0 + a2 x02 + … +anxjn =
x x 0
a x
i 0
i
i

The fraction represented of two polynomials is called a rational function expressed in the form

pg. 11
 p( x) p ( x 0)
where x = x0 =
Q ( x) Q ( x 0)

Provided Q(x) ≠ 0. (then the rational function is said to be defined at the point x = x 0 ). To avoid the
rational function being undefined, we implore different techniques of eliminating the zero
denominators of the rational function we usually re-construct or simplify the function in such a way that
both the numerator and the denominator have common factor(s) so that the rational function is reduced
to one whose denominator is not zero at x = x0.
Illustration examples:
x2  x  2 ( x  1)( x  2) x2
1. lim = lim = lim =3
x 1 x x
2 x 1 x( x  1) x 1 x
( x  5) ( x  5) 1 1
2. lim = lim = lim =
x 5 x  25 x 5 ( x  5)( x  5) x 5 x  5 10
2

1
1
(1  x) ( x  1)
3. lim x = lim = lim
x 1 x  1 x 1 x ( x  1) x 1 x ( x  1)

1
= lim = -1
x 1 x
x 2  7 x  10 ( x  2)( x  5) ( x  5)
4. lim = lim = lim = -3
x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 1
4x  x2 (4 x  x) 2 2  x
5. lim = lim . (rationalizing using conjugacy)
x 4 2  x x 4 2  x 2  x
(4 x  x 2 )(2  x ) 4(4  x)(2  x ) 4(2  x )
= lim = lim = lim = 16
x 4 4 x x 4 4 x x 4

Exercise
t2  t  2 4 x x 2  100  10
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
t 1 t 2 1 t 5
5  x2  9 t 0 x2
1 1

u4 1
5. lim x  1 x  1
3
4. lim 6. lim *
h 0 3h  1 h 0 x h 1 u 3  1

2  x2  5 f ( x,5 f ( x,5 f ( x)
lim 8. lim =1, find lim 9. lim = 1, find:
x 3 x3 x4 x2 x4 x  2 x 2 x2

pg. 12
 f ( x)
a. lim f ( x) b. lim
x 2 x 2 x
Sandwich theorem
When we have two functions g(x) and h(x) such that g(x) ≤ h(x) for all values of x in some open
interval (a,b) containing x0 [i.e x0  (a,b) ] except possibly at x0 = itself. Suppose g(x) and h(x) both
have same limiting value (say L) at the point X0, and if there exist another function f(x) such that g(x)
≤ f(x) ≤ h(x), then the limiting value of f(x) at the point x0. This is called the sandwich theorem. Stated
mathematically thus:
Theorem:
If g(x) ≤ f(X) ≤ h(x) ∀ x  (a,b) containing x0, except possibly at x = x0 itself, and lim g(x) = lim h(x)
x x 0 x x 0

=L

Examples
x4 x2
1. Given that 1 - ≤ u(x) 1 + ∀ x ≠ 0 find the lim u(x) (no matter how complicated u(x) is)
4 2 x0

Recall: in sandwich theorem , if g(x) ≤ u(x) ≤ h(x) at x = x0, then lim u(x) lim = g(x)if lim g(x)
x0 x0 x0

= lim h(x)
x0

x2 x2
for x0 , let 1- = g(x)  lim 1- =1
4 x0 4
x2 x2
similarly, for h(x) = 1 + , lim 1 + = 1
2 x0 2
 lim g(x) = lim h(x) = 1
x0 x0

Therefore, lim u(x) = 1

x0

2. If 5  2x 2 ≤ f(x) ≤ 5  x 2 for -1 ≤ x ≤ 1, find lim f(x)

x0

Solution
It is clear that x = 0  [-1,1]. So let f(x)= 5  2x 2  lim 5  2x 2 = 5 and h(x) = 5  x 2
x0

 lim 5  x2 = 5
x0

Since lim g(x) = lim h(x) = 5 , it then implies that

x0 x0

lim f(x) = 5
x0

pg. 13
Exercises
1. If x4 ≤ f(x) ≤ x2 for x in [-1,1] and x2 ≤ f(x) x4 for x < -1 and x > 1, at what point x0 do you
automatically know lim f(x) ?
x0

( x  3)
2. Calculate lim
x3 x2  4 x

L’HOSPITAL’S Rule
p ( x 0)
The L’Hospital’s rule is used in rational functions that are indeterminate at a point x = x 0 (i.e.
Q ( x 0)
0 
= or or sometimes 0 ±  (infinity) by differentiating term by term the numerator and the
0 
denominator through derivative is yet to be introduced.
Other applications of the L’Hospital’s rule will be on indeterminate powers and to as well solve
unknown variable.

This rule can be generalized thus:

g ( x) g 1 ( x) g n ( x)
lim = lim 1 = . . . = lim n (value limit exist here!)= N
x a h( x ) x a h ( x ) x a h ( x)

Note: - the L’Hospital’s rule is continuously applied until the limit exist, provided the rational function
in indeterminate.
Recall conditions for application of L’hospital
0  
, ,  ,  .0,  .1 {or reverse}
0  
Illustrative examples
sin  0
(1) lim = (indeterminate)
 0  0
cos 
Applying L’Hospital gives, lim =1
 0 1
2   cos 2 0
(2) lim = (indeterminate)!
 0 sin 3 0
2  [cos 2  2 sin 2 ] 1
Applying L’Hospital gives, =
3cos 3 3
3x 4  2 x3  3x 2 
(3) lim 4 =
x  2 x 4 x 3  2 x 2 

pg. 14
 12 x3  6 x 2  6 x 36 x 2  12 x  6 6 3
 lim = lim = 
x  8x 12 x  4 x
3 2 x  24 x 24 x  4
2
4 2
1
ln x
(4) lim x lnx = 0.   lim  lim x  lim  x  0
x0 x0 1 x 0 1 x 0
 2
x x
2sin x  sin 2 x 2 cos x  2sin 2 x 0
(5) lim  lim 
x 0 x  sin x x  0 1  cos x 0
2 cos x  8cos 2 x ( 2)(1)  8(1) 2  8
 lim   6
x 0 cos x 1 1
4 x2  5x  8x  5  8 4
(6) lim =  lim   lim  
x  1  3 x 2  x  6 x  x  6 3
5 5
x 2 (4  ) 4
[Alternatively lim x  lim x 4]
x  2 1 x  1 3
x ( 2  3) 2
3
x x
2 x 4  x3  x 2 x 2 (2 x 2  x  1)
(7) lim  lim =
x 0 x5 x 4  2 x3  x 2 x0 x 2 ( x3  x 2  2 x  1)
(2 x  1)( x  1) x 1 1
lim  lim 2   1
x 0 (2 x  1)( x  1)
2 x  0 ( x  1) 1

2 x 4  x3  x 2 8 x 3  3x 2  2 x
Using L’Hospital’s rule gives lim  lim
x 0 x5 x4  2 x3  x 2 x0 5x 4 4 x3  6 x 2  2 x
24 x 2  6 x  2 2
= lim   1
x 0 20 x3  12x 2  12 x  2 2
L’Hospital on indeterminate power of the form
lim f ( x) h ( x )  00 . We assume f ( x) h ( x )  y ( x)
x 

:- ln y(x) = ln [ lim y(x)] = lim [h(x) ln f(x)]

x  x 

ln f ( x) 0
= lim [ ] = if h(x) = 0 (apply L’Hospital rule)
x  1 0
h( x )
ln f ( x )
[ lim ( ]
x 1

:- lim( f ( x))h ( x )  e h( x)
x 

pg. 15
Example
1 1
1
Given lim(1  2 x) sin x
, then let y(x) = (1  2 x) sin x
 ln y(x)= ln(1  2 x)
x  sin x
ln(1  2 x) 0
= ln[lim y ( x)]  lim  (Apply L’H)
x 0 x 0 sin x 0
2
( )
 lim 1  2 x  lim
2 2
 2
x 0 cos x x 0 (1  2 x)(cos x) 1
:- lim y ( x)  e 2
x 0

Using the L’Hospital to find an unknown variable is expressed as follows:-

4  x  4  ax 3
Find the value of a such that lim 
x 0 x 4
1 1
1 1 
(4  x) 2  (4  ax) 2 (a)
1 1
(4  x)  (4  ax)2 2
3
= lim  lim 2 2 
x 0 x x  0 1 4
1 1
1  a  1  12 a  12 3
= lim (4  x)  (4  ax)  (4)  (4) 
2 2
x 0 2 2 2 2 4
1 1 a 1 1 9 3
= .  .   
2 2 2 2 4 4 4
 a=2

Exercises
1
x
1
7 x  sin x
(1) lim xe x
(2) lim(sin x) ln x
(3) lim
x  x 0 x 0 x 2  sin 3 x
e x  cos x
(4). lim (5) lim  cos  (6) limsin  cos 2
x 0 4sin x  0  0

 cos 4
(7) lim (8) STUDENTS TO TRY OTHER RELEVANT EXERCISES!
 0 sin 2  cos 2 

CONTINUITY
Definition:- A real-valued function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x 0, if and only if the 3
following conditions are met:
(1) lim f ( x)  L
xx 0

pg. 16
 (2) lim f ( x) exists and
xx 0

(3) f(x0) =L.

If these 3 conditions are not met, it then means that there exist a point x 0 for which the function f(x) is
not continuous or simply put that the function is discontinuous at the point x = x 0. If the given domain
(or interval) has a point x0 of discontinuity in it such that f(x0) does not exist, we then say that the
function is not continuous everywhere in the domain of the function. The point of discontinuity is called
a jump or hole.
Properties of continuous functions
(1) the sum, difference, product and division of continuous functions are also continuous i.e if f
and g are continuous, then f ± g, f x g and f/g are also continuous at the given point (say x 0).
(2) All polynomials (or polynomial functions) are continuous functions. That is
n
p(x) =  a x = a0 + a1x1 + a2x + … anxn
i 0
i
i

(3) A well-defined composition of continuous functions i.e functional composition would be

continuous at all the points i.e if f and g are continuous, then f.g(x) = f[g(x)] are also continuous
(4) All trigonometric and exponential functions (or combination of both—transcendental functions)
are continuous at all points

Illustrative examples: -
 x2 x2
(1) Investigate the continuity of the function f ( x)  
0 x2
(i) lim  22  4 (ii) f(2) = 0 (iii) lim f ( x)  f (2) therefore the function is not
x 2 x 2

continuous at x = 2
16
x2
(2) Find the value of c such that the real value function f ( x)   x 2 is continuous at

cx  2, x  2
the point x = 2

Solution
16 16 16
lim f ( x)  lim( ) 2  4 but f(x) = cx-2
x2 x2 x2 2 4
42
 f(2)=2c-2= 4  c = =3
2

pg. 17
 Exercises :
Examine the continuity or the following functions at the various points of continuity
 1
(a) f(x)  x sin  , x ≠ 0 {5, 0}
 x
a 2  2a
(b) f(x) = at the point a = 4
a2
12 x 4  6 x 3  x 2  3
(c) Is the function f(x) =  continuous at x = 1 ?
x 1

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE
MTS 102 TEST (CONTINOUS ASSESSMENT) SECOND SEMESTER

Instruction: Tick the correct the answer (Double shading attracts no answer)
NAME: ------------------------------------- DEPT: ----------------------------- MATRIC NO.------------------------
--
1. If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1, find the zero of 𝑓 𝑜 𝑔(x). ( A) 1/3 (B) 1 (C) 1/2
(D)2/3
2. 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑜𝑔 (𝑥) for all x in set of real numbers (A) True (B) False (C ) Not for all (D)
NOTA
3. Set of quotient is closed under the following operations. (A) -,+,x (B)-,+,x,/ (c) +,/,x (D) +,/, -
𝑥−1
4. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = , then Dom(𝑓 −1 ) is (A) -1 (B) 1 (C) 0 (D) 2
𝑥
5. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 , which option is True of 𝑓? (A) ONTO (B) INTO
2

(C)1-1 (D)NOTA
6. If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and (𝑓 −1 (𝑥) exist ∀x ∈ B, then 𝑓 is (A) Surjective (B) Injective (C) Bijective
(D) Identity
7. The solution of question 2 of page 11 is _____________________
8. The solution of question 4 of page 11 _________________
2𝑥
9. If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑅, then Dom (𝑓) is? (A) R (B) R-{1} (C)
𝑥 2 −1
R-{1,-1} (D) R –{0}
𝑥−1
10. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = , then 𝑓 −1 (1) is (A) 1 (B) undefined (C) 0 (D) 2
𝑥−2

pg. 18
11. If : [0, 𝜋] → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(2𝑥), what is the range of 𝑓? (A) [-1,0] (B) [0,1] (C)
[-1,1] (D) [-2,2]
12. A relation 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is defined by 𝑓 = {(𝑥, 𝑎), (𝑦, 𝑎), (𝑧, 𝑏)} where 𝑋 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} and
𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, which of the following id True? (A) 𝑓 is a function (B) 𝑓 −1 is well-defined (C)
𝑓 is ONTO (D) f is 1-1
13. If 𝑓: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 → |𝑥 − 2|2 ∈ 𝑅 , then range of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 (A) R (B) R-{2} (C) 𝑥 ≥ 0 (D) 𝑥 = 2
14. The relation 𝑓: 𝑍 → 𝑁 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 is (A) Injective (B) ONTO (C) Bijective (D) All
of Above
15. If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 1 and g(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1, find (𝑓𝑜𝑔)−1 (1) (A) −1/3 (b) 1/4 (C) 4
(D)1/2
𝑥 2 +2𝑥
16. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 lim( 2
). (A) 1/2 (B) −2/5 (C) −1/2 (D) 2
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 −5
𝑥 2 −25
17. What is the point of discontinuity of the function 𝑓 (𝑥) = (A) 5 (B) -5 (C) None (D)
𝑥−5
10
18. If lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = M, then which of the following is not true? (A)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝛽𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝛽𝐿
𝑥→𝑐
𝑛
(B) lim(𝑓(𝑥))𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛 (C) lim(𝑓 (𝑥)) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝐿𝑀)𝑛 (D) NOTA
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
2
19. Find the value of 𝑏 such that 𝑓 (𝑥) = { 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 ≥ 1 is continuous at 𝑥 = 1? (A) 4(B)
𝑏𝑥 − 3 𝑥 < 1
3 (C) 6 (D) −1/2
20. The solution of exercise C page 14 is (A) Yes (B) No (C) Partly (D) NOTA
2𝑥−1
21. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = , then Dom(𝑓 −1 ) is (A) R-{0} (B) R-{-2} (C) 2 (D) 0
𝑥
22. The solution of question 3 of page 15 __________________
23. The solution of Exercise 4 of page 15 is (A) 0 ( B) 1/4 (B) 1 (C) 4 (D) 0 (E ) NOTA
1−𝑥
24. If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ⊂ 𝑅, then codomain of (𝑓) is? (A) R-{1}
𝑥 2 −1
(B) R-{1,-1} (C) R –{0} (D) R
25. If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1, find 𝑓 𝑜 𝑔(1). ( A) −3 (B) 1 (C) 2/3 D)1
26. What is the value of x for which 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑜𝑔 (𝑥) in question 25 above? (A) None (B) 3
(C ) all real numbers (D) NOTA

pg. 19
 2
27. Find the value of 𝑏 such that 𝑓 (𝑥) = {𝑥 + 1 𝑥 ≥ 1 is continuous at 𝑥 = 1? (A) -2 (C)
−2𝑏 𝑥 < 1
-6 (C) −1 (D) 2
28. The solution of question 4 page 15 is (A)1/4 (B) 1/2 (C) 0 (D) NOTA
29. Set of integers is closed under the following operations. (A) -,+,x (B)-,+,x,/ (c) +,/,x (D) +,/, -
𝑥−1
30. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = , then 𝑓 −1 (1) is (A) 0 (B) 2 (C) undefined (D) 1
𝑥−2
31. If : [0, 𝜋] → 𝐵 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = sin(2𝑥), what is the range of 𝑓? (A) [-1,1] (B) [0,1] (C)
[-1,0] (D) [-2,2]
32. A relation 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is defined by 𝑓 = {(𝑥, 𝑏), (𝑦, 𝑎), (𝑧, 𝑏)} where 𝑋 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} and
𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, which of the following id True? (A) 𝑓 is a function (B) 𝑓 −1 is well-defined (C)
𝑓 is ONTO (D) f is 1-1
33. If 𝑓: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 → |𝑥 − 2|2 ∈ 𝑅 , then range of 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 (A) R (B) R-{2} (C) 𝑥 ≥ 0 (D) 𝑥 = 2
34. The relation 𝑓: 𝑍 → 𝑁 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 is (A) Injective (B) ONTO (C) Bijective (D)
NOTA
35. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 2 , which option is True of 𝑓? (A) ONTO (B) INTO
(C)1-1 (D)NOTA
36. If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and (𝑓 −1 (𝑥) exist ∀x ∈ B, then 𝑓 is (A) Surjective (B) Injective (C) Bijective
(D) Identity
37. If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 1 and g(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1, find (𝑓𝑜𝑔)−1 (1) (A) −1/3 (b) 1/4 (C) 4
(D)1/2
𝑥 2 +3𝑥
38. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 lim( 2
). (A) −2/5 (B) 1/2 (C) −1/2 (D) 1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 −5
2𝑥 2 −9𝑋+9
39. What is the point of discontinuity of the function 𝑓 (𝑥) = (A) 5 (B) -5 (C) None (D)
2𝑥−3
10
40. If lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = M, then which of the following is not true?
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑛
(A) lim 𝛽𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝛽𝐿 (B) lim(𝑓(𝑥))𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛 (C) lim(𝑓 (𝑥)) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝐿𝑛 𝑀) (D)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
NOTA

pg. 20