BBC Science Focus Magazine - April 2023
BBC Science Focus Magazine - April 2023
BBC Science Focus Magazine - April 2023
Meet the lean, green How phobias Why your dreams are
ROBOT FARMING MACHINES TAKE ROOT IN THE BRAIN BIZARRE BUT BELIEVABLE
SCIENCEFOCUS.COM
FROM THE
anything I
should avoid
eating at lunch,
to dodge the
afternoon
EDITOR
slump? –›p75
CONTRIBUTORS
If you want to lose weight, don’t look at social media. It is a bin DR DEAN BURNETT
fire of hot takes, dude bros and con artists. The latest diet craze Riding a unicorn through
pulling in the clicks is the carnivore diet. Supposedly, if you a forest filled with iridescent
want to sort out your mood, energy and get pumped, you just trees? Sounds like you’re
need to cram as much minced meat, bone stock and steak into dreaming. But what is actually
going on in your brain?
your pie hole as you can stomach.
Neuroscientist Dean explains
Not a single fruit, vegetable, legume, nut, grain or seed should
in his new column. –›p32
pass your lips, depriving you of all the fibre, antioxidants, vitamins and other
nutrients (and joy!) they provide. Clearly, this is a terrible idea for your health,
not to mention your gut, and indeed we’ve already written pieces debunking PROF DAVID NUTT
it. But I bring it up because the carnivore diet is a sign of our times; it’s a The recreational use of
measure of how poisoned the world of dieting has become. laughing gas has skyrocketed,
Unfortunately, these diet trends draw their power from a world that wants and now politicians are calling
to feed us. Food has never been more available, more convenient or more for tighter regulation.
indulgent. Nor has it ever been so pervasive: it’s advertised to us on our TVs, Neuropsychopharmacologist
on billboards and in the high streets. It’s become so hard to shift the pounds, David breaks down its effects,
that people will literally consider eating like a pet dog, in the hope of making legal status and risks. –›p36
COVER: GRACE RUSSELL THIS PAGE: BBC, GETTY IMAGES X2, DANIEL BRIGHT
a change. In this environment, people will inevitably try to sell easy, quick
fixes to the problem of weight gain. So it begs the question, with the myriad of
options out there, what does the science say about actually losing weight and PROF GILES YEO
BBC presenter Giles studies
keeping it off? Head to p52, where obesity expert Prof Giles Yeo reveals all.
how your brain and
genetics control your body
weight. In this issue, he
looks at what we actually
know about successful
diets. –›p52
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CONTENTS 15
DISCOVERIES
36
REALITY CHECK
REGULARS
75
rats in New York are infected
laughing gas illegal? Is
with COVID-19; revolutionary
testosterone a menopause
gene-editing technique
wonder drug? Can positive
restores vision in mice;
compounds essential for life affirmations improve Q&A
found on near-Earth asteroid; your life?
a good night’s sleep boosts
effectiveness of vaccination; 43 INNOVATIONS
macaques create stone The latest tech and
shards when making tools, gadgets tested.
just like early humans; all you
need to know about the IPCC
report; new spacesuit for
75 Q&A
moonwalks revealed. Our experts answer
this month’s questions.
30 DR KATIE MACK What is a dormant black
hole? Why can’t robots
Yes, everything in physics is
made up, but that’s okay! on Mars clean themselves?
How incognito is
incognito mode on your
internet browser?
50 82 EXPLAINER
SUBSCRIBE TODAY! Everything you wanted to
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88 CROSSWORD
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58 DOWN ON THE
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66 SET THE
JUICE LOOSE
This month, after many
delays due to the
COVID-19 pandemic, the
INSTANT
JUICE spacecraft is finally GENIUS
Our bite-sized masterclass in
setting off on its trip to
podcast form. Find it wherever
Jupiter. Its mission? To you listen to your podcasts.
explore the gas giant’s
icy moons and find out if
they’re suitable for life.
48 52
IDEAS WE LIKE PROF GILES YEO LUNCHTIME
An electric pizza oven that you can use indoors.
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10
CONVERSATION
@sciencefocus
www.facebook.com/sciencefocus
Responsibility for AI
Dr Kate Darling’s commentary on the responsibilities of the creators of AI
applications (February, p34), is really no different to a parent’s responsibility
towards the education of their children. If you decide to educate your child by
allowing them to get all their education from randomly surfing the internet,
then the result would be akin to child neglect. No parent would be allowed to
claim that they are in no way responsible for their child’s misdirected
education. An AI application is still just a computer program, and it is down to
the developers to ensure that it learns sensibly, in the same way that a parent
would ensure that their child is educated correctly.
Nigel Jarvis, via email
12
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THE TEAM
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THAN EVIDENCE DEVALUES THE EDITORIAL
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TECHNOLOGY
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FEATURING
SPACE
VOLCANIC VENUS
New lava flows spotted on Venus’s surface p16
NEUROSCIENCE
MIND MAP
Complete circuitry of insect brain
mapped for first time p18
HEALTH
OH, RATS!
Rats in New York’s sewers have
tested positive for coronavirus p19
BIOLOGY
THESE UNBLIND MICE
Vision restored in mice using
gene-editing technique p20
SPACE
ALIEN VITAMINS
The Hayabusa2 mission has gathered
vitamin B3 and uracil (a component
of RNA) from the asteroid Ryugu p21
MEDICINE
SLEEP YOURSELF WELL
People who sleep for longer after
vaccinations produce a better
immune response p22
ANTHROPOLOGY A volcano on
Venus has shown
MONKEY BUSINESS signs of a recent
eruption
Long-tailed macaques in Thailand
NASA/JPL-CALTECH
15
SPACE olcanic eruptions and magma flows could
V
ABOVE Computer-
be taking place on the surface of Venus,
16
DISCOVERIES
likely to find volcanic in Magellan data. There’s other is becoming more and more
prevalent, and this new paper has
activity on other work to calculate how volcanic
FGƂPKVGN[OQXGFVJGPGGFNGKPVJCV
activity works on Venus, along
planets or moons? YKVJOQFGNNKPIVQƂIWTGQWVYJCV direction in a huge way.
6JKUƂPFKPIFQGUPoVJCXG we might see with the higher-
CP[DGCTKPIQPƂPFKPICEVKXG resolution data we’ll get from
volcanism on any other body. those future missions. PROF PAU L BYR N E
What it does do is make it very Paul is an associate professor of earth
likely that we’ll see more evidence and planetary science at Washington
for ongoing volcanic activity What can we expect to University in St Louis. His research focuses
elsewhere on Venus, either by discover in the future? on what makes planets behave and
continuing to look through the look the way they do. He uses remotely
Magellan data, or with the new Going forward, we’re going to sensed data, fieldwork here on Earth, and
radar data we’ll get from the learn a lot more about how active numerical and physical models to build
VERITAS and EnVision missions Venus is – not just volcanically, a better understanding of our planet and
in the 2030s. but also tectonically, and in terms alien worlds.
active in the sense that the walls of the vent became shorter, indicating an
eruption, and that the irregular shape was formed
there are at least a few by magma flows during the eight months between
the images.
There is one small caveat: the shape of the vent’s
eruptions per year” wa lls may have been caused by a n ea r t hqua ke,
the researchers say. However, on Earth, vent collapses
on this scale are always accompanied by nearby
Herrick, a research professor at the University of volcanic eruptions.
Alaska Fairbanks, who led the research. “Ozza and “We can now say that Venus is presently volcanically
Maat Mons are comparable in volume to Earth’s largest act ive in t he sense t hat t here a re at least a few
volcanoes, but have lower slopes and thus are more eruptions per year,” said Herrick. “We can expect
spread out.” that the upcoming Venus missions will observe new
The researchers compared two images of the northern volcanic flows that have occurred since the Magellan
side of a domed shield volcano that is part of Maat mission ended three decades ago, and we should see
Mons, one taken in February 1991, and one taken in some activity occurring while the two upcoming
October 1991. Over this period, the vent had changed orbital missions are collecting images.”
17
DISCOVERIES
NEUROSCIENCE
R
esearchers at the University of Cambridge are implemented. But now we can start gaining
have pieced together a map showing every a mechanistic understanding of how the brain works,”
single neuron and how they’re wired together Zlatic added.
in the brain of a fruit fly larva. The team produced the image by scanning thousands
The map shows all 3,016 of the neurons in the larva’s of slices of the larva’s brain using a high-resolution
brain and the complex network of 548,000 synapses electron microscope and painstakingly marking out
– known as the connectome – that carry chemical the connections between the neurons. They now plan
signals between them. It is the biggest map of its kind to delve deeper into the map to study the structures
ever produced. The researchers hope that the map will involved with specific functions such as learning and
enable them to study how signals travel through the decision-making. Although the current technology
brain and affect learning and behaviour. isn’t sophisticated enough to map out mammal brains,
“The way the brain circuit is structured influences there is still much to learn.
the computations the brain can do,” said co-researcher “All brains are similar – they are all networks
Prof Marta Zlatic of the Medical Research Council of interconnected neurons – and all brains of all
Laboratory of Molecular Biology. species have to perform many complex behaviours: BELOW Nope,
Until now, scientists have only seen the brain structure they all need to process sensory information, learn, not a huge
of simpler animals, including a roundworm, the larva select actions, navigate their environments, choose bunch of party
balloons, but a
of a marine segmented worm, and the larva of a sea food, recognise their conspecifics and escape from
complete map
squirt, all of which only have several hundred neurons. predators,” said Zlatic. “In the same way that genes of the neurons
“This means neuroscience has been mostly operating are conserved across the animal kingdom, I think within the
without circuit maps. Without knowing the structure brain of a fruit
of a brain, we’re guessing on the way computations fly larva
86BN
The average number
of neurons in
a human brain
60%
The proportion of
the human brain
that’s made up of fat.
This makes it
our fattiest organ
425KM/H
The speed at which
electrical signals
travel between
brain cells
18
LEFT Brown rats
in New York have
tested positive for
COVID, but we don’t
yet know if they
can spread the
disease to humans
NEW YORK CITY SEWERS ARE However, it’s not yet clear if the rats are spreading
the disease to humans.
CARRYING CORONAVIRUS “To the best of our knowledge, this is one of the
first studies to show SARS-CoV-2 variants can cause
infections in the wild rat populations in a major US
More than 15 per cent of rats captured in wastewater urban area,” said Prof Henry Wan, director of the
Center for Influenza and Emerging Infectious Diseases
systems tested positive for the virus
at the University of Missouri.
“Overall, our work in this space shows that animals
can play a role in pandemics that impact humans,
and it’s important that we continue to increase our
A
ccording to a study carried out by researchers understanding so we can protect both human and
at the University of Missouri, a significant animal health.”
proportion of rats living in the New York Rats a re a com mon site in ma ny u rba n a reas
municipal sewer systems are infected with around the world, New York City is home to around
SARS-CoV-2. eight million, meaning they frequently come into
The team carried out two trapping sessions in the contact with humans. Further studies are essential
autumn of 2021 to round up wild brown rats (Rattus to investigate how rats infect one another and how
norvegicus) in areas surrounding wastewater systems they could help to spread the virus among humans,
in city parks within Brooklyn. Of the 79 rats they the researchers say.
captured, 13 tested positive for COVID – that’s around “Ou r f indings h ig h lig ht t he need for f u r t her
16 per cent. monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 in rat populations to
In a separate experiment carried out within the determine if the virus is circulating in the animals
laboratory, the researchers also found that coronavirus and evolving into new strains that could pose a risk
variants carried by humans, namely Alpha, Delta and to humans,” said Wan.
19
DISCOVERIES
BIOLOGY
R
esea rchers in China have sight of mice with retinitis pigmentosa. as retinitis pigmentosa,” said Kai Yao,
successfully restored the vision of The disease can be caused by mutations a professor at the Wuhan University of
mice with an inherited condition in more t ha n 100 dif ferent genes. Science and Technology.
that leads to blindness. It causes photoreceptive cells in t he The researchers targeted a mutation
The team, who are based at the Wuhan retina to break down slowly over time, in the gene encoding an enzyme called
University of Science and Technology, leading to vision loss and ultimately to PDE6 , using a newly developed CRISPR-
used a newly developed CRISPR-based blindness. It currently affects more than based system called PESpRY. This can be
gene-editing technique to restore the 1 in 4,000 people. programmed to correct many different
types of mutation by cutting out specific
HOW DOES CRISPR WORK? DNA target
Cas9 enzyme sequences of DNA at any point on the
sequence genome.
1. Scientists create a genetic Guide RNA
By ta rget ing t he muta nt gene, t he
sequence called a ‘guide RNA’
that matches the DNA they want researchers were successfully able to
to target. restore the enzyme’s normal function
2. This sequence is added to a
a nd prevent t he deat h of t he mice’s
Target sequence
cell along with the Cas9 enzyme, photoreceptors. The mice treated retained
is cut out
QIN ET AL, JAXA, GETTY IMAGES
which acts like a pair of scissors their vision into old age and were able to
to snip off the target sequence navigate their way out of mazes almost
after the guide RNA has homed
in on it. as effectively as healthy mice.
Although the study was a success,
3. Once their jobs are complete,
the guide RNA and Cas9 leave the New DNA more work needs to be done before the
scene and the new DNA sequence sequence added system can be trialled in humans, the
can be added. researchers say.
20
DISCOVERIES
SPACE
O
rganic compounds essential resolution mass spectrometer. As well as
for life have been discovered in uracil and niacin, they also found several
samples collected from a distant other biologically important molecules,
asteroid by Japan’s Hayabusa2 including a selection of amino acids,
Spacecraft. amines and carboxylic acids, which are
The compounds discovered include found in proteins and play a role in the
niacin, which is also known as vitamin metabolism of living things.
B3, and uracil, one of the four nucleobases. The compounds likely formed from
Nucleobases are nitrogen-containing simpler molecules such as ammonia,
compounds that make up RNA, which formaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide,
is a molecule present in all living cells which are all commonly found in
and has structural similarities to DNA. cometary ice, the researchers say.
“Scientists have previously found The finding adds further credence to
nucleobases and vitamins in certain “The finding adds the theory of panspermia – the hypothesis
carbon-rich meteorites, but there was that important building blocks for life
always the question of contamination by further credence are created in space and could have been
exposure to the Earth’s environment,”
said lead researcher Prof Yasuhiro Oba,
to the theory brought to Earth by meteorites.
“The discovery of uracil in the
of Hokkaido University.
“Since the Hayabusa2 spacecraf t
of panspermia” samples from Ryugu lends strength to
current theories regarding the source of
collected two samples directly from the nucleobases in the early Earth,” said Oba.
asteroid Ryugu and delivered them to in June 2018, stayed for a year and a half “The OSIRIS-REx mission by NASA
Earth in sealed capsules, contamination to gather samples, and returned them to will be returning samples from asteroid
can be ruled out.” Earth in December 2020. Bennu this year, and a comparative study
Hayabusa2 was launched in December The team extracted the compounds by of the composition of these asteroids
2014 by the Japanese space agency JAXA. soaking samples taken from Ryugu in hot will provide further data to build on
It reached its target, the space rock Ryugu, water and analysing them with a high- these theories.”
21
MEDICINE
I
t’s well established that sleep is vital In each study, the participants’ sleep
for our health – it reduces the risk of was measured in a lab, at home using
everything from heart disease and “We’re going to a sleep-tracking smartwatch, or was self-
stroke to obesity and dementia. Now, reported by the participants.
a study by researchers in Paris, France, be vaccinating The researchers found that sleeping for
and Chicago, USA, has found that getting a less than six hours per night significantly
good night’s sleep can also help our bodies’ millions of reduced immune response to vaccination.
immune response to vaccinations.
To investigate t he effect of sleep on people in the However, the difference was most prominent
in men a nd, according to t he study,
GETTY IMAGES, LYDIA V LUNCZ
22
DISCOVERIES
ARCHAEOLOGY
S
hards of stone produced unique to humans and our ancestors,”
If it takes you less by long-tailed macaques in said lead researcher Dr Tomos Proffitt.
than five minutes to Thailand’s Ao Phang-Nga “The fact that these macaques use stone
fall asleep, you’re
likely to be sleep National Park bear a striking tools to process nuts is not surprising,
deprived. Ideally, resemblance to those found in some of as they also use tools to gain access
it should take you the earliest archaeological sites in East to various shellfish as well. What is
10-15 minutes.
Africa, according to researchers at the interesting is that, in doing so, they
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary accidentally produce a substantial
Anthropology. archaeological record of their own that
The monkeys use rudimentary stone is partly indistinguishable from some
For most people
tiredness peaks tools, like a hammer and anvil, to crack hominin artefacts.”
twice a day – once open nuts. In the process, shards of stone The discovery offers new insights
at 2am and then flake off and are left behind. Although into how early humans may have began
again at 2pm.
the monkeys haven’t been observed making stone tools and suggests that
using them, the shards are similar in the practice could have been linked
ABOVE LEFT Vaccinations appear to have a better size and shape to those unearthed from to a similar nut-cracking behaviour.
effect when followed by a good night’s sleep early human settlements. “Cracking nuts using stone hammers
“The ability to intentionally make and anvils, similar to what some
sharp stone flakes is seen as a crucial primates do today, has been suggested
“In women, immunity is influenced by point in the evolution of hominins, as a possible precursor to intentional
the state of the menstrual cycle, the use and understanding how and when stone tool production. This study opens
of contraceptives, and by menopause and this occurred is a huge question that is the door to being able to identify such
post-menopausal status, but unfortunately, typically investigated through the study an archaeological signature,” said Dr
none of the studies that we summarised of past artefacts and fossils. Our study Lydia Luncz, of the Max Planck Institute
had any data about sex hormone levels.” shows that stone tool production is not for Evolutionary Anthropology.
The negative effect was also more
pronounced in t hose aged 18 to 60 Tool use in long-tailed macaques today may shed light on the skill’s development in our ancient ancestors
compared to the over-65s. This is likely
due to older people tending to sleep less.
While t here is still more to be
investigated about t he relationship
between sleep and vaccination, knowing
that the two are linked could help people
make lifestyle choices to optimise their
immunity, the researchers say.
“We need to understa nd t he sex
differences, which days a round t he
time of vaccination are most important,
and exactly how much sleep is needed
so that we can give guidance to people,”
said Spiegel.
“We are going to be vaccinating millions
and millions of people in the next few
years, and this is an aspect that can help
maximise protection.”
23
DISCOVERIES
PRIMER
C
an humanity tackle climate WHAT DOES THE NEW REPORT SAY ABOUT
change or are we all doomed? THE CURRENT SITUATION?
That’s the big question at the It states that, as of 2020, human
heart of a new analysis by the activity – largely the emission of
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate greenhouse gases – led to a global
Change (IPCC), published on 20 March surface temperature rise of 1.1°C
after a week of discussions with key above pre-industrial levels. This
world climate experts. In short, this is edging ever closer to the 1.5°C
report is a big deal. But consisting of limit suggested by the IPCC in
36 jargon-stuffed pages, it’s also not an CPFKUEJKGƃ[FWGVQVJGWUG
easy read. Fortunately, we’ve pulled out of unsustainable energy sources,
everything that you need to know. land-use change and patterns of
consumption.
WHAT IS THIS NEW REPORT? This rise in temperature has already
6JGPGYTGRQTVKUVJGHQWTVJCPFƂPCN resulted in widespread changes in the Anti-coal activists
section of the sixth assessment report Earth’s atmosphere, weather systems, at the Neurath
(AR6). The previous three sections oceans and biosphere. The last decade coal-fired power
of the AR6 were published in August has been warmer than any period for plant in Germany
2021, February 2022 and April 2022. around 125,000 years, concentrations
This one is called the Synthesis Report of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
CPFKUCUWOOCT[QHVJGƂPFKPIUQHVJG are at their highest for at least two
three earlier sections and represents million years and summer Arctic ice
the IPCC’s most up-to-date thinking on coverage is lower than any time in the
how to best tackle climate change. last 1,000 years. suffering the brunt of the damage.
Also, sea levels are rising faster “Climate justice is crucial
WHAT IS THE IPCC? than in any previous century for 3,000 because those who have contributed
The IPCC is the United Nations body years, oceans are warming faster than least to climate change are being
tasked with assessing the science any time since the last ice age and disproportionately affected,” said
related to climate change. It was set up QEGCPCEKFKƂECVKQPKUCVKVUJKIJGUVHQT report author Aditi Mukherji,
in 1988 by the World Meteorological 26,000 years. director of climate adaptation and
Organization and the United Nations “Mainstreaming effective and mitigation impact area platform at
Environment Programme with the equitable climate action will not only the International Water Management
aim of providing governments with reduce losses and damages for nature Institute. “Almost half of the world’s
accurate science that they could base and people, it will also provide wider population lives in regions that are
their climate policies around. The DGPGƂVUqUCKF+2%%EJCKTRGTUQP highly vulnerable to climate change.
IPCC is currently made up of 195 Hoesung Lee. “This Synthesis Report +PVJGNCUVFGECFGFGCVJUHTQOƃQQFU
member countries. underscores the urgency of taking droughts and storms were 15 times
It does not conduct its own research. more ambitious action and shows higher in highly vulnerable regions.”
Instead, global experts volunteer that, if we act now, we can still secure
their time to assess the thousands of a liveable, sustainable future for all.” ARE WE ALL DOOMED?
UEKGPVKƂERCRGTURWDNKUJGFGCEJ[GCT The report states that each Not yet. Although the report does
GETTY IMAGES
to produce a summary of the current increment of warming will make the state that the pace and scale of
picture regarding climate change and EJCNNGPIGRTQITGUUKXGN[OQTGFKHƂEWNV current measures is simply not
its future risks. to overcome, with vulnerable regions enough to mitigate the cascading
24
effects of climate change, it makes it YKNNKORTQXG6JGGEQPQOKEDGPGƂVU opportunities to bring about
clear that there is still a chance we resulting in increased health due to change. Some can do a lot, while
can limit temperature rises to 1.5°C if air quality improvements alone would others will need support to help
world governments act now. be equal to, or even larger, than the them manage the change.”
Key measures that need to be put costs of reducing the emissions, the
in place are: rapidly shifting away experts explain. WHEN WILL THE NEXT IPCC REPORT BE
HTQOQWTTGNKCPEGQPEQCNƂTGF Changing our dietary habits and PUBLISHED?
power stations and fossil fuels – the food production methods could also The next report, the AR7, isn’t on
number one driver of climate change; play an important role. We can help cards until around 2030 – by this
investing heavily in clean, renewable the climate if we eat more plants and time we should have a better idea
energy; increasing the use of public less meat, reduce our food waste and of exactly how bleak, or not, the
transport and electrical vehicles; and improve agricultural practices. picture is.
halting deforestation. “Transformational changes are more
As well as helping to mitigate the likely to succeed where there is trust,
effects of climate change, making where everyone works together to
these suggested changes could also prioritise risk reduction, and where
RTQXKFGYKFGTDGPGƂVUVQUQEKGV[ DGPGƂVUCPFDWTFGPUCTGUJCTGF
the report says. For example, if a equitably,” said Lee.
greater number of people walk, cycle “We live in a diverse world by JAS ON G O ODYE R
and use public transport rather than in which everyone has different Jason is the commissioning editor at BBC Science
their cars, then health and air quality responsibilities and different Focus.
25
DISCOVERIES
SPACE
REVEALED: THE
SPACESUIT
ASTRONAUTS
WILL WEAR
FOR THE NEXT
MOONWALK
NASA has teamed up with private
company Axiom Space to design
its next-generation suits
W
hen astronauts return to the
Moon for the first time in
more than 50 years as part
of NASA’s Artemis missions,
this is the spacesuit they will be wearing.
Na med t he A x iom Ex t raveh icula r
Mobility Unit, or AxEMU, the suit was
designed by private company Axiom
Space. It was unveiled to the public as
part of the Moon 2 Mars Festival at the
Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas,
on 15 March.
“Our expert team is ready to provide
NASA the next-generation spacesuit,”
said Mark Greeley, the Extravehicular
Act iv it y (EVA) prog ra m ma nager at
Axiom Space.
“We ca ref ully considered yea rs
of lessons learned by NASA and used
t hat experience to build a spacesuit
for the Moon and for our future Axiom
Space customers.”
1
The prototype suit on show was fitted
with a dark cover in order to conceal the
1. The streamlined manoeuvrability 4. AxEMU is
top secret elements of its design. But like spacesuit was put and agility in mind. designed to fit
all previous spacesuits, AxEMU will be through its paces at a broad range of
AXIOM SPACE X3, GETTY IMAGES
white in order to reflect heat to protect the Johnson Space 3. The suit features different body
Center by NASA’s a combination of shapes and sizes. It
astronauts from the high temperatures chief engineer innovative soft and can be adjusted so
they will be exposed to on their mission. Jim Stein. hard joints to give that it is
the astronauts a comfortable and
Artemis III is scheduled to land near 2. This close-up wide range of non-restricting to
the lunar south pole in 2025, where the shot of the suit’s motion when they wear for 90 per
gloves shows how are walking on the cent of the US
next man and first woman will set foot it was designed lunar surface. population.
on the Moon. with maximum
DISCOVERIES
3 4
27
DISCOVERIES
THE FUTURE’S
BRIGHT…
As a remedy for all the bad news out
FUTURE VACCINES COULD BE
DELIVERED IN A PUFF OF AIR
Not keen on needles? Here’s an
there, let us prescribe you a small invention that will pique your
dose of feel-good science. Each interest. Engineers at the University
issue, we’ll give you a rundown of of Texas at Dallas have designed a
system that could deliver drugs into
the latest breakthroughs that aim the body by puffing them through
to solve humanity’s biggest the skin. Known as the ‘MOF-Jet’,
the device works by encasing drugs
problems. From potato-based in structures known as metal-
concrete to filters that remove organic frameworks, or MOFs, and
forever chemicals, here you’ll find shooting them into the body in
puffs of air. Delivering drugs in this
many reasons to feel hopeful way causes no more pain than
for our future… being hit with a child’s toy foam
bullet, the researchers say. They are
currently using MOF-Jet to deliver
chemotherapeutics as a treatment
for skin cancer, and plan to extend
its use to other drugs in the future.
YEARS TO GO
MIND-CONTROLLED ROBOTS
JEREMIAH GASSENSMITH, GETTY IMAGES X2, MIT X2, JONATHAN BLUTINGER/COLUMBIA ENGINEERING, ALED ROBERTS
29
DISCOVERIES
IS COMPLETELY MADE UP. the equations get far more complicated, but the goal
is the same. There’s always a level of abstraction
built in to the effort, because what allows us to
THAT’S THE WHOLE POINT make predictions or design new technologies is
a set of equations that can be written down and
A physicist’s job is to constantly create equations that keep calculated, not a philosophical discussion on the
up with our observations of physical phenomena nature of reality.
This level of abstraction is especially apparent
in particle physics, because the existence or
R
esearching a cosmic mystery like dark non-existence of a single particle on a subatomic
matter has its downsides. On the one scale is a rather f uzzy notion. The equations
hand, it’s exciting to be on the road to describing the motion of an electron through
what might be a profou nd scient if ic space don’t actually include a particle at all, but
discovery. On the other hand, it’s hard to convince rather an abstract mathematical object called a
people it’s wor t h studying somet hing t hat’s wave function that can spread out and interfere
invisible, untouchable, and apparently made of with itself.
something entirely unknown. While the vast Is it ever true, then, to say that an electron
majority of physicists find the evidence for dark is ‘real’ when it’s in motion? If we believe that
matter’s existence convincing, some continue to electrons are real things, have we just made up
examine alternatives, and the views in the press the wave function to make the maths work out?
and the public are significantly more divided. Absolutely – that was, in fact, the whole point.
The most common response I get when I talk about We couldn’t get t he equations to work if t he
dark matter is: “isn’t this just something physicists electron was a solid, isolated particle, so we made
made up to make the maths work out?” up something that wasn’t, and then the numbers
The answer to that might surprise you: yes! In started making sense.
fact, everything in physics is made up to make It may be t hat in t he f utu re we f ind some
the maths work out. solution that we prefer to a wave function and we
When I first got into science, what excited me abandon that concept altogether. But if we do, it
was the prospect of learning some ultimate truth will be because the maths stopped working out:
about the Universe. The late Stephen Hawking once we’ll have some experimental or observational
described cosmology as an endeavour to “know result that doesn’t add up when we put the data
the mind of God”. But while that characterisation into our current equations.
is inspiring, in practice, physics isn’t built around A scientist’s notion of what’s really happening
ultimate truth, but rather the constant production is always driven by the maths. Before it was
and refinement of mathematical approximations. accepted that the Earth orbits the Sun, astronomers
It’s not just because we’ll never have perfect used epicycles – little orbital loops – to describe
precision in our observations. It’s that the entire planetary motions in an Earth-centred system.
point of physics is to create a model Universe
in maths – a set of equations that remain true DR KATIE MACK
(@As troKatie)
This construction is often used, a little unfairly,
as a prime example of “making up something to
when we plug in numbers from observations of Katie is a theoretical
make the maths work” going wrong.
physical phenomena. astrophysicist. She currently While it’s true that we abandoned epicycles in
For example, Newton’s second law of motion, holds the position of Hawking the 17th Century, it was the maths that made us
which says that force = mass x acceleration, is Chair in Cosmology and do it. Newton’s equations of universal gravitation
Science Communication at
a mathematical model that tells us that if we measure the Perimeter Institute for and Einstein’s General Relativity are not made of
the force exerted on an object, in appropriate units, Theoretical Physics. stronger stuff than the old equations of epicyclic
motion, but they fit the observations better and
make predictions easier, so we use them as the
basis of our abstract model Universe.
While the way we observe something determines
“The entire point of physics what kind of data points we can use, in the end,
everything we do is to make the maths work out.
30
ILLUSTRATION: MATT HOLLAND
DISCOVERIES
31
COMMENT
the memories we accumulate while we’re awake
DREAMS ARE BIZARRE, SO WHY DO THEY and leave them sat there purposelessly, like most
of the photos on the typical smartphone. No, our
SEEM NORMAL WHEN WE’RE ASLEEP? newly acquired memories need to be effectively
integrated into the brain’s stores and networks
Our sleeping brains weave a patchwork out of our memories of existing memories that are the basis of our
in complex, baffling ways identity, our very minds, and more. This is what
memory consolidation is, and a lot of it takes
place during our dreams.
Again, this makes a lot of sense, because the
time when we’re asleep is the time when new
D
reams are weird. Utterly impossible memories aren’t continuously being created and
events happen in them, then immediately added to the to-be-consolidated pile. It’s like how
flow into completely different ones, with people working on a road make sure it’s closed
no obvious rhyme or reason. Contexts, first, because trying to do their job while cars are
behaviours, individuals… they all shift around still using it would be considerably more difficult.
randomly during our dreams, with no care for It’s also important to note how memories are
coherent narrative or the laws of physics. It’s all stored in the human brain. Biological memories
very strange. Except it doesn’t feel strange while aren’t separate, distinct, standalone files of
it’s happening. We can be dreaming about floating complex information, like the aforementioned
upside down in a cavern of milk, sat alongside photo images in a smartphone. No, it seems that
someone who is both our mother and co-worker, our memories are made up of discrete elements,
and our dreaming self will still think, “Yep, this linked up in unique and complex ways.
ILLUSTRATION: VICTOR SOMA
is all to be expected. Typical Tuesday occurrence.” For instance, if you’re in a long-term relationship,
Why is this? Why would our sleeping brain be so your partner’s face will be one of the most familiar
blasé about unusual, reality-bending experiences? things you encounter in your waking life. But if
A big part of this is down to the reason we dream your brain was to create a whole new memory
in the first place. A growing body of research of your partner’s face every time you saw them,
suggests that dreaming is a vital part of memory soon you’d have tens of thousands of memories,
consolidation. Our brains don’t just create all of all for the exact same thing. This is in no way
32
anxious about an upcoming work meeting, then
“Dreams are always you’ll have a load of new memories with an
element of anxiety. To better incorporate this new
made of things with anxiety element, your dreaming brain will link it
to other memories that include anxiety. Perhaps
which our brain is you remember being anxious before singing in
already familiar” public or scuba diving for the first time. Your
dreaming brain will connect your new anxiety
to these existing memories. The end result could
be that you end up dreaming about singing
underwater. This is an impossible act, but your
efficient, particularly for an organ as demanding dreaming brain doesn’t care.
as the brain. Instead, it’s more that you have one Ultimately, everything that happens in a dream
established memory of your partner’s face, and when is derived from bits of memory, temporarily bound
new memories are formed that involve them, those together in complex, baffling ways onto which
memories are linked to the stored representation your brain imposes a sense of ‘self’, in order to
of their face. better process things in useful ways.
Elements of memory can represent anything What this means is, no matter what baffling and
we experience. Sights, sounds, emotions, colours, impossible things occur in our dreams, they’re
people, and so on. Combining and connecting always made of things with which our brain is
these elements in useful ways is what memory already familiar. Because they’re memories.
consolidation, or dreaming, is for. But when these It’s as if you came home one day to find your
memory elements are being worked on while we’re
asleep, they’re also being ‘activated’, like how you
partner has rearranged all your furniture. You
might be surprised, but you wouldn’t think “What’s DR DEAN
need to run power through an electrical circuit to
know whether it works. And when a memory is
all this new furniture?” Because you’d recognise it.
This is what our dreaming brain does with
BURNETT
Neuroscientist Dean
activated, we re-experience it. our memories. They may be presented in wacky, explores the nature of
dreaming in his latest
But while conscious experiences are consistent implausible ways, but the sense of ‘this is all
book Emotional
with the laws of nature, dreaming experiences are familiar’ endures. Because, as far as your brain Ignorance (£14.99,
not beholden to such things. Say you are feeling is concerned, everything is familiar. Guardian Faber).
33
DISCOVERIES
COMMENT
In 2018, Woebot came under fire for unwittingly
YOUR CHATBOT WILL SEE YOU endorsing child sexual exploitation. That issue was
addressed, but it won’t be the last. Newer generative
NOW: SHOULD YOU TRUST AN AI AI methods could make a bot’s responses feel less
canned, but still have the problem that nobody can
WITH YOUR MENTAL HEALTH? predict exactly what the bot might say, which is
particularly risky in a therapy context. AI-based text
systems are notorious for baked-in sexism, racism,
Chatbots could provide easier access to therapy, but we and false information.
don’t know whether the risks outweigh the benefits Even with pre-scripted, rule-based answers, it’s easy
to cause harm to those seeking mental health advice,
many of whom are vulnerable or fragile. While the
ears ago, my therapist recommended I read bots are designed, for example, to recognise suicidal
more than people, out of fear The big selling point – and it’s a compelling one – is
increasing access to therapy. Lowering the barrier to
that a person would judge them” mental health services is undoubtedly valuable, but
we don’t yet know whether the risks are worth the
benefits. In the meantime, there are ways to support
people without trying to recreate human therapists.
Woebot a nd ot her t herapy chatbots like Wysa Ironically, a better solution may be simpler technology.
and Youper a re rising in popula rity. These 24/7 In the 1970s, Joseph Weizenbaum created a chatbot
couch f riends draw on met hods like cognitive named ELIZA that mostly responded to users with
behavioural therapy, which has a specific structure and simple questions. Traditional journalling, a technique
well-established exercises. The premise makes sense, recommended by many therapists, is made more
and human-computer interaction research shows that accessible to people through interactive formats like
with a chatbot, people can develop a rapport, trust, ELIZA. There are also mood-tracking and meditation
DR KATE
and a personal relationship. They might even trust apps that support people on their mental health journeys.
it more than people, out of fear that a person would Some of the therapy bot creators distance themselves
DARLING judge them, for example. from the replacement narrative, claiming that they,
ILLUSTRATION: VALENTIN TKACH
But while the existing bots use established therapy too, provide a supplemental tool. But their tool isn’t
(@grok_)
Kate is a research frameworks, their effectiveness may depend on how designed to enable therapists to better serve clients,
scientist at the MIT the user engages with them, which is easier for a or to be used as an intervention alongside therapy.
Media Lab, studying human professional to guide. To date, there’s very little It’s primarily used as an alternative for people who
human-robot
research that indicates whether therapy bots work, can’t or won’t get a therapist. Maybe that will turn
interaction. Her book
is The New Breed whether they’re good or bad for people, and also who out okay, but app designers should be honest about
(£20, Penguin). they’re aimed at. what they’re doing.
DISCOVERIES
35
RE ALIT Y CHECK REVIEW
REALITY CHECK S C I E N C E B E H I N D T H E H E A D L I N E S
WARNING
Laughing gas is a
psychoactive substance
according to UK law. At the time
of writing, supply can get you a
seven-year prison term, a fine, or both.
Information and support for those
affected by substance abuse can be
found at
bit.ly/drug_support
REVIEW
36
REVIEW RE ALIT Y CHECK
with the escaping gas, and then inhales the gas from
the balloon.
37
ANALYSIS
TESTOSTERONE: IS IT A
MENOPAUSE WONDER DRUG?
The number of women receiving prescriptions for the
hormone has increased 10-fold in less than a decade
´
A Pharmaceutical Journal, testosterone
prescribing for women in t he UK has
increased 10-fold between 2015 and 2023.
Behind this is a trend for testosterone being
portrayed as a quick fix for complex issues faced
by women going through perimenopause, the time
when a woman’s body prepares to make the natural
transition to menopause. But there’s no clinical
evidence to support this and testosterone in women
is currently unlicensed in the UK.
Premenopausal women produce testosterone
natu rally in t he ova ries. It is required for t he
development and maintenance of female sexual
body time to replenish vitamin stores. organs and sexual behaviour. It is also important
for muscle and bone strength, and growth of normal
body hair. And it may have favourable effects on
mood, wellbeing and energy in women.
Testosterone levels appear to decrease as you get
older, not just during perimenopause. Although for
to big, industrial cylinders. those who go through induced menopause, after
having their ovaries surgically removed, testosterone
levels can fall suddenly by up to 50 per cent.
But there is no level of testosterone below which
a woman can said to be deficient, and a ‘testosterone
deficiency syndrome’ has never been clinically
defined.
were suffocating. Testosterone is one of the hormones involved in
female sexual desire, and low circulating levels
are associated with diminished libido. Research
studies indicate that many women reporting loss
of libido (clinically defined as Hypoactive Sexual
Desire Disorder) benefit from testosterone therapy.
But libido is a complex multifactorial function,
not ruled solely by hormones. It involves physical,
psychologica l a nd pract ica l aspects. Ta k ing
testosterone will alter the biological state, but is
and very dangerous. commonly insufficient on its own – as typically
GETTY IMAGES, SHUTTERSTOCK
38
ANALYSIS RE ALIT Y CHECK
responsiveness a nd self-
image. However, the review
found no benefits for cognitive
measure, bone density, body
composition, muscle strength
or psychological wellbeing.
It did also show side effects,
including acne and increased
hair growth. And it is clear
more resea rch is needed
before def initive a nswers
can be given on the efficacy
and dangers of testosterone
treatment. NICE recognises
this and has requested the
National Institute of Health
Research (NIHR) to scope out
the research that needs to be
done. To help this process,
t he NIHR is collaborating
with the British Menopause
Society to understand the
topic f u r t her a nd pla n
clinical trials.
So, testosterone treatment
in women is a complex area
that needs more research.
But socia l media is now
exerting a strong influence.
It is promoting testosterone
to solve many symptoms and
libido in some women. However, it should be used ABOVE While issues for women going through perimenopause – such
only when all other treatments, namely oestrogen, testosterone can as low libido, but also low mood, tiredness and poor
have been unsuccessful. So, although there are help with sexual concentration. This includes what the media calls the
grounds for the use of testosterone treatment, its desire and arousal in ‘Davina McCall effect’ thanks to a video on Instagram
postmenopausal
use in women is controversial. of Davina applying her testosterone gel and talking
women, it doesn’t
Prof Susan Davis, a leading researcher in this appear to offer
about its benefits. As she is the presenter of recent
field from Monash University, Melbourne, Australia, any cognitive or popular TV shows about menopause, this is fuelling
conducted the most comprehensive analysis to date psychological the sudden demand for prescribed testosterone.
of all research on testosterone treatment in women. benefit This is a problem, as medicine is evidence-based.
It included 36 trials involving 8,480 women. And without adequate evidence, as is the case with
Testosterone in postmenopausal women, compared testosterone therapy, doctors are left with just opinions
to a placebo or other hormonal medications such and anecdotal user reports, which leaves women open
as oestrogen, did significantly increase frequency to receiving a treatment that’s potentially dangerous.
of sex as well as sexual desire, pleasure, arousal, Anecdotal accounts from celebrities, or anyone, ´
39
COMMENT
POSITIVE AFFIRMATIONS:
CAN THEY IMPROVE YOUR LIFE?
Could #LuckyGirlSyndrome, the latest TikTok
craze, do more harm than good?
O
the concept.
hashtag #LuckyGirlSyndrome, which at
the time of writing has over 600 million
views. You can take your pick of popular
female TikTokers who purport to explain
the efficacy of medication. Consequently, this puts the focus off the systemic and societal injustices – or
women’s health research and future treatment options old-fashioned bad luck – that are truly responsible
at significant risk. for their plight.
And yet, so many TikTokers swear by the positive
affirmation method. This is no doubt because of
by DR MICHELLE GRIFFIN confirmation bias – after adopting the Lucky Girl
Michelle is director of MFG Health Consulting. She has philosophy, they attribute to it any good thing that
nearly 20 years of experience in women’s health as an consequently happens. And they explain away bad
obstetrician and gynaecologist in the NHS, Public Health outcomes as temporary blips.
England and the World Health Organization.
40
COMMENT RE ALIT Y CHECK
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INNOVATIONS
87% 39%
The massage gun market The percentage of people in Z The percentage of
was valued at £285m in
2023 (Source: Maximize
a study who fell asleep
faster when using a massage Z global sales of massage
guns that are coming
Market Research) gun (Source: Therabody) from North America
(Source: TechNavio)
43
INNOVATIONS
REVIEW
U
nlike the black cab drivers of
London, who know every street,
turn and dead-end in their own
city, I have the memory of a
goldfish when it comes to navigation,
second-guessing how on Earth to get
around the city I live in.
To remedy this, I have utilised the
tried-and-tested method of strapping my
smartphone to my bike and booting up
a map app. Sure, it works, but not only
am I scared for the safety of the device, it
is also surprisingly unintuitive, sending
me up huge hills, or down roads that are
simply not made for bikes.
While there are plenty of dedicated In ‘route tracker’
sat-navs for bikes, one that particularly mode, you follow a
caught my eye was the Beeline Velo, traditional map that
which costs £99.99. Simple, easy-to- shows your turnings
use and supposedly packed with smart
features, could this bike tracker be the tool
that would finally make me a successful
city navigator?
44
THE BEST
ALTERNATIVE
BIKE TRACKERS
GARMIN EDGE
1040 SOL AR
A pricier alternative,
The device attaches this is for serious
to the mount, which cyclists. Its big selling
then fixes to your point is that it
handlebars with charges via solar, so if you’re
rubber bands cycling in the sunshine, you can
go days without needing to
charge it. Along with being able
to plan routes and show the best
directions, it can also display
your riding times, speeds and
“WHETHER WITHIN THE One of the Beeline’s more interesting
features is its rating system. When you
other statistics, and can show
you where your weak points
DIRECT AND EASY ROUTES” For instance, when I took a ride into
work, I ca me across a t ig ht road up
At a similar price to
the Beeline Velo 2,
the Sigma Rox 11.1
a hill which was not logical for bikes. Evo is an affordable yet
when I did make wrong turns the tracker After down-rating it, the route had been feature-packed bike tracker. It
could take a long time to recalibrate, changed next time I took it. offers a user-friendly interface
especially if I made a few turns before While I mostly used t he device for and some handy training data.
it had decided my new route. navigation, I also found it ha ndy for You can put in destinations to
Thankfully, I was able to stick to the quickly checking stats, such as arrival be tracked, and it can measure
route the majority of the time. However, times, how long I had been riding and the cadence of your ride, and
when I did go wrong, I got to use the my average distances. check your speed and distance.
‘compass mode’, which I was a big fan With 150 other functions to
track your performance, it’s one
of. I n t h is mode, t he dev ice shows VERDICT
smart bit of kit.
a spinning arrow pointing you to your The Beeline Velo 2 ticks a lot
£169.99, sigmasports.com
end destination. This allows you to take of boxes. It is fairly affordable, RATING
any road without losing track of where easy-to-use, non-invasive
your end destination is. when you’re riding and packed GARMIN EDGE
530
Whichever navigation mode you use, with plenty of features. While the solar-
PROS:
the map is relying on your smartphone Whet her I was following powered Garmin
zEasy to use
to process the route. For the most part, t he compass or a more and install
above is impressive,
this is absolutely fine, but if you lose di rect route on t he map, its price is rather steep. The
zAffordable
signal and go off the designated route, I was consistently happy with Garmin Edge 530 is a cheaper
zGood battery life
alternative. It offers a solid
the Beeline won’t be able to recalibrate. its performance, and rarely zUseful app
navigation system, but struggles
This left me a bit stuck when I once hit found myself experiencing any
CONS: when you go off the planned
a route with a deadend of roadworks in major issues. route. It can also track your
zStruggles to
an area with no signal. Wh ile it isn’t perfect speed, altitude, power, heart
recalibrate
On most of the rides I took, whether a nd its heav y relia nce on rate, cadence and calories. One
zTricky to use
within the city centre or on the outskirts, a sma r tphone a nd mobile on the go downside is that it’s
I was given direct and easy routes without signal might put off some users, zThird-party apps non-touchscreen, so you can’t
any major problems, even when I took for the average commuter or don’t always easily scroll along your route.
a slight detour and needed to wait for hobby cyclist, t he Beeline work well £259.99, garmin.com
a recalibration. Velo 2 is an excellent choice.
45
INNOVATIONS
47
INNOVATIONS
Ideas
…the pizza oven goes electric
The pizza oven brand Ooni has established itself in
IDEAS WE
DON’T LIKE...
…surrounded by music …assistive technology reaches
Sonos isn’t exactly known as the most the camera world …YET ANOTHER SMART
adventurous audio brand, offering an Sony is the latest brand to break into GL ASSES AT TEMPT
array of powerful but plain speakers. the assistive technology space, with its Ten years ago, Google released
Now, it is taking a slightly different route DSC-HX99 RNV camera that allows a the Google Glass, a pair of smart
with its Era speakers. Shouting audio visually impaired user take photographs. glasses that were set to change
out of both sides, these spaceship-styled The viewfinder projects a weak laser the world. They did not. Since
speakers aim to fill a room with powerful image directly onto the user’s retina, so then, countless brands have
tried the same, all falling short of
audio all around you. This, paired with they can see what they’re photographing
the mainstream. Now Xiaomi is
Dolby Atmos technology, gives you a in colour. Sony is absorbing some of the giving it a go. The prototype
truly immersive audio experience. They costs of these devices, to keep things Xiaomi Wireless Glasses aren’t
aren’t cheap, mind. more affordable for users. exactly inconspicuous, with two
Sonos Era 300 Sony DSC-HX99 RNV large cameras and a bulky
£449, sonos.com $600 (£490 approx), sony.com frame. Through augmented
reality, you can watch TikTok via
the glasses, try out furniture in
a room and generally interact
with an altered version of your
reality. It’s fun, but nothing
we haven’t seen countless
times before.
mi.com
…music quality taken seriously …sending texts in an emergency
For those who are happy with their The dreaded no-signal sign on your
£5 headphones, the FiiO R7 will seem phone is an experience shared by
excessive, but for the audiophiles of campers, hikers and hungover festival-
the world, it will be a new must-have goers. Motorola’s solution is the Defy
device. FiiO claims the R7 can operate Satellite Link, a device that enables
as both a high-resolution audio player almost any smartphone to send and
and streamer, as well as a dedicated receive text messages, even in places
headphone amplifier. Normally, this lacking signal. You can share your …A NEW WAY TO LOOK
would require two separate devices, so location, send out an SOS and have AT VINYL
we’ll wait to see how well it can perform. a two-way conversation using the device. Like dumping caviar and gold
FiiO R7 Motorola Defy Satellite Link flakes on food, slapping a
£649.99, fiio.com £149.99, motorolarugged.com ‘limited edition’ label on
something is a surefire way to
ramp up the price. At a whopping
£3,394, we can’t help but feel
that’s what is happening here
with the Miniot Black Wheel. It’s
a record player that flips on its
side, lifting your vinyl of choice
into the air. From there, a set of
light-up buttons gives you
control over your music. While it
is certainly unique and packed
with high-end audio technology,
it will leave you with a very
empty wallet.
Miniot Black Wheel
£3,394, miniot.com
49
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RULES
BEHIND
EVERY
DIET
THAT
WORKS
We’re fed up with navigating all the tips and advice online
telling us how to lose weight, so we asked an obesity expert to
reveal whether anything actually works for weight loss
by PROF GILES YEO
any of us would like to shed a few kilos, and keep Still more people quibble about which diet (of the hundreds
them off. This has never been more relevant, as three out there) will actually get you looking lean, and permanently
years of pandemic living has resulted in some of us so. I’m not in the business of endorsing any one of the many
putting on unwanted weight. But if you head online different dietary approaches that rear their heads online,
for some advice, prepare to be disappointed. Doctors, because – whatever anyone tells you – there is no magical
scientists and influencers seem to be locked in a ‘one-size-fits-all’ solution. But do any diets actually work? The
tussle over what exactly works when it comes to answer is, surprisingly, yes, although perhaps not for the
shedding fat. There’s the like of diet expert Prof Tim reason that is often being marketed. In one respect, the truth
Spector, who set TikTok ‘influencers’ into a sweaty about diets is a simple one: for a diet to work, there has to be a
flurry over his soundbite on the Diary Of A CEO calorie deficit. If we forensically examine ALL the diets that
podcast when he said “exercise doesn’t work”. To clarify, it is show some evidence of working, the vast majority all share one
ILLUSTRATION: GRACE RUSSELL
of course possible to lose weight through exercise. After all, (or more) of these three characteristics:
Tour de France cyclists eat around 5,000 calories a day and
still lose weight during the three-week race. The problem is, 1. They explicitly restrict calories
most of us mere mortals don’t exercise anywhere near enough 2. They are high in protein
for this to be effective. Others, like myself, have argued that 3. They are high in fibre
counting calories has its limitations, and we shouldn’t
slavishly follow the calorie counts listed on food packaging. Let’s look at these in a bit more detail. ´
53
FE ATURE WEIGHT LOSS
1 CALORIE
RESTRICTION
Not all calories are
created equal
2 HIGH PROTEIN
This macronutrient can help you stay fuller for longer
Of the three macronutrients – urine, before the remaining chemical this availability is down to the presence
carbohydrates, fat and protein – protein structure of the amino acids can be of fibre, which we mostly cannot digest
is chemically the most complex. Fat and converted into energy or fat. This and therefore passes right through us.
carbs are made entirely of carbon, process takes a lot of words to explain, Diets that are high in protein include
hydrogen and oxygen atoms, just in and even more energy to deliver. In fact, the entire menagerie of ‘low carb, high
a variety of different configurations, for every 100 calories of protein that we fat’ diets, ranging in severity of carb
thus metabolising or storing them is consume, we are only ever able to use restriction from Atkins to keto to
energetically efficient. 70 calories, with the other 30 calories carnivore, but are all universally high
Unlike fat and carbs, all protein in needed to handle the protein. Thus, in protein, defined as 16 per cent or
our body is there for a reason, either for protein has a caloric availability of 70 more of total daily intake. For all
building or for repair – there is no per cent. All the protein calorie counts intents and purposes, they also
passive store of protein for a rainy day. we see today are 30 per cent out! encompass diets like gluten-free (with
So any excess protein that is not used By comparison, fat has a caloric the exception for those suffering from
immediately has to be metabolised into availability of 98 per cent, meaning that coeliac disease) and paleo.
energy or converted into fat. Second, to convert it to energy costs next to These diets work for many people
while protein is, like fat and carbs, nothing, and hence why it is such an trying to lose weight because protein,
primarily composed of carbon, efficient long-term fuel store. As for from a chemical perspective, takes
hydrogen and oxygen, it also contains carbs, it all depends on whether we are longer to digest and takes more energy
a significant amount of nitrogen. This talking about the complex (90 per cent to metabolise, so is more satiating than
nitrogen needs to be removed, so is available) or refined (95 per cent fat or carbs. You feel fuller, you eat less,
secreted as urea, primarily in our available) variety. The difference in you lose weight.
It’s important
to note that protein
doesn’t only mean steaks!
Fish, tofu, beans and nuts are
all rich sources of protein, but
without the saturated fat found
in land-based animals.
Consider including a wide
range of protein in
your diet.
55
FE ATURE WEIGHT LOSS
There are a
lot of posts on social
media saying fruit is high
in sugar, so should not be
eaten in large amounts. The
truth is, the presence of fibre
means it is difficult for most
people to eat too much fruit! So
eat as many portions of
fruit and vegetables
as you like.
HIGH FIBRE
Great for your gut,
“FIBRE SLOWS DOWN THE
as well as your waistline RATE OF DIGESTION,
Fibre is actually a type of plant-based carbohydrate,
although much of it is structured in a way that we RESULTING IN THE RELEASE
humans cannot digest. Fibre is, of course, vitally
important for our gut health, keeping everything
shipshape and, ahem, regular. On average, we each OF NUTRIENTS OVER A
QPN[EQPUWOGITCOUQHƂDTGCFC[YJGTGCUYG
need to try and achieve 30 grams a day.
From the perspective of caloric availability, LONGER PERIOD OF TIME”
GETTY IMAGES ILLUSTRATION: GRACE RUSSELL
56
WEIGHT LOSS FE ATURE
57
FE ATURE FARM BOTS
by HAYLEY BENNETT
ROBO-CROP
“There’s still a massive gap between the labour
that agriculture needs and the labour that
agriculture has,” says Walt Duflock, vice
In the last 70 years, agriculture has lost the president of innovation at Western Growers, a
majority of its workforce as generation after crop growers’ association covering the western
generation has turned away from family US. “So labour is a huge problem and
farming businesses. Despite this, agriculture automation’s the only solution to close the gap.”
has found ways to increase food production, This is why farmers are now swapping more
with machines playing a key role. But in 2020, traditional machinery for modern, AI-powered
the United Nations warned that agricultural farming robots adept at some of the tasks that
productivity would need to increase by 60 per once required human hands. The Naïo Oz
cent in order to feed the predicted global Farming Assistant pictured here, for instance, is
population in 2050. With big producers like the designed for hoeing, weeding, making furrows,
PETER ADAMS
US still struggling to find agricultural labour, seeding and transporting. There are nearly 150
that demand simply can’t be met if farming of these robotic farmhands in circulation across
doesn’t change how it operates. 48 countries.
58
FE ATURE FARM BOTS
TECHNO TRACTOR
Tractors have been driving driver is ‘optional’. It’s battery-
themselves for decades – John powered, with 360° cameras
Deere developed a GPS-based that can be accessed live by an
self-guidance system in the operator via the software the
early 2000s. But they haven’t manufacturer supplies. So now
generally been doing it ‘driving’ a tractor is beginning
unmanned. “There’s always to take on a whole new
been a person in that tractor,” meaning, as we envisage farm
says Kantor. “It’s basically workers managing whole fleets
driving itself – the person is of vehicles without ever
sitting there and they’re doing needing to lay their hands on a
other things – but [the tractor] steering wheel. Monarch
is not quite a robot.” claims operators can easily
A new breed of autonomous keep tabs on eight tractors at
tractors, however, is set to once via its Wingspan AI app,
change that. Specifications for which provides maps and
the Monarch Electric Tractor helpful data, such as distance
(pictured right) state that a covered and energy used.
60
FARM BOTS FE ATURE
MULTIPURPOSE MACHINES
As well as an ever-increasing number of ‘AgTech’ start-ups,
there are also more established manufacturers that have
sold hundreds of robots, like Naïo (see previous page) and
Burro, which makes helper robots for tasks like towing
and carrying.
Stout Industrial Technology, which sold its first Smart
Cultivator (pictured left) in 2020, is also heading in the
same direction. The cultivator can be hitched to the back of
a tractor, where it uses computer vision and AI to precisely
control mechanical blades as they turn over soil and
eliminate weeds, while sparing crops. Stout’s approach is
‘software-defined’ – it builds multipurpose farming
machines that will become more useful as the AI improves.
Field robotics expert George Kantor, from Carnegie
Mellon University in Pittsburgh, thinks this is the right
approach, although not the simplest one.
“The easy way to do it is to build a special purpose
machine for every application and then use intelligence to
automate that machine, but of course there are thousands
of different applications in agriculture and very few of
them are big enough to build a business around,” he says.
“So you have to find ways of making the machine be
applicable across tasks and across crops.”
61
Weeding and thinning out of
crops are some of the tasks
that agricultural technology
companies are starting to get
a handle on. According to
Duflock, while harvesting
might be causing more of
a headache, new farming
technologies will have these
more straightforward
applications ‘figured out’
within the next decade. This
will mean higher upfront costs
for farms, but will also reduce
reliance on temporary workers
from other countries, which
in the US comes with
associated housing and
transport costs under a
government visa scheme.
But if cash-strapped farmers
don’t have a cool million to lay
out on a Laserweeder, then the
Farmwise Titan FT35 Agtech
Robot (pictured right) offers a
mechanical weed-killing
solution suited to a tighter
budget. Combining a self-
driving tractor and weeding
attachment, it’s a hefty-looking
robot but is still capable of
precision weeding. It can also
apply chemicals to kill weeds
and pests. Because lighting
levels need to be optimum for
sensing the weeds, the FT35
has a ‘skirt’ that can be raised
and lowered to offer some
level of control over the
amount of light getting in.
PETER ADAMS
62
FARM BOTS FE ATURE
63
FE ATURE FARM BOTS
SAFETY FIRST
New farming technologies are for instance, by insurers who set
not without risk. That’s why the premiums for crop losses or
they’re built with safety flood damage. Though Duflock
features, like the emergency notes that if farmers “get smart
stop button (pictured far right) enough” and share their data
on Robotics Plus’s tree and vine safely, they could use it as an
sprayer, or the ‘human additional revenue stream.
detection’ system on Monarch’s Meanwhile, concerns about
electric tractor, which puts the robots taking our jobs may be
brakes on when a person gets unfounded in an industry that
too close. There are less obvious is desperately short of labour –
risks too. As agriculture in fact, they may create fewer
becomes increasingly data- but more highly skilled, better
driven, companies are showing paid jobs.
interest in aggregating all this “In 10 years, I do think
new data. While there are plenty immigrant farm labour
of intelligent things we could do will still be a huge factor on the
with massive agricultural farm,” Duflock says. “But
PETER ADAMS X4
64
FARM BOTS FE ATURE
OPTIMUS VINE
Vineyards present different challenges from other
forms of farming, but agricultural robots like the
Vitibot (pictured left) are specially designed to deal
with at least some of them. This autonomous electric
robot trundles along each row, tilling the ground as it
goes, but can also be fitted with tools for spraying,
weeding and trimming.
Harvesting grapes is another matter. Grapes come in
two varieties: wine grapes (which are crushed) and
table grapes (which are eaten whole). For wine grapes,
it’s already possible to buy robotic harvesters. French
company Pellenc sells one that wine producers have
used to harvest their grapes, while Duflock says
manufacturers will probably come up with service
models that smaller growers can borrow to harvest
their crops at lower cost.
Table grapes require a slightly gentler touch. As
Kantor explains, human harvesters carry out a number
of important tasks as they’re picking the grapes off the
vine. “They would cut a bunch off the vine, clean the
cluster, make it the right shape and size, cut out the
dead grapes and get the sticks out,” he says. “You can
imagine a robot that takes the cluster off the vine
today, but I can’t imagine a robot that does that other
really fine stuff – not any time soon.”
by H A Y L E Y B E N N E T T
(@ging erbreadlady)
Hayley is a freelance science writer
based in Bristol.
65
FE ATURE JUICE
66
JUICE FE ATURE
by D R L O U I S A P R E S T O N
ESA/ATG MEDIALAB/NASA/JPL
67
FE ATURE JUICE
PLANET NINE
he Earth has always been this year the JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE)
believed to be the gold mission will be sent to Jupiter’s moons to help
standard for a habitable astrobiologists understand how habitable worlds
world. Lessons learnt from have emerged in the outer Solar System.
life on Earth have told us JUICE will uncover the biological effects of the
that if we want to seek life interaction between a planet and its moons by
on other planets in the Solar exploring three of Jupiter’s icy moons: Ganymede,
System, we need to find three Callisto and Europa, and their watery subsurface
basic ingredients in the same environments. Ganymede will take a fair share of
place at the same time – the focus of JUICE, but the results it might obtain
liquid water, the chemical from Europa, in collaboration with NASA’s Europa
building blocks of life, and Clipper, will be incredibly exciting as it will be
a source of energy. Previously, the first time we are able to study present-day
we thought that these could environments suitable for life beyond the Earth.
only be found within
a narrow ring around the WATER WORLD
Sun called the ‘Goldilocks Liquid water is at the top of the astrobiological
Zone’, or ‘Habitable Zone’. wishlist when exploring other planets, as it
But we were wrong. dissolves nutrients and transports chemicals
Images of Jupiter’s moons within the environment. Water could help to store
taken by the Voyager missions and circulate the chemicals for life throughout
in 1979 and the Galileo a planetary body, and Europa has water aplenty.
spacecraft between 1995 and A large part of Europa’s water is frozen, creating
2003 completely reshaped a bright, icy crust; a landscape unlike anything the
our view of the Solar System. Earth has to offer. This glacial shell encompasses
They exposed evidence for liquid water in the the entire moon and is thought to be between
outer reaches of our planetary neighbourhood, far 16 and 24 kilometres thick, but is floating atop
from where we thought it should be able to exist. a salty liquid ocean between 64 and 160 kilometres
Today, we know that the fourth largest moon of deep that is in direct contact with a rocky seafloor.
Jupiter, Europa, contains more water than all of The most striking features of this ice are the criss-
Earth’s oceans combined. It turns out that Jupiter, crossing double ridges and grooves of reddish
despite being outside our Solar System’s traditional brownish non-ice material (water mixed with
habitable zone, has created a habitable zone all of magnesium sulphate and sulphuric acid, for
its own, driven not by the Sun’s warmth – sunlight example) that scar the surface. Recent studies of
at Jupiter is 30 times dimmer than at Earth – but similar ridges on the Greenland icesheet have
by the effects of its incredibly powerful gravity. hinted that these might be created by pockets of
Given these new ‘cooler’ habitable options, in April liquid water near to the surface of the ice shell
69
Journey
A visit to Venus
JUICE is the latest in a long line of !
ambitious missions involving Jupiter, In August 2025, JUICE will
perform a flyby of Venus,
to Jupiter
starting with the first flyby by Pioneer 10
in 1973. In 1995, Galileo became the first where it will receive
another gravity assist.
spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, with the broad
aim of studying the planet and its moons.
And Juno followed two decades later to 04
Everything you need to know about further investigate the gas giant.
ESA’s much-anticipated JUICE mission
Words Catherine Regan
Infographic James Round
Lunar-Earth flyby
03
What is JUICE? In August 2024, JUICE will
perform a flyby of the
Earth-Moon system, known
JUICE, or the JUpiter ICy moons Explorer, is a European as a Lunar-Earth gravity
Space Agency (ESA) mission that will travel to Jupiter and assist (LEGA) – the first
its moon system with various instruments to help us ever to be carried out.
understand gas giant systems. It will be launching on 13
April 2023. Although it is an ESA-led mission, there have
been engineering contributions from NASA and JAXA
To help us understand our own Solar System and gas
giants across the Universe, JUICE will be studying Jupiter’s
environment, in addition to some of its icy moons. The
mission’s theme is ‘the emergence of habitable worlds
around gas giants’, as it is thought that moons such as
Europa are likely to contain signs of life.
JUICE will be the first spacecraft ever to orbit a moon in
the outer Solar System, when it changes orbit from Jupiter
to Ganymede at the end of the nominal mission.
In 2024, the Europa Clipper will blast off, arriving at the
All systems ready!
moon in 2030 to carry out further research. 02
After launch, it will take
JUICE around 2.5 weeks to
complete the deployment
JUICE: IN NUMBERS of its antennas, probes
and magnetometer boom. JUICE will be launching
! on an Ariane 5 rocket, the
The number of scientific instruments
‘workhorse’ of the ESA. After
carried by JUICE, from spectral imaging
10 tools to radar. Find out more about these
110 successful launches, this
launch will be Ariane 5’s last,
tools on the opposite page.
as it is due to be replaced by
the new Ariane 6.
The total duration of JUICE’s mission.
8 In that time it will have been to Venus What will JUICE’s
years and back to Earth (twice!), before
journey look like?
reaching Jupiter and its moons.
It’s believed that this moon could With the oldest and most heavily Ganymede is the only moon in
potentially support life, so JUICE will cratered surface in the Solar System, the Solar System to generate its
be looking for evidence of organic JUICE will be investigating Callisto own magnetic field. JUICE will
molecules and other biosignatures to better understand the features analyse this, along with the moon’s
within the ice, and also within and environment of the early Jovian atmosphere, complex core, its ice
water vapour that Europa may vent system. It will also study its structure, content, and the potential of
into space. composition and chemistry. a subsurface ocean.
Ganymede Laser Altimeter (GALA) Radar for Icy Moons Exploration (RIME)
This tool will help to provide evidence This ice-penetrating radar can see nine
for subsurface oceans within the Jovian kilometres below the surface, in order
moons. It will also map the topography of to discover the subsurface features of
the moons. the moons.
GOING UNDERGROUND
On the face of it, Europa isn’t welcoming to life. Its surface
is bathed in extreme radiation and daytime temperatures
barely surpass -160°C. None of the currently known terrestrial
extremophilic lifeforms could survive these harsh conditions,
and as such we think that any life on Europa
LEFT Jupiter with
will be relegated underground where more its four largest
protected and relatively clement environments satellites, known
can be found. Studies on the Earth have as the Galilean
moons. From
reinforced this idea. Since the 1970s we top to bottom:
have discovered more than 370 lakes hidden Io, Europa,
beneath several kilometres of glacial ice in Ganymede and
Callisto
Antarctica (many with microbial life within
them), bacteria living in sandstones in the cold, BELOW Artist’s
impression of
dry, inhospitable Antarctic Dry Valleys, and Europa’s icy
thriving ecosystems around hydrothermal surface crust
vents deep beneath the world’s oceans.
BOTTOM
The Earth has shown us that life lives in RIGHT Core of
colder, darker, stranger places than we ever the Ariane 5
dreamed. Today, the idea of life f loating rocket, which
will blast JUICE
around in the liquid ocean under Europa’s ice into space in April
crust or crowding around mineral-and energy- this year
PLANET JUICE
NINE FE ATURE
WATERY DEPTHS”
life we find on the Earth in Since we are not landing
Europa-like environments. on Europa anytime soon
However, it is always fun to and cannot drill into the
speculate. Europa’s global ice or directly sample the
ocean may have been in ocean, we will need to
existence for billions of make observations of the
years, more than enough surface remotely and sample
time for evolution to get to indirectly. High-resolution
work. Europa could have a vigorous biosphere hidden inside mapping of the surface at multiple wavelengths can help us
its watery depths supporting larger forms of life – perhaps it figure out the composition of the ice and the non-ice reddish
is filled with Europan octopuses? It is, of course, unlikely, but material, and assess how habitable the moon could be by
we cannot be closed off to this possibility. What is exciting searching for biosignatures and determining the distribution
about Europa, is that the life we are talking about is not of biologically essential elements.
ancient life or the signatures of its past existence left behind We can also use ice-penetrating radar to map the subsurface
in the minerals and ice, but life that could be living today! structure of the moon down to nine kilometres. We might
also be able to get a taste of Europa’s ocean, because it is
HUNT FOR LIFE possible that it may be leaking out into space. In November
In July 2031 when JUICE arrives in the Jovian system, the 2019, NASA announced it had directly detected water vapour
solar-powered spacecraft will combine the power of all 10 for the first time above Europa’s surface, and we are pretty
of its science instruments to uncover the hidden subsurface sure that thin plumes of water are being ejected into space.
oceans and habitability potential of Europa, Callisto and If the plumes do exist, then JUICE could investigate the dust
and other substances being erupted, and if that material
originates from the ocean, it could contain molecules that
are indicative of life.
Although JUICE isn’t designed to find extraterrestrial life,
it will help us assess Europa’s habitability. It will allow us to
learn more about the ocean-surface boundary, to what extent
the conditions are suitable for biology, and will reveal how
geologically active Europa’s interior is.
As scientists, we are always having to change and adapt
our thinking, especially with regards to habitability and the
extent and limits of life. Thanks to Europa and the future data
from JUICE, we are exponentially expanding our catalogue
of potentially habitable worlds, not just in our Solar System,
NASA/JPL X2, ESA/CNES/ARIANE SPACE/P BAUDON
73
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YOUR QUESTIONS ANSWERED
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THEMSELVES?
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DR EZZY PROF PETER DR CHRISTIAN to produce more insulin, which sets off a chain converts to serotonin and melatonin, both of
PEARSON BENTLEY JARRETT of biological events leading to muscle and fat which increase relaxation and sleepiness.
Space and Computer Psychologist cells taking up glucose. This can cause blood The best way to avoid a food coma is to
science journalist scientist and author
sugar levels to crash, leading to low energy. avoid having high-carb meals, like
When you eat, your body activates its sandwiches or rice. Add in some protein,
DR ALASTAIR parasympathetic nervous system and enters healthy fats and vegetables to balance things
GUNN a ‘rest and digest’ mode, which contrasts with out, and don’t eat too much in one sitting. ED
Astrophysics
lecturer
75
Q&A
76
Q&A
MUNTJAC DEER
Although common in the British countryside, a recent viral video has shed
new light on the seemingly bizarre adaptations of the muntjac deer; facial
glands that can open so wide, they can actually turn inside out. As the
smallest species of deer in the UK, around the height of a small to
medium-sized dog, muntjac have two sets of scent glands on their face
that grow and swell, like balloons filling with air.
When relaxed, they look like nothing more than small bumps on the
deer’s face, but to other muntjacs, they are a crucial tool for
communication and bonding. As the scent glands expand, they secrete a
personalised concoction of chemical compounds that convey information
about a deer’s sex, age and reproductive status, as well as their overall
health, wellbeing, and social hierarchy. A deer will rub their face against a
tree (or other object), releasing their scent that acts like a calling card; a
message to other creatures in the forest that the muntjac deer is present.
Muntjac also have a variety of vocalisations, ranging from soft grunting
noises to something resembling a human scream. They’re also known as
the ‘barking deer’ thanks to their loud, resonant (and repeating) bark,
which sounds a bit like a loud cough.
This type of bark is unique to muntjacs, and they can be very vocal
given their petite size. It’s often used as a territorial call, with males
Dust has always been a problem when exploring Mars. barking to attract a female, or to ward off predators. If you live near
The thin atmosphere kicks up the planet’s fine dust, which muntjacs, be warned, this barking can go on for many hours… HS
then settles on solar panels. This steadily reduces the
sunlight reaching the panels, until power drops too low for
the spacecraft to function.
The Spirit and Opportunity rovers avoided this fate as
the wind periodically blew the dust away. Not every
spacecraft is so lucky. NASA’s most recent victim was the
InSight lander, which lost contact with Earth on 15
December 2022 after four years on the surface.
So why not just include a ‘windscreen wiper’ to brush
away the dust? One of the biggest issues is weight. The
mass you can send to another planet is a limit set by the
power of your rocket. Every gram counts and adding a
cleaning system would mean leaving something else out.
So far, the trade-off hasn’t been worth it.
Some missions have used existing hardware to try
cleaning the panels instead. Using the solar panels’
positioning motors to shake the dust loose have met with
GETTY IMAGES X2, NASA/JPL ILLUSTRATION: DANIEL BRIGHT
77
Q&A
HOW DO SHARK
TEETH WORK?
CROWDSCIENCE
Every week on BBC World Service, CrowdScience answers listeners’ questions on life, Earth and the Universe.
Tune in every Friday evening on BBC World Service, or catch up online at bbcworldservice.com/crowdscience
78
Q&A
79
Q&A
MYTHBUSTERS
CAN WHAT I WEAR REALLY
AFFECT MY MOOD?
Dubbed ‘part fashion, part mindfulness’, One study showed that wearing an Not very. When you turn on private mode or
dopamine dressing is the TikTok trend outfit that has an association with a launch an incognito browser window, it’s like
that encourages people to choose profession, like a doctor’s white coat, starting from scratch on a new computer.
clothing that matches their desired mood. improves cognitive processes. Termed There will be no cookies to help your browser,
So, if we opt for colourful clothing over ‘enclothed cognition’, this might also be so you’ll have to re-login to websites that need
the drab and dreary, we’ll get a boost of why wearing gym clothes makes us more your details. When you’re done, the browser
dopamine and feel happier. likely to exercise. While formal suits make will delete the new cookies and temporary
Dopamine, as a neurotransmitter, is a person act with more dominance, when cache files and keep no history of your activity.
involved in several brain functions it comes to performance, comfort is As far as your computer is concerned, there is
including the forming of emotions. It’s not arguably more important – students no record of your browsing, apart from any
the only molecule that can affect how we taking exams fared better when they files you downloaded, or bookmarks saved.
feel – serotonin, oxytocin and various were wearing comfier, less formal clothes. But that’s not the whole story. For your
endorphins interact with dopamine to Those who spend their days pursuing computer to connect to the internet, it must go
give rise to our mood. But creative endeavours might through your router, and the router can monitor
dopamine does play a want to try wearing green, all web addresses that you visit. This will
fundamental part in our as viewing the colour happen regardless of whether the user turns on
brain’s reward system. has been linked to private mode of the browser.
As to whether our better creative Even while you are browsing using incognito,
outfit choice can performance. The you leave digital footprints all over the web.
offer a dopamine colour green has Cookies may be deleted after you’re done, but
boost, to put it also been found to while you’re browsing, the websites are happily
plainly, we don’t evoke feelings of storing information about your activities. If you
know – there is no relaxation, likely login to any site while in private mode, you’ve
study that has because it reminds given the game away instantly. You are
asked participants us of nature. Yellow, identified by the site and all your activities will
to change into and its suggestions be tracked as normal. Your searches will be
brightly coloured of summer and recorded, along with your browsing activities on
clothes while monitoring warmth, can bring a any social media sites, and your purchases will
the dopamine levels in their viewer happiness, energy all be stored. Through temporary cookies, your
brain. But as far as the concept and excitement, though it’s not activities can be linked across multiple accounts
goes, there are studies that show a known if these feelings occur when and profiles, gathering more data about you.
relationship between the clothes we wear wearing the colour. So, you decide not to login to any site. You’re
and how we act and feel. There are some problems with studying still tracked through your computer’s IP address,
In one study, people photographed associations between colour and which can locate your approximate region. It’s a
wearing a red or black T-shirt were emotions, namely that our opinions are method used in sales to figure out whether an
viewed as being more attractive than closely linked with our culture. In the UK, anonymous potential purchaser has been
those wearing any other colour. Wearing we may associate the colour black with clicking around. The IP address is tracked, and
red can also lead to better physical sadness because it’s what we wear to emails are sent with tempting offers to try and
performance. A review of football a funeral, but mourners wear white at convert that interest into a sale. Combine the IP
matches over the last 55 years showed funerals in China. We also can’t say for address with device type and browser details,
that teams with a red kit consistently certain that everyone sees colour the and it’s possible to figure out who you are,
played better in home games than any same, as anyone who saw ‘the dress’ regardless of whether you’ve given your name.
other kit colour. on social media in 2015 can attest. AA Some browsers are trying to block this, but
websites keep finding ways to track you. PB
80
DAVID CURTIS, NE WC ASTLE
When you have a general anaesthetic, you will usually be asked not to
have anything to eat or drink for a period of time before. Although it
might feel cruel on top of the stress of undergoing a procedure, it’s for
your own safety.
When the general anaesthetic is used, your body’s reflexes are
temporarily stopped. If your stomach has any food and drink in it,
there’s a risk of vomiting or bringing up food into your throat. If this
happens, the food could get into your lungs and affect your
breathing, as well as causing damage. Inhaling vomited stomach Unfortunately, even chewing gum – including nicotine gum – should
contents into your lungs is called ‘aspiration’, and it can lead to a be avoided during this fasting period, and soups and sweets should
dangerous infection. also not be consumed. You may also be advised to avoid certain types
The amount of time you have to go without food or drink before you of fluids, such as milk, or tea and coffee with milk added to them. Clear
have your operation will depend on the type of operation you’re fluids, such as water, are usually allowed until two hours before.
having. However, it is usually at least six hours for food, and two hours While it might feel annoying to avoid food, you must follow the
for fluids. You’ll be told how long you must not eat or drink for before guidelines. If you eat or drink before your surgery, your operation can
your operation. be postponed or even cancelled because of the risks involved. NM
81
E XPL AINER
THE EXPLAINER
PHOBIAS
AN EXPLORATION INTO THE ORIGINS AND TREATMENTS OF IRRATIONAL FEARS
I
n the context of mental health, a phobia is
far more serious than a mild aversion.
Many of us dislike flying, or giving a talk in “Phobias are a formal
front of our colleagues, and we might not
be too happy if a large, slobbery dog, no matter
how gentle, came bounding toward us. But as
psychiatric diagnosis in the
long as we can tolerate these kinds of
situations without too much distress, and our
anxiety category”
lives aren’t adversely affected, then we haven’t
got a phobia for any of these situations as such.
In contrast, people diagnosed with a
relevant phobia would experience an
intense, extremely unpleasant fear reaction
that could be overwhelming. So much so, that
it might interfere with their day-to-day lives.
Flying phobias, social phobias, and a fear
of dogs (even cute ones) are common
examples – but there are dozens of others,
including some quite bizarre examples, such
as trypophobia, which is a fear of clusters
of holes (like you get in crumpets),
sedatephobia (a fear of silence) and
gerascophobia (a fear of ageing).
83
E XPL AINER
84
E XPL AINER
DR CHRISTIAN JARRETT
control over your fear reaction, and experimental stage are investigations
this will be combined with gradual using beta-blockers and other
exposure to the focus of your phobia, compounds to interfere with the Christian is a psychologist, writer and editor. His latest
so that you can learn that it’s not as brain-basis of acquired fears. book is Be Who You Want: Unlocking The Science Of
Personality Change (£11.99, Robinson).
86
E XPL AINER
irrational fear of the sight thought of the very cases, a little stubble is all it aversion to the idea of being crumpets, or anything
of them, or even intense particular way in which it takes to set off the phobia. touched. The fictional featuring a cluster of
worries about sustaining would feel and squeak The late British prime character Christian Grey, holes can be enough to
a knee injury or kneeling. between my fingers,” minister Margaret Thatcher from Fifty Shades Of Grey, is trigger a fear reaction.
sufferer Chris Hall told The was reportedly a sufferer. described as suffering from
Guardian in 2019. this phobia.
87
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T
here is a scene in Guardians Of Everyone has empathy, to a degree,
The Galaxy Vol 2, the Marvel even psychopat hs – t hey can
movie released in 2017, where recognise other people’s emotional
the character of Mantis – an state and manipulate it.”
alien played by Pom Klementieff Unsurprisingly, empathy tends
– touches Chris Pratt’s Peter Quill to be st ronger for people you
on t he hand. “You feel love!” care about in some way. This, of
she tells him, her face beaming. course, can lead to disturbing
“I guess, yeah,” he replies, nervously. consequences, particularly when
“I feel a general, unselfish love it comes to empathy for “ingroups
for just about everybody…” “No! and outgroups”, as Burnett puts it
Romantic, sexual love,” she says, – essentially, people you identify
before pointing a finger at Quill’s with (ingroups) compared to those
teammate, Zoe Saldana’s Gamora. you find it harder to relate to
“For her!” (outgroups). But t here’s also
Some superheroes have super- an evolutionary advantage to
st rengt h. Ot hers f ly. Ma ntis’s curbing our empathetic abilities –
superpower is a souped-up version especially before it can reach the
of empat hy, mea ning t hat she levels of Mantis, who feels other
ca n touch someone a nd feel people’s emotions so strongly
their emotions as though they she can become overwhelmed
were her own. Yet according to by them.
neuroscientist Dr Dean Burnett, “As a tribe, as a social species,
author of new book Emotional we wouldn’t be able to function,”
Ignorance, t his isn’t quite as says Burnett. “In the olden days,
fantastical as it sounds. In fact, on the African savannah, if you
it’s merely an extreme version of saw someone break their leg and
something we already do. “So now, whenever someone is feeling roll around in agony, you’d say, ‘Oh, God,
“Humans have evolved – primates as emotion, someone else has loads of that looks awful’ and feel bad for them. But
well – with mirror neurons that react different cues: the colour of their face, if you felt that exact same pain yourself,
when you see someone doing something, their expression, their stance, their posture you’d be incapacitated. It would mean that,
not when you do it,” he explains. “We have – all of that is a big part of an emotional while running from a predator, if it took
evolved the ability to see other people’s expression. By linking that to our emotional out one of you, then suddenly it’s got all of
actions, their physical characteristics system, our brain recognises that someone you. Empathy has to be a reflection of an
and their movements, and our brains is angry or overjoyed and that leaks into emotional state, not the actual thing.”
have an elaborate system that’s fed into our emotional system. Therefore we see
the planning part of the brain that goes, someone else’s emotional state, and feel
‘Right, so they did this. If I did that as well, it ourselves.” VERDICT
We all feel empathy, so
I would be able to learn this skill.’ It’s how Burnett is sceptical, however, about the
Mantis’s skills aren’t that
we learn by observation, and that’s a really idea of real-life Mantis-style empaths,
outlandish. But luckily for
ILLUSTRATION: JASON LYONS
complex, evolved system, which connects who tend to claim that they have a greater us, we don’t tend to feel
the motor cortex, the mind map, the body empathic sensitivity than others. overwhelmed by others’
map, the other regions, and our actions.” “I don’t know of any variant of human emotions, like she does.
But at some point in our evolution, this who has a special ability in this area,”
network became fundamentally connected he says. “People can call themselves an by S T E P H E N K E L LY (@StephenPKelly)
to the granular part of the insular cortex, empath, but it’s not a recognised scientific Stephen is a culture and science writer, specialising
which is a big part of the emotion system. title. Plus, it seems pretty egotistical. in television and film.
This was
Sylvia’s
promise
to you...
A generation ago, a woman named Sylvia made But it doesn’t have to be like this. You can change
a promise. As a doctor’s secretary, she’d watched the story, just like Sylvia did, with a gift in your Will.
stroke destroy the lives of so many people. She was All it takes is a promise.
determined to make sure we could all live in a world
You can promise future generations a world where
where we’re far less likely to lose our lives to stroke.
researchers discover new treatments and surgeries
She kept her promise, and a gift to the Stroke DQGHYHU\VLQJOHVWURNHVXUYLYRUKDVWKHEHVWFDUH
Association was included in her Will. Sylvia’s gift rehabilitation and support network possible, to help
helped fund the work that made sure many more of them rebuild their lives.
us survive stroke now than did in her lifetime.
Will you make that promise to generations to
Sylvia changed the story for us all. Now it’s our turn come? Please, leave a gift in your Will to the
to change the story for those who’ll come after us. Stroke Association.