Unit 2: Map Use and Map Work

Introduction
 Map is defined as a simplified, diminished, plain representation of all or part of the
earth’s surface on a two-dimensional piece of paper as viewed from vertically above.
 Maps are as old as human beings. People created maps even in primitive times for
hunting, fishing and gathering.
 The roots of modern map-making lie in the 17th century, where the technology of map
making has its background in the times of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
 The art, science and technology of map-making is called cartography.
 The four major historical events that contributed for the development of map making:
1) The Renaissance (revival) of Ancient Greeko-Roman civilization
2) The age of exploration and discovery
3) The invention of the printing press
4) The introduction of GIS and remote sensing technology
2.1 The Study of Topographic Maps
2.1.1 Meaning and Uses of Topographic Maps
 Meaning of Topographic Maps
 Topography is a Greek word made up of two words “topos”- means places, and
“graphy”- means writing or description. Therefore, topography means the
description or explanation of places.
 Topographic maps are defined as detailed maps, often made at a large scale, showing
a number of topographic features at a time. Topographic maps are often known as
topo sheets.
 Unlike other distribution maps, topographic maps portray one or more natural and
human made features of an area.
 Nature of Topographic Maps
 A topographic map is:
 A map that portrays rivers, streams, drainage, vegetation, roads, buildings,
land uses, etc.
 A detailed map that shows multiple natural and anthropogenic features;
 A large scale map drawn to show a relatively small area; therefore, called a
scenery map, too;
 A map that uses definite symbols, known as conventional symbols
 Series of these maps are:
 numbered sequentially in this format: 1, 2, 3 … 9, 10 ….
 each presents an area of 10 latitude by 10 longitude
 each such sheet is thus 1/16 of the international sheet. These sheets are numbered
 These degree sheets are numbered sequentially in this format as A, B, C, etc.

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  The degree sheets are again subdivided into half degree and quarter degree sheets.
 These sheets are also sequentially numbered in this format as /ANE, /ASE,/ANW and
/ASW, …..
 Uses of Topographic Maps
 Due to the detailed information displayed on topographic maps, they are general-
purpose or reference maps. Topographic maps:
1) Help us to study and understand the physical aspect of the area under survey in
relation to the extent that human has intervened and changed it. This enables us
to understand the degree of human interference and to predict future conditions.
2) Show the existing landforms and help us to understand the geological forces
responsible for the formation of these visible landforms.
3) Show the various natural and cultural landscapes. This function of the maps
makes them helpful for socio-economic planning. They provide base-line
surveying clues.
4) Help engineers to select the right engineering design viewing the portrayed
features.
5) Act as documents for tourists, helping them to reach the places they wish to visit.
6) Provide information about the landscape and possibly provide other information
for military purposes.
2.1.2 Conventional Signs and Symbols on Topographic Maps
 The skill of map reading and interpretation depends on knowing conventional symbols
and signs.
 The signs and symbols on topographic maps are listed and explained in the map’s key or
legend.
 These symbols and signs vary in amount and kind from country to country.
 They can also vary within the same country, due to varying scales and areal extents.
2.1.3 The Study of Distribution Maps
 Distribution maps can group into three different classes based on their purposes.
1) Reference or general-purpose maps
2) Special-purpose or thematic maps
3) Charts
1) Reference or General Purpose Maps:
 These maps are topographic maps that portray different features at the same time.
 They are made at a larger scale covering smaller areas to show details.
2) Thematic or Special-Purpose Maps
 These are distribution maps that emphasize on the distribution of a single geographical
element or character.
 Example: Climatic map of Africa (Annual rainfall distribution) and population map of
the world.
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  Thematic maps are classified into two subgroups.
a) Qualitative maps
b) Quantitative maps
a) Qualitative Distribution Maps
 Qualitative distribution maps show non-quantitative attributes.
 They are reclassified into these subgroups:
i) Chorochromatic maps
ii) Choroschematic maps
i) Chorochromatic Maps: Show the spatial distribution of geographic elements, using
colour tint, shading, dots or line symbols, without attaching any numerical values.
ii) Choroschematic Maps: Are qualitative maps that use pictures and letters that often
symbolized the real element. They are relatively simple to understand.
b) Quantitative Distribution Maps
 Such maps display spatial distributions of geographical elements using quantitative
values. The most commonly used distribution maps are:
i) Dot maps
ii) Choroplethic maps
iii) Isopleth maps
iv) Graphs and diagrammatic maps
i) Dot maps: In dot quantitative maps, each dot represents a given quantity or value.
To create a clear and accurate dot map, you must
 place the dots accurately
 be sure there is enough space between the dots to distinguish them.
 be sure all dots on the map are of the same size
ii) Choroplethic maps: Sometimes they are called shaded maps. They display
quantifiable features. They are often used to show the distribution of average values
such as population density, cropping intensity, etc. The type or intensity of the
shading reflects variation in quantity.
iii) Isoplethic maps: Isopleths are lines of equal value or magnitude. Isoplethic maps are
quantitative distribution maps that use lines that pass through points of equal value.
They are most commonly used for representing climatic elements, transportation
costs, etc. Example:
 Isotherm maps --- show places with equal temperature.
 Isobar maps--- show places with equal air pressure distribution.
 Isodapane maps--- show equal transportation-cost distribution.
 Isohyet maps --- show places equal rainfall distribution.
 Isoneph maps --- show places with equal cloud cover distribution.

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 iv) Graphs and Diagrammatic Maps: These are often, used to show economic data,
population data and other quantifiable distributions.
 Graphs: The simplest and most widely used graphs are line graphs and bar graphs
that show the relationship between two geographic variables in time and space
series. Both line graphs and bar graphs can use a single or double format.
 Diagrammatic maps: These differ from graphs, as they are more explanatory
since they are two-dimensional or areal. These maps employ figures such as
squares, circles, spheres, etc. Example:
3) Charts
 These are maps especially designed to serve the needs of navigators, nautical and
aeronautical.
 Charts differ from other classes of maps in that they are to be worked on while others
maps are to be looked at.
 On a chart, navigators plot their courses, determine positions, mark bearings, and so on.
2.2 Globe and Map
 Maps and globes are very important tools that geographers use in order to show
geographic facts.
 They differ from each other in what they can portray and how they portray this
information.
Properties of a Globe
 Globes are the most appropriate models for representing the surface of the earth
because they are spherical.
 The scale on the surface of a globe is identical over all of its surface.
 All meridians and parallels on a globe intersect at right angles.
 All meridians converge at the poles.
 All parallels are parallel to the equator and to each other.
 Parallels decrease in length as they approach the poles.
Advantages of a Map over a globe
 Globes are expensive to reproduce and update, but maps are not.
 Globes are not easy to fold and handle, but maps are.
 Globes must be rotated to show the entire surface of the earth, and they are not
convenient for showing locations and distributions over very large areas. With a map,
you can immediately see the whole of any area shown on it.
 Most globes are less than one meter in diameter and therefore are too small to provide
 Globes are not visually convenient, but maps are.
Therefore, maps are usually preferred over globes in geography.

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2.3. Map Projection
2.3.1 Meaning and Significance of Map Projection
 Map projection is a technique that cartographers use to transfer information from a
globe to a flat surface in order to create a map.
2.3.2 Properties of Map Projection
 The task of representing a spherical surface on a plane surface is complicated.
 There is no way to preserve accuracy. This is because there is no way to cut up the
surface of a globe that would allow it to lie flat on a piece of paper.
 The spherical surface would tear if you tried to spread it out onto a perfectly flat
surface.
 Therefore, transferring the graphics on the surface of a globe to a flat surface always
results in distortion in the graphics. Distortions in one or more of the following
properties always occur:
i) Area
ii) Shape
iii) Distance
iv) Direction (angle)
 If you maintain the accuracy of one of these features, some or all of the others will be
distorted. Therefore, there is no projection type that provides an absolutely perfect
representation of the earth on a flat surface.
 A surface, such as that of the earth, that cannot be converted into a flat surface
without distortion is called an undevelopable surface.
 Here are some commonly used types of projections:
i) Homolographic projections maintain accuracy of true area.
ii) Orthomorphic projections maintain accuracy of shape.
iii) Azimuthal projections maintain accuracy of direction.
2.3.3 Geometrical Map Projection
Here are some commonly used projections that are based on the shape of the developable
surface. Some of them have sub-categories.
i) Cylindrical
ii) Conic (cone)
iii) Planar (plane) – also known as azimuthal
i) Cylindrical Projections
 Cylindrical projection are obtained with the help of a cylindrical developable surface.
The cylinder, which is wrapped around the globe tangent to the cylinder, is tall enough to
parallel both sides of the equator.
 Cylindrical projections are best suited for the projection of tropical regions since
deformities increase polewards.

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Characteristics of Cylindrical Projection
 Parallels and meridians in such a projection are straight lines intersecting at right
angles.
 The lines tangent to the developable surface are true to scale.
 All parallels are equal in length to the equator.
 Distortions increase pole wards from the equator.
ii) Conic Projection
 This is obtained by covering the globe with a cone-shaped developable surface. The cone
is placed tangent to the globe along one, two or more parallels, with the apex of the cone
located above a pole.
Characteristics of Conic Projection
 Parallels make arcs of concentric circles.
 Meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole.
 The parallel tangent to the cone is true to scale. It is known as the standard parallel (sp).
 Distortions increase as parallels move away from the standard parallel.
 Conic projection cannot be used to show worldwide distributions. Maps created with
conic projections are mostly restricted to maps of mid-latitude regions so that the area
being investigated does not extend very far to the north or to the south. Hence, it can be
argued that if two standard parallels could be selected, an area that includes more of the
north-south directions could be represented.
 Linear features, such as transcontinental railways and forests, for example, coniferous
forest regions, can be depicted accurately.
iii) Zenithal Projection
 It refers to overhead position, that is perpendicular.
 This projection is also known as Azimuthal projection. True distances and directions in
such projection are retained by placing a developable surface at one of the poles
Characteristics of Zenithal /Azimuthal Projections
 Parallels are concentric circles.
 Meridians are straight lines radiating from the poles
 Planar projections produce circular maps.
 Planar projections are very much suited to maps of polar landmasses (high latitude
regions).

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2.4 Drawing Sketch Map
2.4.1 The Meaning and Purpose of Sketch Maps
 A sketch map is a freehand drawing that attempts to simulate real features. It is an
important tool in fieldwork.
 The main purpose of a sketch map is to retain required features in field observation with
their relative locations and sizes.
 We use a sketch map for its following characteristics:
 It can be drawn quickly.
 It is a guideline.
 It is easily recognizable.
 It provides skills for roughly showing or recording landscapes.
2.4.2 Basic Guidelines for Making Good Sketch Maps
i) Choose an area to sketch that will be manageable for you as you create the sketch map
and that will be easy for you and others to understand when the map is complete.
ii) Select the important frames of reference for the area.
iii) Create a complete mental picture of the sketch map that you will make. As you plan the
map, remember the features that you want and interest you, for instance, such features as:
 appear in proportion to the map as a whole and to each other
 correct placement so that locations could be recognizable in relation to:
 each other,
 the map’s boundary,
 the lines you draw to segment the map into rectangles or squares,
 simplicity in recognition.
iv) Create the map’s boundaries. Be sure that the final boundary allows you to place the
features appropriately. You want them to appear in proportion to the map as a whole and
to each other. You also want their locations be recognizable in relation to each other and
to the boundary.
v) Divide the edges of the boundary horizontally and vertically to create a temporary grid of
squares or rectangles. Plan them carefully so that you can use them to place the features as
accurately as possible on the map.
vi) Using a sharp 2HB pencil, a ruler and a soft rubber eraser, begin sketching. Use simple
lines or symbols to present the map’s features. Do your best to present the features clearly
and neatly.
vii) Erase the quadrant lines or dividing lines after finishing the sketch.
viii) Annotate your sketch map by including important marginal information such as its title,
key, and northings.

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2.4.3 Producing Sketch Maps
 It is a fact that geographers use many types of sketch maps. Here are examples of three
types:
i) Location Sketch Maps
 These are often used to show the relative location of built-up areas, vegetation,
human-made features, etc.
ii) Route Sketch Map
 Route sketch maps are useful for finding one’s way around a new place. They are
frequently used by tourists, travelers and people who have recently been relocated
to a new area.
iii) Landscape Sketch Maps
 These are field sketches used to show surrounding areas. These maps could be
drawn from topographic maps, aerial photographs or from direct field
observation.