Exercise Technique Manual for

Resistance Training 3rd Edition –

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 Introduction
This manual describes proper technique for 54 free weight
and 16 machine exercises that are categorized into the
following
groups:

Power and explosive (total body)

Hip and thigh (multijoint and single joint)

Calf (single joint)

Chest (multijoint and single joint)

Back (multijoint)

Shoulder (multijoint and single joint)

Biceps (single joint)

Triceps (single joint)

Forearm (single joint)

Core

Alternative modes and nontraditional implements

All exercises are illustrated in the online video, which can be
accessed at
www.HumanKinetics.com/ExerciseTechniqueManualForResist
anceTraining.
Multijoint exercises involve two or more joints that change
angles during the execution of a repetition (e.g., for the
lower
body during the power clean, this includes the hip, knee,
and ankle joints). Single-joint exercises allow movement in
only
one joint during a repetition (e.g., the elbow joint during the
biceps curl exercise). For the purposes of this manual, the
joints of the shoulder girdle are combined with the true
(glenohumeral) shoulder joint and, therefore, treated as one
joint.
For example, the lateral shoulder raise exercise is classified
as a single-joint movement, despite the obvious
involvement
of several shoulder girdle joints in addition to the
glenohumeral joint. Additionally, only the predominant
muscles are included.
Although many other muscles may assist during the
exercise or may function as stabilizers, they are not
included in the muscular
involvement charts.
Each exercise description in this manual includes details
about the following:

Type of exercise

Description of the action of movement

Muscle group or body area trained

 Predominant muscle groups and muscles involved

Guidelines for proper exercise technique listed in the

order that they are performed

Whether the exercise requires a spotter, as designated

by the symbol shown here

Spotting Guidelines
There are certain situations that warrant a spotter being
present as an exercise is performed. The exercises that
meet this
requirement are categorized based on the location of the
bar or dumbbells in relation to the lifter’s body. Exercises
that
involve movement over the head or over the face need to
be spotted to protect the lifter in case the bar or dumbbell
falls
on the lifter’s head, neck, face, or torso and to help unrack
and rack the bar in its supports, when needed. A spotter is
also needed when a bar is placed on the back of a lifter’s
neck, across the shoulders, or on top of the anterior deltoids
or clavicles.
Spotting Overhead Exercises and
Those With the Bar on the Back or
Front of the Shoulders
To promote safety, overhead exercises and those with the
bar on the back or front of the shoulders should be
performed inside
a power rack with the crossbars set at an appropriate height
based on the type of exercise and height of the lifter. The
spotter
(or spotters) needs to be as tall as the lifter and strong
enough to be able to support the load, if necessary. Out-of-
the-rack
exercises (e.g., forward step lunge or step-up) with heavy
weights can result in serious injury and should be spotted.
Exercises
in these situations include the following:

Any variation of the shoulder press

Any variation of the barbell squat

Any variation of the barbell lunge

Spotting Over-the-Face Exercises

The spotter should grasp the bar with an alternated grip,
usually narrower than the lifter’s grip, when preparing for
over-the-face
exercises. The curved trajectory of the bar in some exercises
(e.g., lying triceps extension) causes the spotter to have to
use an alternated grip to pick up the bar and return it to the
floor; however, a supinated grip should be used to spot the
bar during execution of the exercise. Doing so helps ensure
that the bar does not roll out of the spotter’s hands and
onto
the lifter’s face or neck. The spotter needs to establish a
solid, wide base of support with the feet and maintain a
neutral
spine position to support the load that may have to be lifted
in assistance of the lifter. Exercises in these situations
include
the following:
 Any variation of the bench press

Lying barbell triceps extension

Any variation of the dumbbell fly

General Safety Suggestions

Follow these guidelines to ensure safe exercise technique:

Perform power and explosive exercises in a clean, dry,

flat, well-marked area (e.g., on a lifting platform) free of
obstacles
and people. This guideline can also apply to other
complex nonpower exercises such as the lunge, deadlift,
and step-up.

If a repetition in a power or explosive exercise cannot be

completed, push forward on the bar to move the body
backward and
let the bar fall to the floor. Do not attempt to save a
missed or failed repetition of this type of
exercise.

Before performing exercises that finish with the bar

overhead, check to see if there is sufficient floor-to-
ceiling space.

Use a bar with revolving sleeves, especially for the

power and explosive exercises.

Use a squat or power rack with the supporting pins or

hooks set to position the bar at armpit height for the
front squat and
 back squat; using that setting when beginning or ending
an exercise with the bar at shoulder height is preferred
to beginning
or ending with the bar on the floor.

When lifting the bar up and out of the supporting pins or

hooks of a squat or power rack in preparation for an
exercise, always
step backward at the beginning of the set and step
forward at the end of the set. Do not walk backward
to return the bar to the rack.

Always use collars and locks to secure free weight

plates on the bar.

Fully insert the selectorized pin or key (usually L or T

shaped) into the weight stack for machine exercises.

Preparatory Body Position and

Lifting Guidelines
A lifter often needs to lift a bar or dumbbells off the floor
before getting into the starting position of an exercise (e.g.,
bent-over row, biceps curl, flat or incline dumbbell bench
press or fly, upright row, lying barbell triceps extension,
stiff-leg
deadlift). To avoid excessive strain on the low back, place
the body in the correct position to lift the weight safely and
effectively.
First, use the correct stance in relation to the bar or
dumbbells and properly grasp the bar or dumbbell handles:

Squat down behind the bar or between the dumbbells.

 Place the feet between hip- and shoulder-width apart.

If lifting a bar, position the bar close to the shins and

over the balls of the feet and grasp the bar with a closed
grip
that is shoulder-width (or slightly wider) apart.

If lifting dumbbells, stand directly between them and

grasp the handles with a closed grip and a neutral arm
or hand position.

Position the arms outside the knees with the elbows

extended.

Follow these six guidelines to place the body in the correct

preparatory position before lifting a weight off the floor.
These guidelines also describe how the body should be
positioned immediately before the first
repetition of a power exercise (e.g., power snatch, power
clean):

1. The back is neutral or slightly arched.

2. The trapezius is relaxed and slightly stretched, the chest

is held up and out, and the shoulder blades are held
together.

3. The head is in line with the spine or slightly

hyperextended.

4. The body’s weight is balanced between the middle and

balls of the feet, but the heels are in contact with the
floor.

5. The shoulders are over or slightly in front of the bar.

 6. The eyes are focused straight ahead or slightly upward.

To avoid frequent repetition, the checklists for many of the

exercises in this manual refer to this six-item list of
instructions
as “preparatory body position and lifting guidelines.” The
full list is not provided for each exercise.
Weight Belt Recommendations
The use of a weight belt may help maintain intra-abdominal
pressure while lifting. The appropriateness of a weight belt
depends
on the type of exercise performed and the relative load
lifted. It is recommended that a weight belt be worn for
exercises
that place stress on the low back and during sets that use
near-maximal or maximal loads. This strategy may help
reduce the
risk of injury to the low back when combined with proper
lifting and spotting techniques. A shortcoming to weight belt
use
is that wearing a belt too often may reduce opportunities for
the abdominal muscles to be trained. Furthermore, no
weight
belt is needed for exercises that do not stress the low back
(e.g., biceps curl, lat pulldown) or for exercises that do
stress
the low back but involve the use of light loads (e.g., back
squat, deadlift).
Breathing Guidelines
The best general guideline about proper breathing during a
resistance training exercise is to exhale through the sticking
point (the most difficult part of the exercise) of the
concentric (exertion) phase and inhale during the easier
part of the
exercise (eccentric phase). Typically, the sticking point
occurs soon after the transition from the eccentric phase to
the
concentric phase. For example, the sticking point of the free
weight bench press exercise occurs about halfway through
the
upward movement phase. At that point, the lifter should
exhale through this portion of the movement. As the bar is
lowered
back down to the chest, the lifter should inhale. This
breathing strategy applies to nearly all resistance training
exercises.
However, there are some situations in which breath holding
may be suggested. For experienced and well-trained lifters
performing
structural exercises (those that load the vertebral column
and therefore place stress on it) with high loads, the
Valsalva maneuver can be helpful for maintaining proper
vertebral alignment and support by increasing intra-
abdominal pressure. The Valsalva
maneuver involves expiring against a closed glottis, which,
when combined with contracting the abdomen and rib cage
muscles,
creates rigid compartments of fluid in the lower torso and
air in the upper torso (i.e., the fluid ball) and increases
pressure
within the abdomen. The advantage of the Valsalva
maneuver is that it increases the rigidity of the entire torso
to aid in
supporting the vertebral column, which in turn reduces the
associated compressive forces on the disks during lifting. It
also
helps to establish and maintain a normal lordotic lumbar
spine position (also called a neutral spine) and erect upper
torso position described in the technique checklists for
certain exercises. Be aware, however, that the
resulting increase in intra-abdominal pressure has
potentially detrimental side effects, such as dizziness,
disorientation,
excessively high blood pressure, and blackouts. This is why
the breath-holding phase is—and should be—transient, only
about
1 to 2 seconds (at most). Even a well-trained lifter should
not extend the length of the breath-holding phase, because
blood
pressure can quickly rise to triple resting levels.
Strength and conditioning professionals involved in
conducting 1-repetition maximum (1RM) tests in, for
example, the power
clean, power snatch, squat, deadlift, or bench press, need to
be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of coaching
lifters
in the Valsalva maneuver. Although it is obviously important
that the vertebral column be internally supported during
these
movements for safety and technique reasons, it is
recommended that a lifter not extend the breath-holding
period.
Exercises Using Alternative
Modes and Nontraditional
Implements
Exercises that involve alternative modes and nontraditional
implements have become more common. The general
guidelines employed
in these types of exercises are similar to those used with
traditional resistance training methods. Several guidelines
should
be followed when performing alternative or nontraditional
implement exercises, including maintaining a stable body
position,
utilizing an appropriate grip, and following proper breathing
patterns. The following are types of exercises that are not
traditional to most training environments:

Bodyweight exercises—Involve the use of the body’s

own weight as a form of external resistance through
various movements

Core stability and balance training methods—Include

isolation exercises, the intentional use of machines or
free weights,
and instability devices to activate the core and improve
balance

Variable resistance—Allows the applied resistance to be

varied in conjunction with changes in joint angle to
maximize muscular
force application throughout the full range of motion

Nontraditional implements—Incorporates strongman

exercises and kettlebell training to add greater variation
to lifters’ overall
training

Unilateral training—Integrated into a training program

to reduce bilateral asymmetries or as a rehabilitation
tool
 Part I
Total Body
Power and Explosive
Exercises
 Video 1.1
Power Snatch
From the starting position, this exercise involves lifting
the bar overhead with the arms fully extended—all in
one movement. Although the upward movement
consists of four distinct phases, the upward
movement of the bar occurs in one continuous
motion.
Starting Position
Stand with the feet placed between hip- and
shoulder-width apart with the toes pointed slightly
outward so the knees track directly over the feet.
Squat down with the hips lower than the shoulders
and grasp the bar evenly with a pronated grip.
The hand placement on the bar is wider than it is
for other exercises. It can be estimated by
measuring the distance from the knuckles’ edge
of a clenched fist of an arm extended out to the
side and parallel to the floor, across the back of
the arm and upper back, to the outside edge of
the opposite shoulder. Alternatively, the lifter’s
grip width can be estimated by measuring the
elbow-to-elbow distance when the upper arms are
abducted directly out from the sides and parallel
to the floor. This distance is the space between
the hands when they are grasping the bar. If
necessary, this spacing can be modified
depending on shoulder flexibility and arm length.
The actual grip can be a closed grip or a hook
grip. To use a hook grip, place a pronated hand on
the bar and first wrap the thumb around the bar,
then wrap the four fingers. The first one or two
fingers, depending on their length, will cover the
thumb. This grip is effective for lifting maximal or
near-maximal loads, but it can be uncomfortable
initially. Wrapping the thumbs with athletic tape
will alleviate the pressure when using the hook
grip.
Position the arms outside the knees with the
elbows fully extended and pointed out to the
sides.
Position the bar approximately 1 inch (3 cm) in
front of the shins and over the balls of the feet.
Just before liftoff, observe the preparatory body
position and lifting guidelines to place the body in
the correct position to lift the bar off the floor. All
repetitions begin from this position.
Exact positions of the torso, hips, knees, and bar
are dependent on a lifter’s joint segment lengths
and lower body joint flexibility. An inflexible person
 attempting to get into the correct starting position
of the power snatch may have difficulty grasping
the bar with the elbows extended while keeping
the heels on the floor. If the preparatory body
position cannot be achieved, the hang power
snatch is an alternative because it does not
require the lifter to start with the bar on the floor.
It instead begins with the bar above the knees.
First Pull
The portion of the upward movement phase from
liftoff to where the bar is just above the knees is
termed the first pull.
Begin the exercise by forcefully extending the hips
and knees. These joints must extend at the same
rate to keep the torso angle constant in relation to
the floor. Do not let the hips rise before or faster
than the shoulders. Maintaining the neutral (or
slightly arched) spine position while shifting
balance slowly from over the middle of the feet
toward the heels helps in maintaining a constant
torso angle.
The elbows should still be fully extended, the head
neutral in relation to the spine, and the shoulders
over or slightly ahead of the bar.
As the bar is raised, it should be kept as close to
the shins as possible; slightly shifting the body’s
weight back toward the heels as the bar is lifted
will promote proper bar trajectory.
Transition
The upward movement phase where the knees and
thighs move forward under the bar is called the
transition.
As the bar rises to just above the knees, thrust the
hips forward and slightly flex the knees to move
the thighs against, and the knees under, the bar.
 During this second knee bend, the body’s weight
shifts forward toward the middle of the feet, but
the heels remain in contact with the floor.
Keep the back neutral or slightly arched, the
elbows fully extended and pointed out to the
sides, and the head in line with the spine.
The shoulders should still be over the bar,
although they will tend to move backward as the
knees and thighs move under the bar. The body is
in the power position at the end of this phase.
Second Pull (Power Phase)
The upward movement from the power position with
the bar at the thighs and close to the body to where
the lower body joints are fully extended and the bar
has reached its maximum velocity is referred to as the
second pull or power phase.
The bar should be near to or in contact with the
front of the thighs near the inguinal fold. Initiate a
fast upward motion by quickly extending the hips,
knees, and ankles. Note that ankle extension here
refers to plantar flexion.
The bar should pass as close to the body as
possible.
Maintain a torso position with the back neutral or
slightly arched, the elbows pointing out to the
sides, and the head in line with the spine.
Keep the shoulders over the bar and the elbows
extended as long as possible while the hips,
knees, and ankles are extending.
As the lower body joints fully extend, rapidly shrug
the shoulders. The elbows should be extended
and pointed out to the sides during the shrugging
movement.
As the shoulders reach their highest elevation,
flex the elbows to begin pulling the body under
the bar. The upper body movements are similar to
 the upright row exercise, only with a wider grip.
The elbows move up and out to the sides.
Continue to pull with the arms as high and as long
as possible.
Because of the triple extension of the lower body
and the pulling effort of the upper body, the torso
will be erect or slightly hyperextended, the head
will be tilted slightly back, and the feet may lose
contact with the floor.
Catch
The act of receiving the bar in the overhead position is
called the catch.
After the lower body has fully extended and the
bar reaches near-maximal height, pull the body
under the bar by rotating the arms and hands
around and then under the bar and by flexing the
hips and knees to approximately a quarter-squat
position.
The feet typically regain contact with the floor in a
slightly wider stance with the toes pointed out
slightly farther than at the starting position.
Once the arms are under the bar, extend the
elbows quickly to push the bar upward and the
body downward under the bar.
The bar should be caught over and slightly behind
the ears with
fully extended elbows,
an erect and stable torso,
a neutral head position,
flat feet, and
the body’s weight over the middle of the feet.
The quarter-squat position should be reached with
the elbows fully extended just as the bar reaches
its maximum height.
After gaining control and balance, stand up by
extending the hips and knees to a fully erect
 position.
Downward Movement
If bumper plates are used, the bar can be returned
to the floor with a controlled drop; the bounce of
the plates should be controlled with the hands on
or near the bar.
Most commonly, the bar is lowered slowly from
the overhead position by gradually reducing the
muscular tension of the shoulders to allow a
controlled descent of the bar to the thighs. The
hips and knees are simultaneously flexed to
cushion the impact of the bar on the thighs. The
bar is then lowered by squatting down until it
touches the floor.
Reposition the bar and the body for the next
repetition, if applicable.
Grip measurement: fist-to-opposite-shoulder method
Grip measurement: elbow-to-elbow method
Starting position/beginning of first pull
End of first pull/beginning of transition
End of transition/beginning of second pull
End of second pull
Catch
 End position

Video 1.2

Hang Power Snatch

This exercise is similar to the power snatch with one
primary modification—the initial position of the bar is
on the thighs, just above the knees, not on the floor.
Fundamentally, the hang power snatch is the power
snatch exercise starting at the beginning of the
transition. Because the bar is moved a shorter
distance, there is less time for the lifter to exert a
pulling force on the bar. Since there is no initial
momentum of the bar at the knees, more muscular
effort (power) is required for lifting a given load than
in the power snatch. Therefore, the forceful, rapid
extension of the hips, knees, and ankles followed by
the shrugging of the shoulders and pulling with the
arms is critical for performing the hang power snatch
exercise.
Starting Position
Stand with the feet placed between hip- and
shoulder-width apart with the toes pointed slightly
outward so the knees track directly over the feet.
Squat down with the hips lower than the shoulders
and grasp the bar evenly with a pronated grip.
The hand placement on the bar is wider than it is
for other exercises. It can be estimated by
measuring the distance from the knuckles’ edge
of a clenched fist of an arm extended out to the
side and parallel to the floor, across the back of
the arm and upper back, to the outside edge of
the opposite shoulder. Alternatively, the lifter’s
grip width can be estimated by measuring the
elbow-to-elbow distance when the upper arms are
abducted directly out from the sides and parallel
to the floor. This distance is the space between
the hands when they are grasping the bar. If
necessary, this spacing can be modified
depending on shoulder flexibility and arm length.
The actual grip can be a closed grip or a hook
grip. To use a hook grip, place a pronated hand on
the bar and first wrap the thumb around the bar,
then wrap the four fingers. The first one or two
fingers, depending on their length, will cover the
thumb. This grip is effective for lifting maximal or
near-maximal loads, but it can be uncomfortable
initially. Wrapping the thumbs with athletic tape
will alleviate the pressure when using the hook
grip.
Position the arms outside the knees with the
elbows fully extended and pointed out to the
sides.
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN