1957 10erdos
1957 10erdos
1957 10erdos
1 . Introduction
WE consider the convergence of the series
((S)) = fl-[a]
denotes the non-integer part of P. We will consider the set of values of x
which make (4) convergent or absolutely convergent concurrently with the
corresponding sets for the series (1) . Absolute convergence is considered
in § 2, and convergence in § 3 .
Proc. London Math. Soc. (3) 7 (1957)
CONVERGENCE OF A LACUNARY TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES 899
Our discussion of the convergence of the series (4) leads naturally to the
problem of equidistribution of the sequence {((n k x))} (k = 1, 2, . . .) . By the
result of Weyl (3), given any increasing sequence Ink} (k = 1, 2, . . .) of posi-
tive integers, the set of values of x such that ((nk x)) (k = 1, 2, . . .) is equi-
distributed in (0, 1) has full measure in the Lebesgue sense . Our object in
§ 4 is to examine the exceptional set of values of x for which ((nk x))
(k = 1, 2, . . .) is not equidistributed for different types of sequence {nk} .
Among other results obtained, we prove that if {nk} satisfies (2), then
((nk x)) (k = 1, 2, . . .) is not equidistributed for values of x in a set of
dimension 1 .
For notation and definitions relating to the theory of Hausdorff measures,
see, for example, (2) . We need the following theorem which is a special
case of a result due to Eggleston (1) .
THEOREM A. Suppose Ik (k = 1, 2, .. .) is a linear set consisting of Nk closed
intervals each of length 8 k. Let each interval of Ik contain nk+l > 2 closed
intervals of Ik+l so distributed that their minimum distance apart is Pk+1 > Sk+1 •
Let
P = (~ Ik.
k=1
Then, if lim inf Nk+1 Pk+1 5ks-1 > 0,
k_m
the set P has positive As-measure .
2 . Absolute convergence
We first consider the cardinal number of the set of absolute convergence
of (1) or (4). For sets known to have the cardinal number of the continuum,
we consider the dimension in the sense of Besicovitch . This classifies linear
sets of zero Lebesgue measure by considering their measures with respect
to the class of Hausdorff s-dimensional measures 0 < s < 1 .
The connexion between the absolute convergence of the series (1) and
(4) is given by
i=2
where 0 or 1 for each i. Let E be the set of values taken by x for all
such sequences {-]i} (i = 2, 3, . . . ) . Clearly E has the power of the continuum.
Suppose x is in E . Then if k > k2 ,
Z nk,
((nkx)) =
nk
where the summation extends over those i for which ki > k . Hence
co ki-1
A ((nk X ))
z
k=ka ki>k
nki k
i=3
nki n
k '
Now when k = ki - 1, nk/nk, < 2 - i, and, for k > k 2 , nk _ 1 /nk < 2 . Hence
k; -1
n2
nk < 2i[1+2+ . ..] = 2 11 ;
k=ka k.
Co 1 1
and so ((nkx)) < 2i -1 = 2'
k- s
i=3
The above theorems show that if :E tk 1 diverges, then the series (1) is
unlikely to converge for a set of values of x of power continuum . The
situation is completely different when tk increases rapidly enough to make
ti-1 convergent . This is given by
ko exists since t k > AkP and p > 1+e . Let Pk be the set of x such that
0<x<1and
sin ((nkx))-akl < kl+e ( 10 )
The centres of the intervals of Pk are distant apart 1/n k . Now define a
subset Ik of Pk (k > ko ) as follows . Let
5k = (nkk1+e ) -1 < Yk • ( 11 )
Let Iko be a set of (n,,,-1) closed intervals each of length 8ko, concentric
with intervals of Pko of length yka . Each interval of Iko contains at least
(tko ko 1- E-2) intervals of Pko+1 of length Yko+v by (10) . Define Iko+1 as a
set consisting of closed intervals of length 8k,+1 concentric with some of
CONVERGENCE OF A LACUNARY TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES 605
the complete intervals of Iko n Pka+1 so chosen that each interval of Iko
contains precisely 71ko intervals of Iko+i : this is possible by (9).
For k > ko , suppose Ik has been defined and consists of closed intervals
of length Sk . Define Ik+l as a set consisting of closed intervals of length
Sk+1 concentric with some of the intervals of length Yk+1
of Ik n Pk+l so
chosen that each interval of Ik contains precisely '/k intervals of Ik+i •
Write p = k=ko
n 1k . The conditions of Theorem A are satisfied with
I(ko-1)!11+E
Nk+1 = (nko - 1 )~ ko~]ko+1 • • • ~ k >i 2 kn
k+1
kl
by (8) ; ( 12 )
for sufficiently large k. Hence this set has positive AS-measure . But for x
in this set, the series (4) converges absolutely. Hence the set of x for which
(4) converges absolutely has positive AS-measure . This completes the proof.
Proof of (b) .Let E be the set of x such that I I sin(nk x-µk ) I converges .
Suppose 1 > s > 1-1/p ; then it is sufficient to prove that AS(E) = 0 for
all such s . Let E satisfy
0 < e < 1-p(1-s) . (14)
For each x in E, let k 1 , k 2 , . . ., kq , . . . be the sequence of values of the integer k
for which
sin(n k x - µk)1 > 4k • ( 15 )
Then since (1) converges absolutely for this x, the sequence {ki} ( i = 1, 2, . . .)
must have zero density . This implies that there exists an integer N (depend-
ing on x in E) such that, when n > N, the number of integers k < n which
satisfy (15) is less than En .
Let Qk be the set of x such that 0 < x <_ 27T, and
Then Qk C'k , where Ik consists of (2n k +3) closed intervals of length 1/knk
and centres at the points (µ k +l7r)/nk with 1 taking integer values between
- 2 and 2nk • Since the centres of the intervals of Ik are distance apart 7rnk 1 ,
606 P . ERDÖS AND S . J. TAYLOR
the number of intervals of Ik+1 which have a non-void intersection with a
single interval of Ik is at most
m
kink { 2 < k tk .
Letn
k Ik consist of tN,m closed intervals of length not greater than 1/mnm .
Then
tN,m < (2nN } ~N+1 . . nm
3)Nnv .(m-1)nm_l'
(MN!
3(27Tm)q 1) m,
!n
by (17) . Hence, by (18), we have
WN,m < 3(27rm)Em (mN!1) n„t . ( 19 )
!
Thus, if Ev is the set of values of x such that x is in Qk for k > N, except
for a sequence {ki } satisfying (18) where (16) is not known to be satisfied,
then EN can be covered by rN,m intervals of length 1/mnm = lm , where
!
rN,m < 2mWN,m < 15 mm Em nm ,
(m-1)!
by (19) . Hence
N! !
s < 15mrymem n 1 = 15mmEm+1-sr~l-s
rN,m m m mnm m m !'
(m-1)! /S
But nm < µm (m!)P, and hence
rN,m lm < fGm(1-s)15mmem+1N! (m!)P(1-s)-1 < vmmcmm[E+P(1 -s) -11
CONVERGENCE OF A LACUNARY TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES 607
where v, c are suitable finite constants, since m! > (4m)m . By (14), it
follows that E+p(1-s)-1 < 0, and hence
rNm ln,-±0 as m-~oo .
M
Thus AS(EN ) = 0 . But E c U EN. Hence As(E) = 0 as required .
N=1
To prove Theorems 6 A (i) and 6 (i) it is sufficient to prove
(c) When 0 < p < 1, the set where (1) converges absolutely has dimension
zero .
This can be proved by making a few obvious modifications to the
proof of (b) .
Remark 1 . If this theorem is applied to the case n k = k! of Theorem 4
we see that, if y is not a multiple of -,T, then I sin(n k x-y) converges
absolutely for no value of x, while if y = 0, 7r, or 27r, I sin nk x converges
absolutely in a set of power continuum but zero dimension .
Remark 2 . In the hypothesis of Theorem 6, if one assumes only one-sided
inequalities to be satisfied by tk , then one obtains by the above method of
proof upper or lower bounds for the dimension of the appropriate set of
absolute convergence . In particular, if
n 1 = 1, n2 =2, tk = kk (k = 2, 3, . . .),
the series (1) and (4) each converge absolutely on a set of dimension 1 .
The same methods can be used to prove the following
THEOREM 7 . If {µk} is any sequence of constants 0 < µk < 2-,T and h(z) is
any measure function of class 1,t there exists an increasing sequence {nk} of
integers such that the set of values of x for which I sin(nk x-µk ) converges
absolutely has infinite measure with respect to h(z) .
3. Convergence
Clearly the series (1) or (4) may converge without converging absolutely,
so that, in general the set of points x making (1) or (4) converge will be
larger than the set making the series converge absolutely . However, if
(1) is to converge, sin(n k x-µk ) must tend to zero as k - cc)
. Thus, by
Theorem 1, if tk is bounded for all k, then the set of convergence of (1) is
at most enumerable . We now see that if t k - oc, however slowly, as k -* cc,
then the set of convergence has dimension 1 . Thus the situation is much
simpler than for absolute convergence .
THEOREM 8 . Suppose {µk} is any sequence of constants, 0 < µk < 27r,
and {nk } is an increasing sequence of integers such that tk _> ee, then the set
of values of x such that I sin (nk x-µk ) converges has dimension 1 .
t See (2) for a definition of measure function of class 1 .
608 P . ERDÖS AND S . J . TAYLOR
Proof. Let E be the set of x such that the series (1) converges . Suppose
s is fixed and 0 < s < 1 . It is sufficient to prove that, for any such s,
A8(E) > 0 . We prove this by defining a perfect set P and an integer j such
that, when x is in P,
sin(nk x-11k )-> 0 as k -->oo ; (20)
and, fork > j,
k
sin(nk+lx - µk+1) and sin(nr x-µr) have opposite signs . (21)
r=7
0 for x in Rk ,
Then sin(nkx-µk) { (29)
< 0 for x in Sk .
Each of the sets Rk , Sk consists of closed intervals of length h(k)nk'separated
CONVERGENCE OF A LACUNARY TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES 609
nj+1
(h(j)
7rnj -2 I
complete intervals of Sj+1 • By (25), we can choose exactly ~j such intervals
in each interval of Io : call this set Il . Then for any x in 10 fl Il , (21) is true
for k = j . We proceed inductively . Suppose Ir (r > 1) has been defined
and consists of closed intervals of length
8, = h( .l +r)nj+r • ( 30 )
Let (1, m) be a typical interval of Ir . There exists a point y (1 < y < m)
such that +r
I sin (n k x-µ k ) < 0 when l< x< y
k=)* (31)
j+r
but sin (n k x-Nt k ) > 0 when y < x < m
k=j
In (1,y) there are at least {(y-l)(nj+r+1/7r)-2} complete intervals of
Rj+r+1, and in (y, m) there are at least {(m-y)(nj+r+1/7r)-2} complete
intervals of Sj+r+1 • Hence, by (26) and (30), since 8, = m-l, we can choose
precisely ~j+r intervals of length 8r+1 such that some of these are complete
intervals of (1, y) n Rj+r+l and others are complete intervals of (y, m) n Sj+r+1 •
Call the set obtained by treating each interval of Ir in this way Ir+1 • Then,
oo
by (31), for x in Ir+l (21) is satisfied with k = j+r . Thus the set P Ir = fl
r=0
satisfies the conditions (20) and (21) . We now apply Theorem A to this set :
y y 7r-2h(j+r+1) l
Nr+1 = njb jbj+1 ~j+r ; Pr+1 > > ~j+r+1>
nj+r+1
and 8, is given by (29) . Hence
> n.
Nr+iPr+1 88-1
r i - bj . bj+rn1-s{h(j+r)}-c1-s>
y. . y 9+r
nj+r+1
This result is due to Weyl (3) . By the method of Weyl one can prove
easily
The `size' of the exceptional set of x for which ((nk x)) is not equidistri-
buted depends on the sequence {nk} . For example, it is known that if n k
is given by a polynomial in k with integer coefficients, then the set of x
for which ((nk x)) is not equidistributed is enumerable . In this case t k - 1
as k -~- oo . However, we first see that tk --> 1 is not a sufficient condition
to ensure that the exceptional set has power N o .
nk+l - nk < C (k = 1, 2, . . .)
and the set of x such that ((n k x)) is not equidistributed is not enumerable .
Proof. We define a sequence {nk } for which there is a G S-set E, such that
E is dense in an interval, and for x in E, ((nk x)) is not equidistributed .
By the Baire category theorem, a G S-set which is dense in an interval
CONVERGENCE OF A LACUNARY TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES 611
cannot have power < X o so that it is clearly sufficient for the truth of the
theorem to define such a sequence .
Suppose {Az} (i = 1, 2, . . .) contains all the rationals p satisfying s < p < ,
and each rational occurs in the sequence infinitely often . Let
ks = 51, (s = 0, 1, 2, . . .) . (32)
Put n1 = 1 . Suppose for some positive integer r, n k has been defined for
k < kr _ l . We define nk by induction in the range
kr _ 1 < k < k r (r = 1, 2, . . .)
as follows . Suppose nk _ 1 has been defined . Let n k be the smallest integer
greater than nk _ 1 for which
cos(nk Ar .21r) > 2. (33)
Since 2 > A r > 8, it is clear that
I k
cos(nk x 27r) > 5 . (35)
k=1
Let E = q=1
n r=q
u Ir .
1
- cos{((nk x))2rr} = cos(nk x2rr) >
t
k=1 k=1
Hence, for any x in E,
>5, 2r} x) k cos{(n 1 limsup
t-o 1,
k=1
and therefore, by Theorem 9, ((n k x)) is not equidistributed in (0, 1) . By
(34), the sequence {n k } satisfies the required conditions with C = 100 .
612 P . ERDÖS AND S . J . TAYLOR
It now becomes interesting to ask what is the dimension of the excep-
tional set of non-equidistribution for a sequence satisfying the conditions
of Theorem 11 .
THEOREM 12 . Suppose C is a constant, and {n k} an increasing sequence
of integers such that
so sinFs,hµ < µ2
t ,
(41)
CONVERGENCE OF A LACUNARY TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES 613
by (38) . Now
e
• 27r nk
dx f8' t(x) 1
t
• 27rAkI k, by (36),
• 7TAt . 2
Hence, if x o E FS,t,,,, there is an interval containing x 0 of length at least
VA t
which is a subset of F3,, ,1µ . The total length of F,, , ,1µ is less than w2
t , by
(41), so that F3 ,, µ can be enclosed in a finite set of not more than K3 ,µ
42
intervals of total length
µ t where
KS,µ= L -}- 1 .
µ42 -
µ
If 11, 1 2 , . . ., lp (p < KS, µ ) are the lengths of a set of intervals covering F,, ,t,µ ,
but contained in FS,t,1µ , we have
p
Z~ li
< sinFs.~,kµ < 2t,
P l« < KS 47r 1 1
and therefore
µ2 t KS,µ Yl
since the real function z" is convex . It follows that there is a constant LS,µ ,
and a covering by a finite set of intervals of lengths 11, 12 , . . ., l2 of the set
FS such that
oo
By (39) the set ES,µ c U FS,a.,µ (1 = 3, 4, . . .) and therefore E,,,, can be
m=l
covered by a sequence of intervals of lengths 1, 1 2 , . . . such that
l« < L.,11 I am
m=q
Since the series on the right-hand side of this expression converges (40) is
proved . This completes the proof of the theorem .
I
CONVERGENCE OF A LACUNARY TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES 615
Then Qr contains at least nrv closed intervals of length
8, = C, ( 45)
nr ,,,
whose centres are distance n,.,,1 apart . Put
Cn(r+1)u -2 (r = 1, 2, . . .) .
Yr =
nr,
1v > 10C.
Thus, for x in P, ((nk , x)) has too many members in the interval (0, C),
and is therefore not equidistributed in (0, 1) . Hence P c E, and As(E) > 0,
as required .
REFERENCES
1 . H . G . EGGLESTON, `Sets of fractional dimensions which occur in some problems
of number theory', Proc . London Math . Soc . 54 (1951-2) 42-93 .
2 . S . J . TAYLOR, `On cartesian product sets', J . London Math . Soc . 27 (1952)
295-304 .
3 . H . WEYL, `Über die Gleichwertteilung von Zahlen mod Eins', Math . Ann. 77
(1916) 313-54 .
4. A . ZYGMUND, 'Quelques théorémes sur les series trigonometriques et celles de
puissances', Studia Math . 3 (1931) 77-91 .
Birmingham University