AFRICAN HISTORY: FORM THREE NOTES

Sources of recovering history

Historians use different sources of recovering history e.g Oral Tradition, Written Records,
Archaeology, Linguistics, Anthropology and Rock Art.
1.Oral Tradition
- it is the information that is transferred verbally from one generation to another.
- Forms of oral tradition include stories, songs, poems, folktales, genealogy etc.
-The custodians of oral tradition are grandfathers, grandmothers, poets as well as praise singers.
Advantages of Oral Tradition
- It gives names of people
- It involves a large population
- It is cheap
- It is a way of keeping culture and our heritage
- It can be used as a form of entertainment
- It is a backbone of history
- Listeners can ask questions where they don’t understand
- It is used to verify and elaborate other sources
Disadvantages of Oral Tradition
- The story teller may exaggerate the information
- One may forget what he/she is talking about
- Events may not follow their order
- It does not give specific dates
2. Archaeology
- It is a specific way of digging up human settlements and physical remains, studying them and
dating the artefacts discovered.
- Artefacts are physical remains of the past.
- Examples of artefacts include pieces of pottery, beads, bones, horns, ceramics etc
- The person who examines these artefacts is called an Archaeologist
Advantages of archaeology
- It provides tangible evidence
- Dates may be accurate through the use of carbon dating
- Archaeology can tell us the: - type of food ate
- types of animals kept and hunted
- tools used

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Disadvantages of archaeology
- It is a very expensive method of recovering history
- Digging process may destroy some of the evidence
- It is not free from distortion
- It cannot state the names of people and their language
- It can be affected by climate such as rainfall or floods
- It is industrious – requires much physical effort
- Lack of preservation of the archaeological sites
3. Written records
- Any evidence that is written down in the form of diaries, letters, magazines, newspapers,
reports, certificates, etc
- Written history include Primary and Secondary (Edited evidence)
Advantages
- The evidence is durable
- Dates are accurate e.g dates of treaties
- There is clear chronology
- Written evidence is important especially to the literate society
Disadvantages
- Some of the information may be inaccurate
- Information may also be biased
- Some of the written records are not translated
- Written records can be easily damaged by fire, water, termites and they can be torn or
stolen.
- Those who write select what to write
- One can ask questions but there are no answers
- Can be destroyed by unstable environment e.g wars and natural disasters such as floods
and earthquakes
4. Linguistics
- This is the study of a language on how, when and where a language underwent change
- For example the migration of the Bantu and the migration of people due to mfecane
- Therefore Linguistics is important in tracing population movement
5. Rock painting / pictorial Evidence
- It is the painting of rocks which shows peoples way of life
- Some rock paintings portray people hunting, gathering and fishing
- It is important in recovering the pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe

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6. Anthropology
- It is the scientific study of men using current issues
Describe the economic changes from late Stone Age to early Iron Age in southern Africa
- People began to keep cattle, goats, sheep and pigs
- Hunting improved due to the use of strong and efficient tools, people could now hunt and
kill big animals like elephants
- They began to mine minerals such as gold, silver, copper, bronze, tin, zinc, iron, salt,
chrome etc
- People started to grow crops such as sorghum, millet, rapoko
- People started to trade with each other. There was internal and external trade, and items
such as grain, tools, ivory, minerals and skins were used in trade.
- Tribute was paid to the king in the form of cattle, sheep, goats, minerals, ivory, clothes,
skins, beads, labour, iron tools and grains
- There was division of labour which led to specialization
- Gathering improved
- Pottery making improved
- Weaving also improved
- Fishing improved and brought more balanced diet especially to those living near dams
and rivers
Socio-political changes
- People built more permanent structures of pole and dagga
- Classes began to appear as a result of different skills such as blacksmithing, fishing and
mining
- Polygamy was practised
- People now used cattle to pay lobola
- There was also emergence of ritual ceremonies
- Settlement according to clans and lineages
- Division of labour based on skills and gender
Benefits / advantages / positive developments brought by the use of iron
- Food security (food was in abundance)
- Permanent homes being built hence nomadism stopped
- Security against enemies
- Hunting became efficient
- Storage facilities improved
- Work became very easy
- Trade meant that people began to get what they did not have
Non-benefits / disadvantages
- Increase of wars
- Soil erosion as a result of crop cultivation
- Extinction of animals
- Tribute payment became a burden

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 - Emergence of classes
Six tools used by the Early Iron Age societies are:
- Bows and arrows
- Fishing hooks
- Spear heads
- Razors
- Knives
- Harmers
- Hoes
- Knob kerries
Artefacts discovered at Early Iron Age sites are:
- Bones
- Iron tools
- Beads
- Horns
- Soap stone birds
- Pieces of pottery
- Ceramics
Early Iron Age sites include:
- Gokomere
- Mabveni
- Ziwa
- Malipati
- Mapungubwe
- Zhizo
- Great Zimbabwe
THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
Question: Describe the construction and rise of Great Zimbabwe state
On the construction;
- Granite rock was used
- No mortar was used to hold the stones together
- Euro-centric view states that it was constructed by foreigers, most probably the Arabs and
Chinese
- This is because a number of foreign items were discovered on the site by the
archaeologists
- Afro-centric historians state that it was built by the local Shona speaking people
- The evidence is that there are many other Madzimbabwe found all over Zimbabwe
- Most probably those who failed to pay tribute to the king might have been punished to
build the structure

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On the rise / origin
- It started as one of the Early Iron Age sites
- Other reasons on the rise of Great Zimbabwe include the following
- Availability of mineral resources in Great Zimbabwe eg Gold,
- Decline of Mapungubwe State
- People wanted to control external trade
- The hill provided defence
- The suitability of the area for pastoralism, i.e the availability of good grazing land
- The area is free from tsetse fly
- Great Zimbabwe rose as a result of religion
- Militaristic achievements of Great Zimbabwe rulers who were able to absorb many
people
Purpose of Great Zimbabwe building
- Used as a religious centre
- For protection against enemies
- For king’s residence
- It was a centre for trade
- As a symbol of power
- Houses for nobles
- Protect the ruling class against bad weather
- As an administrative centre
The political organization of Great Zimbabwe
- Great Zimbabwe walls were built to display the power of the state
- Rulers had authority over their subjects
- The king was the head of the state
- He was the chief army commander
- The king led all religious ceremonies in the state
- He received tribute from his people
- The king allocated land to everyone in the state
- He chose vassal chiefs to govern districts and provinces
- The king was the head of Judiciary
- The army protected the state and trade routes
- The state was divided into provinces and districts
- The senior wife, head cook, religious leaders, army commanders were part of the
advisory council
- The king consulted the ancestors during national crisis
- The army was used to protect the state
Social system of the Great Zimbabwe State / Cultural and religious practices
- The people of Great Zimbabwe believed in witchcraft
- They also believed in life after death
- There was a belief that spirits lived on mountains, pools and deep forest
- They believed in their God called Mwari, the creator of everything

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 - They believed in national spirits (Mhondoro) and (Vadzimu) family spirits
- There was practice of polygamy
- Loaning system was done (Kuronzera / ukusisa)
- Great Zimbabwe was a patrilineal society (men were more important than women)
- There was division of labour based on gender
- Pride price/roora was paid by men in marriage
- People lived according to lineages
- There was division of labour based on gender
- Thanks giving ceremonies and rain making ceremonies were held hence promoting unity
- People lived in thatched huts of pole and dagga
Describe the economic activities of Great Zimbabwe
- Crop cultivation – they cultivated crops such as millet, sorghum and rapoko
- Cattle rearing / pastoralism – animals such as cattle, goats and sheep were reared and they
supplemented the diet
- Raiding – the king used his army to raid other states. They usually raided for cattle, grain
as well as young men and women
- Mining – minerals such as gold, silver, copper were mined
- Trade – barter trade was practised. There was both internal and external trade
- They traded with Chinese, Arabs and Swahili
- They got items such as blankets, beads, seeds, jewellery, alchohol and guns
- Hunting – animals like kudus, impalas, elephants were hunted
- Ivory was important in external trade
- Gathering – women gathered fruits and edible roots in the environment to supplement the
diet
- Fishing was also done especially by those living near dams
- Blacksmithing helped people to produce strong iron tools
- All the subjects were expected to pay tribute to the king in the form of cattle, sheep,
goats, minerals, ivory, labour etc
- Weaving was also practised in Great Zimbabwe State
- Raiding
- Curving
- Pottery making
To what extent did the economic problems contribute to the decline of Great Zimbabwe?
Economic challenges
- Exhaustion of minerals e.g salt that is why Nyatsimba Mutota was sent by his father to
search for salt and he never returned
- Overgrazing
- Shortage of firewood
- Change of trade routes
- Drought which affected crops
- Extinction of animals
- Land degradation

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However, there were other factors that led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe other than the
economic challenges.
- Overpopulation – the state became too big and the king failed to control his people.
- Civil wars leading to the death of many people
- Outbreak of diseases hence many people died
- Succession disputes after the death of the king
- Attacks by neighbouring states
- Rise of powerful states eg Torwa and Mutapa
- Ambitious leaders eg Nyatsimba Mutota

THE MUTAPA STATE

Describe the rise of the Mutapa state
- A number of factors have been put forward on the rise of the Mutapa state and it is wise
to use several factors which include the following;
- Availability of large herds of elephants
- Availability of grazing land
- Availability of fertile soils for farming purposes
- Access to international trade through the coasts
- The presence of ambitious political leaders among the Shona
- Military power of Nyatsimba Mutota
- Availability of water along the Zambezi Valley
- Availability of firewood
- Availability of minerals like salt, gold and copper
- Religion being used to control people
- Depletion of resources in the Great Zimbabwe which led to the migration of people to
new areas
- Succession disputes from Great Zimbabwe forcing defeated groups to migrate to other
areas
- Change of trade route
Describe the political system of the Mutapa state
- The Mutapa was bounded by Zambezi river in the north, Limpopo river in the south,
Indian ocean in the east and Kalahari desert in the west
- The Mutapa king himself was the centre of government meaning that he was the head of
the state
- Other important state officials included the court chancellor, the army commander, the
cooks, the head drummer, queen mother, king’s sisters and nobles.
- In the important provinces such as Guruswa, Mbire, Dande, Barwe, Manyika and Uteve
the Mutapa put trusted relatives or friends to rule as vassal chiefs
- Chiefs were chosen or appointed in consultation with spirit mediums.
- Each vassal chief collected tribute on behalf of Mutapa in the form of livestock, minerals,
ivory and grain

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 - Vassal chiefs were also required to light their own fire from the Mutapa’s fire annually as
a sign of loyalty.
- Rebellious chiefs were attacked by the king’s army
- Mutapa maintained a strong army for defence
- The Mwenemutapa allocated land to his people
- He was the head of judiciary
Describe the economic activities of the Mutapa State
- Crop cultivation: - they cultivated crops such as sorghum, millet and rapoko.
- Cattle rearing / pastoralism: - animals such as cattle, sheep and goats were kept and they
supplemented the diet.
- Raiding – the king used the army to raid other state. Usually they raided for cattle, grains
as well as young men and women.
- Mining – minerals such as gold, silver, copper were mined in the Mutapa state.
- Trade – barter trade was practised and there was internal and external trade. They traded
with Chinese, Arabs and Swahili. They got items like blankets, beads, jewelry, alchohol,
mirrors, guns, etc
- Hunting – animals like kudus, impalas, were hunted. Elephants were hunted for ivory
which was important for external trade.
- Gathering – women gathered fruits and edible roots in the environment to supplement
their diet.
- Fishing – fishing was done especially by those living near dams.
- Blacksmithing – helped people to get strong iron tools.
- Tribute payment – all subjects were expected to pay tribute to the king in the form of
cattle, grains, iron tools, minerals, labour etc
- Pottery making – was also done especially by women to produce items like clay pots
- Weaving – was also practised in Mutapa State.
Describe the social organization of the Mutapa State
- The Shona people believed in high God called Mwari, the creator of all things.
- They also believed in many spirits such as the family ancestors and national spirits.
Spirits were consulted through spirit mediums.
- They appeased them through brewing beer and slaughtering cattle.
- They believed in witchcraft.
- They practised polygamy
- There was also kuronzera / cattle loaning system
- They lived in villages according to lineages
- The people had totems
- It was a patrilineal society
- They lived in thatched pole and dagga huts
- Bride price was paid in marriage
How important was religion in the political system of the Mutapa state?
i) Importance of Shona religion
- It was an integrating and unifying factor in the Mutapa
- The new Mutapa was chosen and installed by the mhondoro

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 - The Mutapa was respected as a divine ruler
- The king consulted spirit mhondoros in times of crisis
- The king ruled with blessings of spirit mediums
ii) Other factors
- Military organization which was important for defence
- Strong economy based on farming, pastoralism and trade helped to maintain a strong
army.
- Payment of tribute helped the royal family
The religion of the Mutapa state
- The people of Mutapa State believed in supreme god called Mwari.
- They approached him through their spirits
- The Mutapa king was feared and respected for he was believed to have been chosen by
God
- The spirit mediums were consulted during the installation of a king and during times of
trouble.
- These spirit mediums were known to provide solutions to different problems
- The Mutapa ruled with the blessing of the religious power of the land
- Hence religion and politics were closely linked
- They also held rain making ceremonies
- They praised their God at national shrines
Describe the prazo system in the Mutapa
- The Portuguese introduced the Prazo system in the Mutapa state
- Land was divided into Prazos or estates
- This was a system where people were forced off their land to create space for the
Portuguese
- The Portuguese used land for farming, mining and for grazing their animals
- New crops such as maize, paw paw, sweet potatoes were introduced.
- Africans were forced to pay tribute and work for the prazeros
- The Portuguese used Vashambadzi as professional traders who were trading on their
behalf
- The Mutapa king started to pay tribute and provided work for the prazeros
- The Portuguese later on began to be lawless. They penetrated deep into the Mutapa
territory and defeated the Mutapa armies using hired soldiers called Chikundas
- Slavery was practised by the Portuguese
- They built their jails to put those who were lawless
- Armies/Chikundas used to raid chiefs to capture lands with minerals

Part (A) questions

The rulers of the Mutapa State
- Nyatsimba Mutota
- Gatsi Rusere
- Nyanhewe Matope

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 - Chikuyo Chisamarenga
- Mamvura Mhande
- Nyambo Kapararidze
- Nyakune Mbiri
The provinces of the Mutapa State
- Manyika
- Guruswa
- Uteve
- Dande
- Madanda
- Dande
- Mbire
The reasons for the Portuguese penetration along the Zambezi valley
- To revenge the death of Gonzalo Da Silveira
- To spread the “3 Cs”, Christianity, Commerce and Civilisation
- To get ivory
- To rule the Mutapa state
- To get fertile land
- To establish trade feiras / centres
- To control gold mining
Trade feiras / centres established by the Portuguese in the Mutapa State
- Bukutu
- Tete
- Beira
- Quelimane
- Sena
- Luanze
- Sofala
Names of Portuguese who visited the Mutapa State / who had contact with the Mutapa State
- Antonia Fernandes
- Bocaro
- Goncalo Da Silveira
- Francisco Barreto
- Vasco Madeira
- Pereira
- Antonia Caidada
Question: To what extent did the Portuguese activities contribute to the decline of the Mutapa
State?
Portuguese activities leading to the decline of the Mutapa State
- They divided people by introducing a new religion called Christianity

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 - They refused to pay tribute to the king
- They interfered in succession disputes, eg, chose puppet chiefs like Mamvura Mhande in
1629
- They helped rebellious vassal chiefs and gave them guns to rebel against the Mutapa
- They created prazos where they forced people to work
- They took control of trade
Other factors that led to the decline of the Mutapa State
- Civil wars and succession disputes contributed most to the decline of the state eg there
were struggles within the Mutapa state when vassal chiefs rose against the ruling Mutapa
- Shortage of salt and minerals led to decline in trade
- The state was very big and it was difficult for one king to control it
- There were outbreaks of many epidemics which killed many people in the state
- There were ambitious leaders like Changamire Dombo

THE ROZVI STATE

Origins of the Rozvi State
- The state rose during the 16th century
- The founder of the Rozvi state was Changamire Dombo
- The state grew out of several Shona dynamics
- Some joined the Rozvi voluntarily when Changamire showed his military power to defeat
the Portuguese
- The word Rovzi means destroyers
- Some historians say Changamire Dombo conquered the Torwa stae and established the
Rozvi
- Some say the Rozvi was a continuation from the Torwa state
- What is known about Chngamire is that he was an army commander and a cattle herder in
the Mutapa State
Names of the Rozvi kings who ruled the state
- Changamire Dombo
- Rupanga Munanga
- Gumboreshumba
- Chirisamhuru I
- Chirisamhuru II
- Nechagadzike
- Gumbare Mvura
Outline the social activities of the Rozvi State
- The Rozvi Society was patrilineal
- Ownership of cattle was a status symbol and cattle were used in lobola payment
- Cattle could be loaned to some by the wealthier through the Kuronzera / mafisa / ukusisa
- There was division of labour based on gender
- Polygamy was practised

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 - The Rozvi belonged to the Moyo totem
- People worshiped Mwari the Supreme Being, the creator of everything on earth. They
also believed in national spirits called Mhondoro and family spirit mediums
- The king was the religious leader and led the religious ceremonies
- People brewed beer and slaughtered cattle in ceremonies eg rain making ceremony
- The king communicated with Mwari on behalf of the people
- The people believed in life after death
Question: To what extent did the social activities strengthen the Rozvi State?
Importance of social activities
- Religion was a unifying factor
- The Mambo was chosen by spirit mediums during ritual ceremonies
- The kuronzera system helped to reduce poverty
- Polygamy was used by the ruling class for expansion

Other factors
- Trade was a source of foreign goods and helped to strengthen the economy and enrich the
Mambo since he controlled trade
- A strong army was also important for defence
- It also put down the rebellious subjects
Question: How important was social organization in the political organization of the Rozvi state
Importance of Shona religion
- Religion was a unifying factor
- The king was chosen by the spirit mediums
- He led traditional ceremonies
- Cattle loaning system helped to maintain influence and peace
- Polygamy was used by the ruling class for expansion
Other factors
- Tribute was a sign of loyalty
- The army helped to maintain peace, order as well as to suppress rebellious subjects
- A strong economy ensured stability
Describe the political organization of the Rozvi State
- The rulers were known as Mambos / Changamires
- The Mambo was in charge of the military, religious and political power
- The position of the Mambo was hereditary
- The king had advisors to assist him and many of these were priests and army
commanders
- The state was divided into districts and provinces
- Those provinces and districts were controlled by the provincial and district chiefs who
were installed by Mambo

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 - Under the chief were headmen
- Tribute was paid to the king to show allegiance and this tribute was collected by the
army
- Tumbare took over temporarily after the death of the king before the new one was
installed
- The Mambo communicated with Mwari during nationl crises
- The ruling class controlled external trade and trade routes were protected by the army
- The Mambo allocated land to his people
Describe the economic activities of the Rozvi State
- Crop cultivation – they cultivated crops such as sorghum, millet
- Cattle ranching – animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, were kept and they supplemented
the diet
- Raiding – the king used his army to raid other states usually they raided for cattle, grain
as well as for young men and women
- Mining – minerals such as gold, silver, chrome, copper were mined in the Rozvi state
- Trade – barter trade was practised and there was both internal and external trade
- Hunting – animals like kudus, impalas and elephants were hunted. Elephants were
important for their ivory which was important in external trade
- Gathering – women gathered fruit and edible roots in the environment to supplement
their diet
- Fishing – fishing was especially done by those living near dams and rivers
- Pottery making – was done especially by women and they produced items like clay pots
- Weaving – was also practised in Rozvi state
To what extent did external factors contribute to the decline of the Rozvi state?
The external factors contributed to the decline of the Rozvi state because of the following
- The Rozvi was attacked by the Nguni groups eg Nxaba, Zwangendaba
- Nyamazana entered the Rozvi state and defeated the Rozvi army after killing Changamire
Chirisamhuru
- The Ndebele came and gave a final blow to the Rozvi state which was already weak
- Portuguese weakened the Rozvi state both politically and militarily
However there were other factors which contributed to the decline of the Rozvi state
- Succession disputes
- Civil wars
- Sporadic droughts
- The Mambos failed to keep the state intact as a result many groups broke away
- Outbreak of diseases which killed many people
- The state had grown too big which led to the Mambos failing to rule the state
- Failure to fully absorb some chiefdoms like Karanga

THE BANTU SOCIETIES BEFORE THE MFECANE FOUND BETWEEN

DRAKENSBURG MOUNTAINS AND THE INDIAN OCEAN

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Ngwane
Zizi
Ndwandwe
Qwabe
Mthethwa
Xhosa
Hlubi
Bhaca
Khumalo
Thembu
# The more powerful of these were:
- The Mthethwa led by Dingiswayo
- The Ndwandwe led by Zwide
- The Ngwane led by Sobhuza
Describe the causes of mfecane in northern Nguniland
Definition
Mfecane was the time of trouble and suffering which was characterized by a series of wars in
Northern Nguniland
Causes of Mfecane
It was caused by population growth and people started to fight for land
Age regiment system - meant that many people were drafted into the army and their role became
more important in attacking and defeating neighboring states hence leading to Mfecane
The Madlatule famine – led to the competition of scarce resources and people raided each other
for cattle and grain
Hunting and trade – led to the growing demand for ivory as well as the desire to control long
distant trade at Delagoa Bay hence leading to conflicts between chiefdoms
The Whiteman’s influence – led to Mfecane as leaders like Dingiswayo learnt new methods of
military organization which in one way led to Mfecane
Emergence of powerful kingdoms – like Mthethwa, Ngwane and Ndwandwe and these groups
began to attack neighboring states seizing livestock as well as young men.
Tshaka’s menace (cruelty) – by 1820 led to continued raids hence lleading to the migration of
groups like Kololo, Sotho and Ndebele.
- rise of ambitious leaders like Tshaka, Zwide, Sobhuza and Dingiswayo

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Benefits of Mfecane
- Led to the rise of strong leaders eg Tshaka
- Strong states like Zulu, Ndebele, Gaza and Lozi were created
- It reduced population in Nguniland
- Zulu state became united, wealthy and strong
- Resources became easily available
- Spread of Zulu culture and traditions in Southern and Central Africa
Non –benefits
- There was wide spread of death and destruction
- People lost homes and property
- Problems of refugees
- Fear of insecurity
- There was loss of grain and cattle
- Loss of grazing and cultivation land
- Agriculture was disturbed
- Hunger led to cannibalism
- Some people were forced to live on mountains
- It weakened Africans which made colonialism by whites to become very easy
THE ZULU STATE
Question: Describe the rise of Tshaka to the Zulu kingdom
- Tshaka was born in 1787
- He was the son of Senzangakhona and Nandi
- He was a product of Mfecane wars
- Tshaka was disowned by his father when he was still young
- He was absorbed into Dingiswayo’s army
- He distinguished himself as an able fighter
- Tshaka was appointed commander of a regiment
- He advised Dingiswayo on military matters
- Senzangakhona died in 1816 and this presented an opportunity for Tshaka to become
king
- Tshaka was helped by Senzangakhona to overthrow / kill Sigujana
- Dingiswayo was killed by Zwide in a battle in 1818
- Tshaka got the opportunity to enlarge the Zulu
- He conquered the Mthethwa and absorbed them into the Zulu to form a very powerful
kingdom
- He defeated Zwide in 1819 (Zwide was killed during the battle)
- The kingdom extended from Tugela river to Pongola river
- Military ability was important in his rise, that is, he was brave and strong
- Also he was an effective commander as well as an innovative fighter
Military reforms introduced by Tshaka
- He introduced cow horn formation
- Circumcision was abolished

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 - Udibi boys helped to carry luggage
- He introduced short stabbing spears called assegai
- He introduced a standing army
- Anyone who lost his spear was punished by death
- Men were not allowed to marry before the age of 40
- Soldiers went to war barefooted for greater speed
- Use of witchdoctors
- Those who came with wounds on the back were killed
- Cowards were killed (Tshaka did not tolerate any cowards)
- There was use of spies
- He introduced age regiments system
- Soldiers were well fed on meat
- There was use of total warfare
- Military towns were scattered all over the state
- He introduced long shields
- Different regiments put on different headdresses and had different war cries
- There were mock battles for training purposes
- There was use of smoke signals as well as beating of drums
- Training was done regularly to keep soldiers fit
Question: Outline the political organization of the Zulu kingdom
- Tshaka created a centralized state
- Tshaka’s decision was final even though he consulted councilors
- He setup military settlements all over Zululand
- Tshaka nominated territorial provincial chiefs
- Tshaks’s foreign policy was to defeat tribe after tribe so as to expand the Zulu empire
- Tshaka introduced a sense of national belonging among his people through ceremonies
and symbols like inkatha
- He was the most feared in Zulu kingdom, his word was law and he was the leader of the
judiciary system
- Tshaka conducted the first fruit ceremony every year (Inxwala)
- The king was chief army commander
- Tribute was paid to the king in various forms
- Tshaka was a dictator
- He made use of spies which included women
- Regiment towns were allocated Royal Cattle for the ibutho to look after
Question: describe the social organization of the Zulu State
- The Zulu people spoke Zulu language
- There was social division of labour. Women looked after children, collected firewood,
fetched water etc while men built houses, headed cattle and fenced the fields
- Women were supposed to show respect to men all the time
- The Zulu believed in Supreme God uNkulunkulu / uSomandla
- The Zulu communicated with their God through ancestors
- The man was in charge of his family and he took care of all the necessary ceremonies like
ukubuyisa and ukuthethela

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 - Each man was allowed to marry more than one wife
- The Zulu soldier was allowed to marry after retiring from the army
- The society was patrilineal
- The king opened the inxwala ceremony
- Loaning system was practiced
- Pride price was paid in marriage
Describe the economic activities of the Zulu State
- The most important economic activity was cattle rearing
- Cattle had several uses
- They were used as drought power
- They were also used as a source of milk, manure and meat
- The Zulu people also practised farming and they grew crops like millet, sorghum, rapoko,
pumkins etc
- They practised barter trade where they exchanged items among themselves
- There was also long distance trade, eg at Delogoa bay (Maputo)
- Mining was done by men and minerals like gold, copper, iron and silver were mined
- Hunting was also done and animals like impala, kudus were hunted for meat
- Sometimes men did fishing to supplement their diet
- Tribute was paid to the king as a sign of respect
- Blacksmithing was done by men to produce strong iron tools
- There was also raiding where the neighbouring states were raided
- Gathering
- Pottery making
Tshaka’s responsibility for his own downfall
- Tshaka was an absolute ruler. His absolution led to his downfall
- He ignored traditional chiefs and military indunas thus they became against him
- Tshaka failed to work with his brothers and sisters who could have helped him in the
proper administration of the Zulu state
- Endless raids exposed Tshaka to many enemies and he lost many soldiers through
continuous warfare
- Tshaka’s cruelty created many enemies to the Zulu state
- Tshaka’s jealousy brothers and sisters who were ambitious to rule plotted his
assassination
- Tshaka also faced threats from the whites
- He was an illegitimate child and hence he did not recognize the approval of many people
as an illegitimate of the Zulu kingdom
How beneficial was Tshaka’s political system to the Zulu people?
- Military settlement meant that the Zulu people were protected
- Items used to pay tribute like grain were redistributed during drought
Non-benefits
- Tshaka believed in war after war and this created enemies to the Zulu
- He was a dictator and there was no freedom of expression in the Zulu

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 - His politics was so strict that many people lost their lives
Problems faced by Tshaka during his reign
- Tshaka had several duties to perform hence he was left with little time to rest
- He also faced silent opposition from his own people as he was cruel to them
- His soldiers were tired of continuous wars and many of them secretly hated him
- His wives also hated him for killing their children
- He was also lonely as he did not have friends
- He faced threats from the Boers and British who wanted to remove him from power
- He also found it difficult to replace skilled warriors as he killed all those who came from
war with wounds on their backs
- His relatives also hated him for killing his brother Sigujana
- They were also jealousy of him that’s why they ended up killing him in 1828
- Shortage of land also led to clashes with the Boers and Tshaka lost some of his soldiers
during those wars
- Tshaka battled to control the Delagoa Bay trade routes

THE NDEBELE STATE

Background:
- The Khumalo clan was led by a man called Mzilikazi
- Mzilikazi was loved and trusted by Tshaka
- In 1821 Mzilikazi and the Khumalo fled from Zululand and crossed the Drakensberg
mountains
- Mzilikazi fled after he refused to hand over the spoils to Tshaka as it was the custom
- He fled northwards with about 300 men
Mzilikazi’s journey to modern day Zimbabwe
- Mzilikazi crossed the Drakensburg mountains with the Khumalo by 1823 and rested at a
place called Ekuphumuleni in the Nzunza area
- Later most of the Nzunza were absorbed into the Khumalo nation
- Mzilikazi moved from Ekuphumuleni because it was near Zululand and because of the
attacks from the Pedi
- Mzilikazi then settled at Mhlahlandlela and concentrated on nation building
- Sotho referred to the Khumalo as Matabele (Men of long shields) thus where their name
originated, (amaNdebele)
- Surrounding people feared amaNdebele and many Nguni refugees joined them
- At Mhlahlandlela, Mzilikaza left because of attacks from Griquas, Boers, Rolong and
Kora.
- During this time, Mzilikazi started to be a friend of Robert Moffat
- Mzilikazi moved further and established a new settlement at Mosega

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 - In 1837, Mzilikazi’s capital Mosega was attacked and he crossed the Limpopo river and
divided his group into two
- The major group comprised of old people, women, children, cattle, sheep, goats and sons
of Mzilikazi
- This group was led by Gundwane Ndiweni
- It arrived in Western Zimbabwe and defeated the Rozvi people in 1839
- They established their capital known as Gibixhegu
- The other group led by Mzilikazi included senior soldiers like Maqhekeni Sithole
- They took a westward direction into the Ngwato territory and moved towards the
Zambezi
- Mzilikazi joined the main group in 1840 after the indunas had appointed Nkulumane as
king
- Mzilikazi killed those who were responsible for installing Nkulumane as king including
Gundwane Ndiweni on a mountain that became known as Ntabazinduna.
- Mzilikazi now established his capital known as Inyathi
Groups that fought the Ndebele on their way
- Rolong
- Khoisan
- Tlokwa
- Kora
- Pedi
- Zulu
- Griquas
- Boers
- Sotho
Part (C) Question: To what extent were the Khumalo affected by this migration?
- The collective name became Ndebele, a name given to the army by the Sotho. This
avoided division and fostered unity.
- The Zulu military tactics were still used when they arrived in Zimbabwe.
- Execution of rebels, eg, izinduna who installed Nkulumane as king
- The journey negatively affected external trade
- The Ndebele adopted cultural patterns of other people especially the Shona
- There was constant fear of rebellions from absorbed groups
- Mzilikazi was still the leader up to 1868.
- The journey was an advantage to the Khumalo because they were most feared and
respected during their journey
Describe the factors that made Mzilikazi to abandon various settlements south of the Limpopo
River
- Drought
- Attacks from several groups
- At Ekuphumuleni, the Ndebele were attacked by the Sotho hence they decided to move
away

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 - The Ndebele had created themselves a lot of enemies hence they abandoned some of the
settlements in fear of their enemies
- They moved in search of grains as they had no chance to cultivate
- Some settlements were not suitable for agricultural purposes
- The Ndebele also migrated in search of cattle as they depended mostly on meat
- They also wanted freedom from the Zulu so they moved to create space between them
and the Zulu
- They abandoned settlements like Ekuphumuleni to increase population through raiding
Question: Describe the political organization of the Ndebele State / measures taken by Mzilikazi
to consolidate his rule
- Politically, the king was the head of the state
- The king was respected and feared, he was known as Inkosi
- The king did several duties, that is, he raised the amabutho, coordinated military strategy,
distributed land, he got rid of opponents, he conducted religious ceremonies, he was the
chief army commander
- In the ruling of the state, the king was advised by a council
- The uMphakathi was the senior council
- It was selected from members of the royal family
- The Izikhulu were all chiefs in the state needed for their wisdom
- Military towns were placed all over the state to bring peace and order and to defend the
state
- The king rewarded every brave man by giving them cattle
- The Ndebele homesteads were built close to each other not more than 80km from the
kings capital
- The state was divided into chiefdoms which were governed by izinduna
- Female members were stationed in every town as informed
- Vassal chiefs collected tribute on behalf of Mzilikazi
Question: How far did the political organization lead to unity in the Ndebele state
- The Ndebele political organization led to unity to a larger extent
- Chances of civil wars were reduced as the king married in every regiment town making
his wives his eyes and ears
- The king was a religious leader who united people through ceremonies like inxwala
- Brave men were rewarded in public which made them loyal which led to unity in the state
Describe the social life of the Ndebele State
- There were three social groups in the Ndebele State; at the top were the Zansi – these
were the original Ndebeles who ran away with Mzilikazi from South Africa
- The Zansi made 15% of the total Ndebele population and they had surnames like
Khumalo, Dliwayo, Nxumalo, Dlamini etc
- In the middle were the Abenhla – these were the people who were absorbed into the
Ndebele South of the Limpopo
- They were 25% of the total Ndebele population
- The Abenhla included the Tswana, Sotho, Pedi etc
- At the bottom were the Amahole – who made 60% of the total Ndebele population

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 - These were the people found living in the present day Zimbabwe and they included
people like Shona, Tonga, Venda, Kalanga etc
- The Amahole were sources of herders, soldiers, cultivators and messengers for the king
- One man was allowed to marry many wives
- The Ndebele spoke the same language, that is, isiNdebele
- They believed in the high God called uNkulunkulu whom they worshiped through
Amadlozi
- Loaning system / ukusisa was practised
- The wealth of a man was measured using the number of cattle he possessed
- Cattle were used to pay lobola
- Young boys performed several duties like working as spies, carrying tribute to the king
- Inxwala ceremony was held annually
- Division of labour based on gender

Social groups of the Ndebele

- Farmers
- Builders
- Traders
- Witch doctors
- Cattle herders
- Craft men
- Miners

Question: To what extent was the Ndebele social life beneficial to all the classes in the state?
- The Ndebele structure benefited mostly in the Zansi
- The Zansi were the rulers of the state who made rules without consulting the Abenhla and
the Hole
- They also made Abenhla and Hole to speak their language and follow their culture
- Zansi men could marry Hole women but Hole men were not allowed to marry Zansi
women
However there were aspects which benefited all classes equally
- During the inxwala ceremony people of all classes were treated the same hence this made
the Hole and Abenhla to feel part of the Ndebele
- In addition, brave men from the Hole could be promoted to positions of influence
Question: How important was religion in the Ndebele political life?
- The Ndebele believed that the king was chosen by God and the ancestors which made
them to respect him.
- This enabled the king to rule undisturbed
- The warriors first consulted spirit mediums in order to have success in battle

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 - The Ndebele worshiped the same God and also believed in ancestors this led to unity in
the state which resulted in the growth of the state
- During the first Chimurenga, spirit mediums played an important role in organizing the
Ndebele and giving them confidence to fight bravely
However, there were other important things in the political system
- The army was also important as other groups joined the Ndebele in fear of their army
- Economic activities were also important in the state
- Mzilikazi won the support of the Shona people by loaning them cattle. This made them to
accept him as their king. In modern day Zimbabwe during that time, the Ndebele State
was the only state hence this gave Mzilikazi a chance to rule undisturbed
- During the reign of Mzilikazi, there were no civil wars in the Ndebele state
- Mzilikazi was loved and trusted by his Ndebele people.
Question: List the regiments found in the Ndebele State
- Imbizo
- Amawaba
- Imicijo
- Umbelebele
- Inqobo
- Amakhanda amhlophe
- Amakhanda amnyama
- Amahlokohloko

SLAVERY AND SLAVE TRADE

 Slave – a person who is the legal property of another
 Slavery – a condition in which individuals are owned by others who control where they
live and the work they perform
 Slave trade – buying and selling of human beings
- There is no consensus on the rise of slavery
- The African continent became connected with slavery and it became a major source of
slaves
- The greatest African community in the diaspora is believed to be in Brazil
- In North Africa, slavery was practised in the Sahara desert as well as in the regions of
Western Sahara, regions like Morocco
- In North-East Africa, the Ethiopians, Somalis, Egyptians and the people of Sudan were
all familiar with the institution of slavery
- Also in Sierra Leon, Guinea, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Mali and Nigeria slavery was practised
- In Central Africa, slavery was practised in Cameroon and DRC
- In Southern Africa, slavery was confessed in Angola and Mozambique

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Major means by which slaves were acquired
Tribute payment – the Yhoruba of Nigeria obtained some of their slaves through this method
- The vassal chiefs sometimes paid tribute in form of slaves
Pawning – the act of offering a person as security for money borrowed
- The pawn worked for the creditor until the debt was paying
- Sena of Mozambique and the Igbo practised pawning
Raiding and kidnaping
- The people of Nigeria and Niger procured some of their slaves through this method
- The Sokoto caliphate of Modern Nigeria Slave trading was a state affair
- Kidnapping was practised among the Lozi of Zambia and the Sena of Mozambique
Market Supply – many markets were established on the continent
- Members of the royal family could go to purchase slaves there
- In West Africa, some of the popular markets were Yedi and Salaga
Warfare – prisoners of war were enslaved and usually constituted the highest proportion of slave
output
- The Jihads (holly war) of the 19th century waged ffrom Senegambia in the west to the red
sea in the east resulting in the enslavement of many people
Countries that participated in slave trade
- Portugal
- France
- Germany
- India
- Spain
- Britain
- USA
Factors that led to the rise of slave trade
1. Mineral discovery in the new world
- Huge mineral deposits were discovered in Spain as early as 1530
- An acute problem of labour arose as indigenous people proved unequal to the task
required of them and their population began to decline sharply hence they resorted to
slave trade

2. Plantation Agriculture in the new world

- Plantations of various crops such as tobacco, coffee, sugar, and cotton were set up in
areas such as Brazil
- Again an acute problem of labour arose hence the slave trade

3. European industrialization

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 - Industrialization called for labour to work for the supply of raw materials

4. Need to get rid of outcast criminnals

- All subject people in various African countries who were convicted by their respective
kings were sold as punishment

5. Failure to pay debts

- Africans could be enslaved for the single reason that they would have failed to pay debts

6. Need to get rid of witches

- Those convicted of witchcraft were sold as slaves

7. Hatred
- It also pushed some Africans to capture and sell fellow Africans

8. Religious factors
- Muslims enslaved non-Muslims as a way of creating a Muslim world

9. Greed
- Some participated in slave trade as a way of generating wealth, eg African Kings
Why Africans were enslaved
- They appeared to be very strong
- They were resistant to tropical diseases
- They had ability to endure difficulties
- They were used to harsh conditions of living
- They were less rebellious

Sources of slaves
- West Africa was the first area to supply slaves to the new world
- The main exporters of slaves in west Africa included Senegambia, Guinea, Benin,
Nigeria and Angola
- By the 18th century, slaves were being exported from almost all areas along the West
African Coast
- It was not until after 1807 that the supply of slaves from Africa began to decline
- Britain banned slaves in 1807
- As a result of anti-slavery complaints, West Africa ceased from its being the supplier of
slaves giving rise to East Africa slave trade
- In East Africa slaves came from countries such as Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mozambique and
Tanzania
- It should be however noted that the enslavement of Africans was carried out by Africans
themselves especially the stronger groups
- Very few Europeans came in land to capture slaves on their own
How slave trade was conducted: The Triangular Slave Trade

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 - Slaves were loaded in ships, both male and female, only wrapped with a piece of cloth on
their waist
- A lot of deaths were incurred on the seas
- The deaths were at times caused by overcrowding in ships, hunger, thirst, tiredness and
ill-treatment
- In ships, men and women were tightly packed whilst in legs were irons that they could
hardly move
- During morning inspection of slaves, all dead were thrown into the sea as food for sharks
and crocodiles
- The sick slaves were not usually treated, instead they were made to join the dead by
throwing them into the mouths of the sea creatures
- Some slaves committed suicide on the way as they totally refused food
- Death was considered a better option by some slaves as the future was again unknown
- Whole loads of slaves could be deliberately sunk into the sea and the reasons for that
included:
1. When slave masters suspected food and water shortages
2. When they saw anti-slavery patro
3. When storms blew, the loads on the ship had to be reduced
4. Revolting and notorious slaves could also be thrown in the sea as punishment
- Slave ships left African coasts with slaves to the new world
- The slaves were needed to work on plantations
- Ships left European countries with raw materials and other items given in exchange for
slaves
EFFECTS OF SLAVE TRADE
Political Effects
1. Destruction of weak African States
- Due to slave raids, weak political African institutions were destroyed
2. Growth of African states
- The powerful states produced firearms through slave trade
- Examples of those states include Asante, Dahomey and Oyo all in West Africa
3. Increase in warfare
- The needs for slave trade and the flooding of firearms worked to increase warfare
4. Loss of political power
- For the kings whose states were defeated by more powerful ones
5. Corruption of African judiciary system
- The judiciary system was manipulated in favour of sending people to the coasts as slaves
6. Strained political relations between states
- The wounds caused by these raids permanently stayed to an extent that during
colonization, there was no unity in African states to resist colonialism
Social Effects
1. Death of people
- Many Africans died during wars which led to capture of many Africans as slaves

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 - Many people died during the march to the coast and many more died during the horrors
in the middle passage for at times the ships were sunk deliberately due to suspected food
and water shortages or upon spotting anti-slavery patrol ship
2. Population loses
- Latest studies show high figures of more than 15 million and Boahen et al (1986) says
that the figure excluded during raids and march to the coast
3. Distortion of sex relations
- It is believed that some 12 thousand men and seven thousand women were shipped to the
New World
- This resulted in serious distortion of sex rations
- Some historians argue that this marked the rise of polygamy in Africa
4. Decline in African population
- This was because Africans were transported to the New World
5. Racism
- Europeans thought that they were superior to Africans thereby making colonialism
inevitable
6. Separation of families
- Fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters were shipped to America and some died during the
raids leading to the breakdown of African families
7. Formation of class system
- African kings and middlemen became very rich in the expense of ordinary people who
became poor
8. Abuse of Africans
- Both men and women who were harassed at times left with permanent injuries
9. Starvation
- As whole villages were burnt during raids, people found themselves facing untold
suffering
- Their crops and granaries were burnt
10. Birth of new languages
- The language of many African tribes were mixed with European languages forming a
new language eg Swahili

Economic Effect
- Loss of economically productive personnel
- Indigenous mining and craft decline
- African agriculture suffered
- Introduction of new crops in Africa
- Africa got luxury goods, eg alcohol, tobacco, sugar, umbrella, textiles and decorative
items
- Coastal kingdoms accumulated wealth

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THE MISSIONARIES
The aims of the Missionaries
o To preach the gospel (Christianity)
o They wanted to stop pagan practices of Africans
o To teach people how to read and write
o They wanted to improve health in Africa
o To stop slave trade
o To spread civilization
o To teach people new methods of farming
o To teach Africans technical work
o To pave way for colonisation
Mission stations established by the Missionaries
- Inyathi
- Hope fountain
- Empandeni
- Chishawasha
- St. Augustine
- Mt. Selinda
- Morgenster
- Old Mutare

Names of Missionaries who operated in Zimbabwe

- John Smith Moffat
- Charles Helm
- Father Law
- Robert Moffat
- Father Prestige
- Knight Bruce
- Morgen Thomas
- Coillard
Missionary organization Mission station
London missionary Society Hope Fountain and Inyathi
Roman Catholic Church Empandeni and Embakwe
Anglican Church St. Augustine
Methodist Old Mutare
Dutch Reform Church Morgenster

Work of missionaries in Zimbabwe

- The missionaries preached the gospel in Mashonaland and Matabeleland
- They taught people how to read and write

27
 - They also taught people new methods of farming
- They were taught technical work eg carpentry
- They spread civilization
- They wrote letters on behalf of African rulers
- They translated foreign books into local languages
- Missionaries acted as interpreters during the signing of treaties eg Charles Helm
- Some missionaries signed treaties with local leadership
- They established mission stations eg Embakwe, Empandeni
- They taught people how to use guns
- They were treating local people of different diseases
- They traded with the local people, eg guns, jewellery
Problems that were faced / encountered by missionaries as they were working
- Missionaries were attacked by dangerous wild animals
- Some missionaries were chased out of the country by local leadership
- The teaching of the missionaries were against the African Traditional Religion hence this
created enmity between missionaries and traditional leaders
- There was shortage of food
- There was poor transport and communication
- They were affected by tropical diseases such as malaria
- There was shortage of medicine
- The missionaries also made few converts
- The missionaries were not fluent in local languages which made communication to be
very difficult
- Some missionaries were killed by the local people
- There was shortage of accommodation
Question: To what extent did the missionaries contribute to the colonization of Zimbabwe?
- Some missionaries signed treaties with local leaders hence leading to the colonization of
Zimbabwe
- Missionaries like Charles Helm misinterpreted the contents and terms of treaties in a bid
to downplay Lobengula hence leading to the colonization of Zimbabwe
- They invited their government to destroy the Ndebele kingdom
- They accommodated the concession seekers as well as the pioneer column members
- The colonizers used missionary roads
Other factors
- Role of traders, hunters and explorers
- Rhodes and his BSAC regarded the Ndebele as of strategic importance
- The scramble for Southern Africa increased competition for Zimbabwe as an area rich in
gold
- Lack of unity in the Ndebele State
- Weakness of local people’s military
- Lack of unity among the Shona
Question: To what extent did the missionaries succeed in their work during this period?

28
 i. Successes
- Set up mission stations
- Introduced literacy
- Introduced better farming methods

ii. Failures
- Till 1894 when Matabeleland was colonized by BSAC, missionaries produced no
followers among the Ndebele after 30 years effort.
- The Ndebele had their own religion
- Ndebele economy was based on raiding yet Christianity promoted peace
- Ndebele society had castes while Christianity encouraged equality
- Potential converts were punished / sent to remote areas / Those who showed interest in
Christian message were sent to distant places or punished
- LMS and Jesuits then campaigned for the destruction of the Ndebele state
Reasons for African resistance to Christianity
- Natural disasters blamed on missionaries eg 1861-62 drought, rinderpest, locusts, small
pox and fever that killed people in 1862
- Africans expected to be paid for attending lessons
- Learning to read and write was considered too laborious and unnecessary by Africans
- The process of being catechist was a heavy burden to Africans
- Africans did not see the value of missionary teachings in their life
- Christianity was a threat to their traditional religion
- The power of traditional leaders and the divine power of the king/rulers likely to
disappear
- Suspicious towards the missionaries
- Thought the missionaries wanted to colonise them
- They were afraid to lose control of trade by outsiders
- There was language barrier
- Influence of Islam made them to hate Christianity
- Converts were punished, killed and exiled

THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION FOR AFRICA

o To scramble is to fight or compete for something
o To partition is to divide
Therefore there was fighting among European countries for Africa and this led to division among
themselves
Several African kingdoms were colonized by European powers
#Some of the African kingdoms colonized:
- Ndebele
- Swazi
- Sotho

29
 - Ngwato
- Gaza
- Zulu
- Lozi
Several European countries in the scramble and colonization of African states
European power African country colonized
Britain Zimbabwe, South Africa, Zambia, Lesotho,
Swaziland
Portugal Mozambique, Angola
France Morocco, Senegal, Mali, Algeria
Germany Cameroon, Namibia, South West Africa,
Togo, Rwanda, Tanganika (Tanzania)
Italy Libya, Eritrea
- Before the scramble for Africa, there was a conference held in Berlin.
Berlin Conference 1884 – 5.
- This was a conference called by Otto Von Bismarck who was the chancellor of Germany
as from 1871 – 90
- The conference was attended by all European powers who had interest in Africa, eg,
Germany, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Belgium
- No African leader attended the conference
- Several discussions were made
Terms / Discussions made in the Berlin conference
- Several big rivers like the Nile, Congo, Niger and Zambezi could be used by any
European power that wished to do so.
- No European power had to take advantage of Africa for its benefits (this was completely
ignored)
- They agreed to stop slave trade
- European powers to enter into agreement with African chiefs peacefully without using
force.
- Before a country could take any area as its sphere of influence it should carry out some
developments such as construction of roads, bridges
- Raising the flag of the colonizer
Results of the Berlin conference
- It worsened the scramble
- It made the scramble to be done peacefully
- No wars were fought for Africa after the conference

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Question: Describe the Economic, Social, and Political reasons for the Scramble / colonization of
Africa
Economic reasons
- European powers wanted to get raw materials like coal, cotton, gold, rubber, ivory etc
- They wanted markets for their products
- They wanted to promote commerce
- They wanted to promote new hope for their surplus population
- They wanted to control strategic positions they wanted to secure investment area
- They wanted to get rich by building more industries
Social reasons
- They thought that they were superior race and they were born to rule
- They claimed to have a civilization mission to accomplish in Africa
- They wanted to spread Christianity
- They wanted to promote commerce
- Some were attracted by good climatic conditions in Africa
- Missionaries encouraged them to colonise Africa as they wanted to spread the word of
God
Political reasons
- France was seeking for revenge as they were defeated by Germany in 1871
- Other powers competed for colonies as they were seen as a sign of wealth and source of
power
- The powers wanted to show that they were great eg Britain and France
- Germany wanted place in the sun
Reasons for the colonization of Zimbabwe
- Need for markets
- Need for raw materials
- Rhodes believed that gold in Transvaal stretched to Zimbabwe
- The settlers wanted to invest in Zimbabwe
- Need for fertile land
- Desire to control the livestock of the Ndebele and the Shona people
- Rhodes wanted to promote British imperialism
- To prevent other countries from colonizing Zimbabwe
- Zimbabwe was rich in wild life
- To fulfil Rhodes’ dream of making colonies from Cape to Cairo
Steps taken by Rhodes to colonise Zimbabwe
- He sent John Smith Moffart to sign a treaty with Lobengula in February 1888
- There was the signing of the Rudd concession in 1888
- Lotshe and Sikhombo were bribed during the signing of the Rudd concession
- Rhodes delayed Lobengula’s delegates to the queen and the charter was granted
- He used his personal fortune to finance the colonization of the territory
- He formed the BSAC in 1890 to colonise and administer Zimbabwe on behalf of Britain

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 - Recruited the pioneer members
- Movement of the pioneer column from South Africa to present day Zimbabwe
- Raised the Union Jack on 12 September 1890 in Fort Salisbury
- Bought the Lippert concession in 1891
- Defeated the Ndebele in the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893 and took over Matabeleland

Treaties signed between Lobengula and the whites

1. The Grobler treaty (July 1887)
Terms
- Signed between the Boers and the Ndebele
- The Boers and the Ndebele to be friends
- The Ndebele to assist the Boers militarily if asked to do so
- Everlasting peace between the Boers and the Ndebele
- Lobengula was recognized as a paramount chief
- Lobengula to trial out all criminals from Transvaal
- Hunters and traders in Transvaal to be allowed to operate in Lobengula’s kingdom
- Only those holding the Boer passport signed by Paul Krudger to be allowed to enter the
Ndebele kingdom
- NB Cecil John Rhodes was alarmed by the signing of the Grobler treaty, he then sent
John Smith Moffat to negotiate a treaty with Lobengula

2. The Moffart treaty (February 1888)

Terms
- Lobengula agreed to be a friend of the British Queen
- He promised not to enter into any other treaty with any other country without British
approval
- Everlasting peace between the Ndebele and the British
- Cancellation of the Grobler treaty
- Lobengula not to sell any part of his kingdom to foreigners
Question: How far did the Grobler treaty protect the Ndebele?
Successes
- Lobengula’s alliance with the Boers strengthened his position against internal enemies
- Initially delayed colonialism or occupation of the Ndebele state
- Lobengula gained security from the Boers’ attack by signing the Grobler Treaty
- Lobengula’s friendship with the Boers protected him against attacks from other groups
Limitations
- Did not protect the Ndebele from colonialism
- He did not gain absolute security because there were other external dangers from
Portuguese and British who also wanted to colonise Zimbabwe

32
The Rudd Concession
- Rhodes sent three men to negotiate further with Lobengula, Charles Rudd, Thompson
Maguire and Charles Helm
Terms written down
- Ndebele king to get 100 pounds per month
- A gun boat to patrol along the Zambezi Valley
- One thousand rifles and one hundred rounds of ammunition in return
- Lobengula agreed to give the company exclusive charge over all metals and minerals in
his kingdom
- He also granted them power to do everything they deemed necessary to get minerals and
metals
- To give no concession of land or mining rights without consulting Rhodes
Verbal terms
- Only ten men to come and stay in Matabeleland and follow the Ndebele laws
- To surrender fire arms to Ndebele king on arrival
- To dig one hole
- Rhodes to protect Matabeleland from European colonialism
- To publish notices in South African newspapers to warn white people to keep out of
Matabeleland
The Charter
- Soon after the signing of the Rudd concession, Cecil John Rhodes went to London to
seek a charter for the occupation of Zimbabwe
- The charter was granted after satisfying Queen Victoria that he had resources to occupy
the land
- He was granted the charter in October 1889 and returned to South Africa where he
founded the British South African Company (BSAC)
Provisions for the charter
- Settlers to make treaties with local chiefs
- Settlers to make laws to govern the area north of Limpopo
- To maintain peace and order
The reaction by Lobengula
- After Lobengula had been told by the Boers that he had sold his country, Lobengula
wrote a letter to the queen telling her that he had not given his country to anybody
- The queen replied, “A king gives a stranger an ox, not his whole herd of cattle.”
Organization and movement of the Pioneer Column
- Having obtained the charter of his company Rhodes went ahead with recruiting members
of group that were to colonise Zimbabwe
- Applications came from as far as Australia

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- Out of 2000 application, only 200 were selected to become the member of the Pioneer
Column
- These were from different trades / professions eg Black Smiths, Builders, Lawyers,
Doctors, teachers, farmers, carpenters, hunters, traders, engineers, plumbers etc
- 500 police officers were to accompany the Pioneer Column so as to protect it from any
resistance and to maintain peace and order
- The commander of the police force was Penne Father
- The guide of the Pioneer Column was Fedrick Selous
- The major leader of the Pioneer Column was Star Jameson
- Each member of the Pioneer Column was promised 3000 acres of land and 15 gold
claims
- Goods were carried by ox wagons
- The column had 117 wagons with a herd of livestock being driven alongside
- The Pioneer Column grouped in Botswana and started their journey at the beginning of
the year in 1890
- They crossed the Mocloutsie river in June 1890 and Shashe River in 1890
- They travelled quickly keeping away from the Ndebele territory in case they were
attacked by the Ndebele regiments
- They established a number of Forts eg –
1. Fort Tuli (near Beitbridge)
2. Fort Charter (Chibvu)
3. Fort Victoria (Masvingo)
4. Fort Umtali (Mutare)
5. Fort Rixon
6. Fort Martin
7. Fort usher
8. Fort Salisbury (Harare)
- Lobengula restrained amajaha from attacking the Pioneer Column
- On 12 September 1890, the Pioneer Column hoisted their flag (Union Jack) in Salisbury
- Upon their arrival they were disappointed to find out that gold in Mashonaland was very
scarce
- They then thought that it was in Matabeleland hence they needed an excuse to attack the
Ndebele

The causes of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893-1894

- The issue of the boundary line between Mashonaland and Matabeleland
- Failure to find second rand in Mashonaland
- Desire to control large herds of cattle belonging to the Ndebele
- Desire to control good grazing land belonging to the Ndebele
- Conflict over the control of the Shona
- Rumour that Lobengula’s capital was built on gold
- Victoria agreement whereby the settlers agreed to destroy the Ndebele Kingdom and all
those who were to take part in the destruction of the state would be rewarded
- Failure by Chief Nemakonde and Chivi to pay tribute to Lobengula in 1892
- Chief Gomara paid a fine to the whites using Lobengula’s cattle
- Chief Bere stole Lobengula’s cattle

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 - To finish the occupation of Zimbabwe

The course of the Anglo-Ndebele war

-The whites had three main forces i.e the Salisbury force led by Major Forbes, the Fort
Victoria force led by Captain Allan Wilson and the South African force led by Captain Raaf
-Lobengula ordered his army to make preparations to meet the enemy
-It was unfortunate for Lobengula because his special force of about 6000 did not take part in in
war as they contracted small pox from Barotseland so they were isolated
-The Ndebele force was made up of the lnsukamini,Amaweni and Isijeba regiment
-At Somabhula, a thick fog prevented contact between the two forces
-The first major battle was fought near Shangani river on 22 October 1893
-Jameson was there with his force
-The white forces attacked in the morning, they used maxims and other guns
-Many Ndebele were killed and wounded forcing them to retreat
-On 1 November 1893, the Mbembesi battle was fought
-It was near Ntabazinduna
-The Ndebele were led by Imbezu and Inguba regiments and they attacked in the morning
-Although this was a surprise attack, the maxim gunonce again decided the outcome of the battle
-The whites estimated that the Ndebele lost 800-1000 men in this battle alone
The Ndebele were forced to retreat
-The White forces entered Bulawayo on 4 November 1893 and found Lobengula’s capital on fire
-Lobengula decided to destroy his capital and flee northwards
-Major Forbes and Allan Wilsonwere assigned to follow Lobengula as the whites wanted to
capture him
-Crossed the Shangani
Lobengula sent two bags of goldto make peace with the whites
-Allan Wilson and 33 soldiers were surrounded and slaughtered by the Ndebele
-Lobengula is believed to have died few days after this battle and was secretely buried
-One by one the Ndebele lndunas surrendered
The results of the Anglo-Ndebele war
-The Ndebele were defeated

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-Mashonaland and Matabeleland became known as Southern Rhodesia
-Matabeleland to be administered by Jameson
-Land commission set up to divide land between the BSAC and the Ndebele
-Led to another war in 1896
-Loss of lives
-Fertile lands taken by the whites and two reserves Gwaai and Shangani created for the Ndebele
-Over 200000 Ndebele cattle seized
-Ndebele men to provide labour in white farms and mines
-White settler military rewarded with Lobengula’s cattle and land
-death/disappearance of Lobengula
-Ndebele not allowed to choose another King

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