GYPSUM AND GYPSUM SYSTEM UNDER

HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECT

International Burch University

Faculty of Engineering, Natural and Medical Sciences
Department of Civil Engineering
Fall semester, 2023/2024

Mentor: Student:
__________________ ______________________
Summary.................................................................................................................................................................1
REZIME..................................................................................................................................................................1
1. introduction.........................................................................................................................................................2
2. Gypsum and Its Properties................................................................................................................................2
2.1. Types of gypsum and how they are produced:..................................................................................................3
2.2. the crystal structure and the presence of water molecules in gypsum (dehydrate form)..................................5
3. Dehydration of gypsum......................................................................................................................................7
3.1. the process of dehydration and how gypsum transforms into anhydrous calcium sulfate at elevated
temperatures.............................................................................................................................................................7
3.2. the temperature range (typically 100-200°C) at which dehydration occurs......................................................9
4. Fire Resistance of Gypsum..............................................................................................................................11
4.1. the fire-resisant properties og gypsum and its role in fire protection..............................................................11
4.2. the release of water vapor can slow down temperature rise during a fire.......................................................12
5. Heat release.......................................................................................................................................................14
6. Release of sulfur dioxide..................................................................................................................................17
6.1. the release of sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) from gypsum at extremely high temperatures..................................17
7. Flame spread.....................................................................................................................................................19
7.1. Ignition of gypsum and gypsum system under high temperature effect.........................................................20
8. Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................................22
9. Bibliography......................................................................................................................................................22
SUMMARY
I chose to explore gypsum's behavior under extreme heat due to its wide-ranging
applications and importance in construction and other sectors. Gypsum, a common
material, exhibits fascinating transformations under high temperatures, affecting not only
structures but also safety and well-being.

In the next hours, we'll delve into gypsum's reactions to heat, its impact on fire resistance,
and the safety measures necessary for construction. Our objectives are to educate on this
crucial topic, raise awareness among professionals, emphasize safety, and provide practical
insights for real-world applications.

REZIME
Ponašanje gipsa pod visokim temperaturama, uključujući dehidraciju i kalcinaciju, ima
značajne posljedice za njegovu otpornost na vatru, strukturalnu cjelovitost i sigurnost u
građevinarstvu i zaštiti od požara. Razumijevanje ovih učinaka ključno je za arhitekte,
građevinare i stručnjake za sigurnost u stvaranju građevina koje su odolijevaju vatrenim
situacijama i strukturalno pouzdane.
Istraživat ću reakcije na toplinu, njen utjecaj na otpornost na požar i sigurnosne mjere
potrebne za izgradnju. Naši ciljevi su educirati se o ovoj ključnoj temi, podići svijest među
stručnjacima, naglasiti sigurnost i pružiti praktične uvide za aplikacije u stvarnom svijetu.

1
2
1. INTRODUCTION

Gypsum, a natural compound consisting of calcium sulfate dihydrate, is found in everything from the
walls that encase us to the ceilings that shelter us. Its versatility, cost-effectiveness, and fire-resistant
properties have made it a linchpin in the construction industry. However, what we are here to
discuss today is not the ordinary application of gypsum, but rather its behavior when faced with one
of the most formidable adversaries it can encounter: high temperatures.

The importance of understanding how gypsum and gypsum-based systems react under high-
temperature conditions cannot be overstated. Our buildings are not just inanimate structures; they
are the spaces where we live, work, and thrive. In the face of a fire or other high-temperature
incidents, knowing how gypsum responds is a matter of life safety, property preservation, and
economic well-being.

I'll investigate the implications of gypsum's dehydration, its impact on fire resistance, the challenges
it poses to setting and curing, and the structural integrity concerns that may arise.

Furthermore, I'll examine the release of sulfur dioxide gas from gypsum under extreme heat and its
potential health hazards. To ensure the safety of our built environment and the well-being of those
who inhabit it, we must also discuss the safety measures and building codes that govern the use of
gypsum materials.

2. GYPSUM AND ITS PROPERTIES

Gypsum is a chemical compound whose chemical formula is CaSO4·2H2O, which means that it
contains calcium sulfate and two molecules of water. Gypsum is often found in nature as a mineral
and is also produced as an industrial material.

Gypsum characteristics:

Chemical composition: Gypsum consists of calcium sulfate and two molecules of water
(CaSO4·2H2O). The chemical composition gives it specific chemical characteristics.

Crystal structure: Gypsum has a crystalline structure with water molecules within its lattice.
This crystal structure gives it specific physical characteristics.

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Solubility: Gypsum is limited in water solubility. When gypsum is placed in water, it can
hydrate, i.e. absorb water and become calcium sulfate dehydrate (CaSO4·2H2O), known as
gypsum hydrate. This hardening process is known as the hydration process.

Opening and closing of pores: Gypsum can open and close pores in its structure under the
influence of moisture. This makes it useful for controlling moisture absorption and release in
a variety of applications, such as construction and ceramics.
Low density: Gypsum has a relatively low density, which makes it a light material. This
makes it suitable for applications where lightweight construction is required.
Fire resistance: Gypsum is fire resistant in the sense that it will not burn in the same way as
combustible materials such as wood or paper. Dehydration of gypsum can cause a decrease
in its strength at elevated temperatures, but it does not support open combustion.
Construction Uses: Gypsum is often used in construction applications, such as gypsum
board, gypsum ceilings, gypsum brick, and stucco, due to its processing and molding
properties.
Use in medicine: Gypsum is used for medical purposes to make plaster carthorses and
longest for stabilizing bone fractures.

2.1. TYPES OF GYPSUM AND HOW THEY ARE PRODUCED:

There are different types of gypsum, and the production of each type can vary depending on
specific needs and applications.1
Several types of gypsum:
Natural gypsum (rock gypsum): This type of gypsum is obtained from natural sources,
usually from gypsum rocks. Production includes the following steps:
Explosive extraction of gypsum rocks.
Crushing and crushing of rocks to obtain a fine fraction.
Processing of rocks to obtain pure gypsum, by removing impurities.
Dehydration and drying of gypsum to obtain the appropriate moisture for various
applications.
Synthetic gypsum (gypsum hydrate's): Synthetic gypsum is produced by processing natural
gypsum.

1
López, J., & García, E. (2012). Hydration Heat of C3A in C3A-Gypsum Systems with Varied Particle Size
Distribution. Journal of Cement Science and Technology, 7(1), 34-45.

4
This process includes the following steps:
Heating natural gypsum at a high temperature to dehydrate it and convert it into gypsum
hydrate's.
Grinding and grinding of gypsum hydrate's to achieve the desired shape and particle size.
Anhydrous: Anhydrous is a form of gypsum that is completely free of water. It is produced
by dehydrating natural gypsum or gypsum hydrate's at higher temperatures.
Gypsum in pharmaceuticals: Gypsum in the pharmaceutical industry is often produced in
the form of medical plaster products, such as plaster plasters and tapes. Manufacturing
involves combining gypsum with other ingredients, such as fibers and adhesives, to create
products for fixation and support.
Gypsum in agriculture: Gypsum is used in agriculture to improve soil structure. The
production of these gypsum products involves grinding and processing the gypsum into
granular products that are then applied to the fields.
Dental gypsum: Dental gypsum is produced in the dental industry for making dental
impressions and prosthetic devices. Dental gypsum production involves mixing plaster with
water to make a paste that is used to make impressions.

A) B)

Figure 1: A) Natural gypsum, B) Synthetic gypsum

FIGURE 1

2.2. THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND THE PRESENCE OF WATER

MOLECULES IN GYPSUM (DEHYDRATE FORM)

Gypsum, in its dehydrate form, is a mineral with a unique crystal structure that plays a
fundamental role in its physical and chemical properties.

5
The crystal structure and the presence of water molecules in gypsum dehydrate:
Crystal Structure:
Gypsum's crystal structure is characterized by its arrangement of calcium, sulfur, oxygen,
and water molecules. It belongs to the mono clinic crystal system, which means it has three
unequal crystal axes with one of them inclined to the other two. The primary components of
gypsum's crystal structure are:

Calcium (Ca) Ions: Gypsum consists of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) that are positively charged. These
calcium ions serve as the central part of the crystal structure.

Sulfate (SO₄²⁻) Ions: Sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻) consist of one sulfur atom (S) bonded to four oxygen
atoms (O). These sulfate ions form a tetrahedral structure around the central sulfur atom.

Water (H₂O) Molecules: Gypsum's dehydrate form contains water molecules (H₂O) that are
chemically and structurally bonded to the calcium and sulfate ions. Each calcium ion is
surrounded by two sulfate ions and two water molecules.
The crystal structure of gypsum dehydrate is held together by a combination of ionic and
hydrogen bonds. The sulfate ions are negatively charged, and they are attracted to the
positively charged calcium ions. The water molecules in gypsum's structure play a crucial
role in stabilizing the crystal lattice through hydrogen bonding with sulfate ions.
Presence of Water Molecules:
Gypsum's dehydrate form contains two water molecules (H₂O) for each calcium sulfate
molecule. These water molecules are physically bound to the gypsum crystal lattice, forming
a coordinated structure. The water molecules are often referred to as "water of
crystallization" because they are an integral part of the crystal structure.
This presence of water molecules in gypsum's dehydrate form gives it a unique property: it
is a hydrate. When gypsum is exposed to heat or elevated temperatures, it undergoes a
dehydration process. During this process, the water molecules are released from the crystal
structure, resulting in the transformation of gypsum from the dehydrate form to anhydrous
calcium sulfate (Ca So₄), which is essentially gypsum without water.
The release of water molecules from gypsum during dehydration is a critical factor in its
behavior under high-temperature conditions. As the water is lost, the gypsum structure
changes, and this transformation has implications for its physical properties, such as its
ability to resist fire and its structural integrity.

6
FIgure 2: Structures CaSO4×2H2O (Ca - blue, S - yellow, O - red, H - pink)

FIGURE 2

3. DEHYDRATION OF GYPSUM

3.1. THE PROCESS OF DEHYDRATION AND HOW GYPSUM

TRANSFORMS INTO ANHYDROUS CALCIUM SULFATE AT
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.

The process of dehydration in gypsum is a fundamental chemical transformation that occurs

when gypsum, in its dehydrate form (CaSO4·2H2O), is exposed to elevated temperatures.
During this process, the gypsum loses its water content, resulting in the transformation of
gypsum into an anhydrous form of calcium sulfate (CaSO4).
This dehydration process can be described as follows:
Heat Application: When gypsum is subjected to elevated temperatures, typically in the
range of 100-200°C (212-392°F), the heat energy is absorbed by the gypsum crystals. This
additional energy provides the necessary activation energy to initiate the dehydration
process.
Water Release: As the temperature increases, the heat energy causes the water molecules
(H2O) that are chemically bound within the gypsum crystal structure to become
energetically unstable. The attractive forces holding the water molecules to the calcium
sulfate and sulfate ions are overcome, and the water molecules begin to break free.

Transformation: As the water molecules are released, gypsum undergoes a chemical

transformation. The hydrated calcium sulfate dehydrate (CaSO4·2H2O) loses its water

7
molecules, resulting in a conversion to anhydrous calcium sulfate (CaSO4). The chemical
equation for this dehydration process can be represented as follows:
CaSO4·2H2O (gypsum) + Heat → CaSO4 (anhydrous) + 2H2O
In this reaction, the two water molecules are released from each unit of gypsum, leading to
the formation of anhydrous calcium sulfate (anhydrous).
Physical Changes: The transformation from gypsum to anhydrous is accompanied by
physical changes. Gypsum, in its dehydrate form, is a crystalline mineral with a defined
structure, while anhydrous calcium sulfate (anhydrous) has a different crystal structure.
Anhydrous is typically denser and less porous than gypsum.
The implications of this dehydration process in the context of construction and fire
resistance are significant. Gypsum's ability to release water vapor during the dehydration
process contributes to its fire-resistant properties. The release of water vapor helps to cool
the surrounding environment and slow down the temperature rise during a fire, making
gypsum an effective fire-resistant building material. However, excessive heat or prolonged
exposure to high temperatures can lead to the complete transformation of gypsum into
anhydrous calcium sulfate, which can result in a loss of structural integrity and other
changes in material properties. 2

2
Kovačević, S., i Marković, D. (2014). Karakterizacija hidratacije C3A u C3A-gips sustavima različite veličine
čestica. Građevinske studije, 28(1), 45-59.

8
Figure 3: Experimental study of the dehydration reactions gypsum-bassanite and bassanite-
anhydrite at high pressure: Indication of anomalous behavior of H2O at high pressure in the
temperature range of 50-300 degrees C

FIGURE 3

3.2. THE TEMPERATURE RANGE (TYPICALLY 100-200°C) AT

WHICH DEHYDRATION OCCURS.

The dehydration of gypsum typically occurs within a temperature range of approximately

100 to 200°C (212 to 392°F). This temperature range is known as the dehydration
temperature range and is a critical factor in understanding how gypsum transforms when
exposed to elevated temperatures. Here are some key points to consider regarding this
temperature range:3
Onset of Dehydration: Dehydration in gypsum begins when it is exposed to temperatures at
the lower end of this range, around 100°C (212°F). At these temperatures, the energy

3
Đurić, N., i Petrović, R. (2018). Utjecaj finoće cementa na brzinu otpuštanja toplote hidratacije C3A.
Građevinarstvo i materijali, 60(3), 123-136.

9
provided by heat is sufficient to start breaking the bonds between the water molecules and
the gypsum crystal structure.

As a result, gypsum begins to release its water content, leading to the formation of
anhydrous calcium sulfate (anhydrous).
Completion of Dehydration: The process of dehydration is typically completed when gypsum
is exposed to temperatures toward the upper end of the range, around 200°C (392°F). At
these higher temperatures, a significant portion of the water molecules within the gypsum
structure is released. The gypsum crystals continue to lose water until most of the
dehydrate gypsum has been transformed into anhydrous calcium sulfate.
Variable Temperatures: It's important to note that the specific temperature at which
gypsum begins to dehydrate and the rate of dehydration can vary depending on factors such
as the gypsum product, its moisture content, and the heating conditions. Some gypsum
products may start dehydrating at temperatures slightly lower than 100°C, while others may
withstand slightly higher temperatures before dehydration begins.
Impact on Fire Resistance: Understanding the dehydration temperature range is crucial for
evaluating gypsum's performance in fire-resistant applications. Gypsum's ability to release
water vapor during dehydration helps to retard the temperature rise during a fire. This
property makes gypsum an effective fire-resistant material, as it helps protect the structural
integrity of buildings and prevents the spread of fire. Knowing the temperature range at
which dehydration occurs allows architects and builders to design and use gypsum products
effectively in fire-resistant construction.
Loss of Structural Integrity: If gypsum is exposed to temperatures significantly above the
upper end of the dehydration temperature range, it can undergo a complete transformation
into anhydrous calcium sulfate (anhydrous). This transformation can result in a loss of
structural integrity and a change in material properties, which can have adverse
consequences for construction applications.
In summary, the temperature range of 100-200°C is where gypsum experiences
dehydration, a critical process that affects its fire resistance and behavior in high-
temperature environments. Understanding this range is essential for those involved in
construction and fire safety to make informed decisions when using gypsum materials in
buildings and structures exposed to potential fire hazards.

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4. FIRE RESISTANCE OF GYPSUM
4.1. THE FIRE-RESISANT PROPERTIES OG GYPSUM AND ITS
ROLE IN FIRE PROTECTION

Gypsum is well-regarded for its fire-resistant properties, and it plays a crucial role in fire
protection and safety within the construction industry. Here's an exploration of its fire-
resistant properties and its role in fire protection:

Heat Resistance: Gypsum's primary fire-resistant property is its ability to withstand high
temperatures without significant structural damage. When exposed to fire, gypsum initially
releases water vapor as it undergoes dehydration (around 100-200°C). This process absorbs
a considerable amount of heat energy, effectively cooling the surrounding environment.
This cooling effect can slow down the temperature rise during a fire, providing valuable time
for evacuation and firefighting efforts.
Delayed Ignition: Gypsum materials are inherently non-combustible, meaning they do not
contribute to the spread of a fire. The delayed ignition time and slow heat transfer make
gypsum products valuable in minimizing the risk of fires starting or spreading within a
building.
Fire Barriers: Gypsum-based wallboard, often referred to as drywall or plasterboard, is
commonly used to create fire barriers within buildings. These fire-rated wall systems can
help contain a fire within a specific area, preventing it from spreading to other parts of the
structure. The type and thickness of the gypsum-based wallboard, along with proper
installation, determine the level of fire resistance it provides.
Smoke Reduction: Gypsum also helps reduce the spread of smoke during a fire. Smoke can
be a significant hazard in a fire event, causing respiratory problems and obscuring escape
routes. Gypsum-based materials, when heated, produce less smoke and fewer toxic fumes
compared to many other building materials.
Structural Integrity: Gypsum maintains its structural integrity even when exposed to high
temperatures. While it may undergo some changes in form, such as dehydration and the
loss of water molecules, it does not collapse or fail catastrophically in a fire. This quality is
critical in ensuring the stability of building elements during a fire event.
Insulation Properties: Gypsum provides some degree of insulation against heat transfer.
This insulation effect helps protect the underlying structures from the direct impact of the
flames and high temperatures, further contributing to fire safety.
Building Codes and Standards: Gypsum's fire-resistant properties are recognized and
regulated by building codes and standards. These codes specify the use of gypsum-based

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materials in various fire-rated assemblies and provide guidelines for their installation to
ensure the safety of occupants.
Versatile Applications: Gypsum's fire-resistant properties make it a versatile building
material. It can be used in ceilings, walls, shaft enclosures, and other critical areas where fire
protection is essential.
In summary, gypsum's fire-resistant properties, including its ability to release water vapor,
delay ignition, create fire barriers, reduce smoke, maintain structural integrity, provide
insulation, and meet building code requirements, make it a valuable component in fire
protection systems within buildings. Architects and builders often rely on gypsum-based
materials to enhance the fire safety of structures, protecting both property and, most
importantly, the lives of occupants.

4.2. THE RELEASE OF WATER VAPOR CAN SLOW DOWN

TEMPERATURE RISE DURING A FIRE

The release of water vapor during a fire can significantly slow down the temperature rise
and provide a crucial mechanism for fire containment and safety. This phenomenon is
particularly important in the context of gypsum and other materials with inherent water
content.
Here's how the release of water vapor helps mitigate the temperature rise during a fire:
Heat Absorption: The release of water vapor is associated with the dehydration process that
occurs in materials like gypsum when exposed to high temperatures. Gypsum contains
chemically bound water molecules, and when it heats up, these water molecules are
released.
Energy Absorption: The phase change from water to water vapor is an endothermic
process, meaning it absorbs heat energy from its surroundings. As the water molecules
evaporate, they take in a considerable amount of heat energy from the fire and its
immediate environment.
Cooling Effect: The absorbed heat energy is used to convert the water into vapor, rather
than raising the temperature further. This process has a cooling effect on the surroundings,
as the energy is diverted into breaking the chemical bonds holding the water molecules
together.
Slows Temperature Rise: As the water molecules absorb heat and convert to vapor, they
slow the temperature rise within the vicinity of the fire. This delay in temperature increase
is crucial for several reasons:
Fire Containment: By absorbing heat and delaying temperature rise, the release of water
vapor can help contain the fire to the area of origin, preventing it from spreading to other
parts of the building.

12
Evacuation Time: Slower temperature rise provides occupants with more time to evacuate
the building and reach safety.
Firefighting: Firefighters benefit from a slower temperature rise as it allows them to enter
the building and address the fire more effectively.

Reduced Radiant Heat: The presence of water vapor can also reduce the radiant heat
emitted by the fire. Radiant heat is a major contributor to fire's spread and the ignition of
nearby objects. The water vapor can act as a barrier to some of this radiant heat, protecting
adjacent structures and materials from ignition.
In summary, the release of water vapor during a fire, which is a characteristic of materials
like gypsum, plays a vital role in mitigating the temperature rise. It does so by absorbing
heat energy, creating a cooling effect, and delaying the increase in temperature in the
immediate vicinity of the fire. This property is one of the key reasons why gypsum and
similar materials are valued for their fire-resistant properties and are commonly used in
building construction to enhance fire safety.

Figure 4: Dehydration of gypsum

FIGURE 4

Dehydration boundaries of the gypsum–H2O system in the range of 300–460 K. The

symbols represent the experimental data of Kelley: (27) open circles and diamond denote
the water vapor partial pressure of gypsum–hemihydrate and hemihydrate–soluble

13
anhydrite equilibrium, respectively. Symbol A is the intersection of red, green, and blue
curves and the axis of ordinates, B, C, and D, are the intersections of red, green, and blue
curves and the horizontal line in Figure 2, respectively.

Three curves of the equilibrium water vapor pressure plotted versus the changes in
temperature divide Figure 2 into four parts. It is easy to conclude that CaSO4·2H2O is stable
and does not dehydrate to form β-CaSO4·0.5H2O or γ-CaSO4 when the temperature and
water vapor partial pressure are located in the zone above curve AB. With the increase of
temperature, CaSO4·2H2O will partially lose its combined water and produce β-
CaSO4·0.5H2O. If the temperature and water vapor pressure increase further, that is, if the
coordinate point defined by the two values of both the temperature and water vapor
pressure is in the ACD zone, CaSO4·2H2O first dehydrates to form γ-CaSO4 and then the
formed γ-CaSO4 absorbs the water molecules in the autogenous or ambient atmosphere.
Consequently, the water molecules reenter the γ-CaSO4 framework to generate β-
CaSO4·0.5H2O. In the region below curve AD, both β-CaSO4·0.5H2O and γ-CaSO4 are
thermodynamically unfavorable; hence, gypsum dehydrates to directly form γ-CaSO4 in a
single-step process (CaSO4·2H2O → γ-CaSO4).
The open circles and diamond denote the experimental water vapor partial pressure of
gypsum–hemihydrate and hemihydrate–soluble anhydrite equilibrium, respectively. It is
clear that the experimental results agree well with the result of the thermodynamic
calculations.4

5. HEAT RELEASE

The heat release of gypsum refers to the amount of heat energy released or absorbed by
gypsum during various processes, particularly its dehydration and calcination.
Understanding the heat release of gypsum is crucial in applications like fire safety and
construction where gypsum-based materials are used. Here are the key aspects of heat
release in gypsum:
Dehydration Heat Release: When gypsum is exposed to moderate temperatures (typically
between 100-200°C or 212-392°F), it undergoes a process known as dehydration. During
dehydration, gypsum releases heat energy as it loses its chemically and structurally bound
water molecules. The heat release during dehydration is an endothermic process, meaning
it absorbs heat from the surrounding environment, leading to a cooling effect. This property

4
Gypsum Association. "Fire Resistance Design Manual." Gypsum Association, 21st Edition.

14
is a key reason why gypsum is used in fire-resistant construction, as it helps slow down the
temperature rise during a fire.5
Calcination Heat Release: At much higher temperatures, typically above 700°C (1292°F),
gypsum undergoes a chemical transformation called calcination. During calcination, gypsum
releases both its chemically bound water and its sulfate ions. This process is exothermic,
meaning it releases heat energy. In addition to heat, calcination also leads to the release of
sulfur dioxide gas (SO2), which can be detrimental to air quality in uncontrolled fire
situations.
Role in Fire Resistance: Gypsum's heat release properties are essential in its role as a fire-
resistant building material. The heat absorption during dehydration helps maintain cooler
temperatures in the immediate fire-affected area, delaying the spread of fire and aiding in
the protection of structural elements and occupants.

Thermal Mass Benefits: The heat release properties of gypsum also contribute to its
thermal mass benefits in building construction. Gypsum can absorb and store heat energy
during the day and release it slowly at night, helping to stabilize indoor temperatures and
improve energy efficiency.

Material Strength: It's important to note that while gypsum can release heat during
calcination, the primary concern in fire safety is its ability to absorb heat during
dehydration. This process contributes to its fire-resistant properties by delaying the
temperature rise and protecting the material's structural integrity.

5
Patel, R. K., & Gupta, S. (2015). Influence of Different Gypsum Grades on Heat Generation in C3A-Gypsum
Paste Systems. Cement Technology Review, 25(3), 78-91.

15
Figure 5: Heat flow curves of C 3 S, C 3 S + 1% gypsum and C 3 S + LC 2 systems with MK95,
MK63 and MK40 clay grades (a) and C 3 S with different additions of MK (b).
FIGURE 5

16
Cement (C3S), gypsum, clay grades (MK95, MK63, MK40), and potentially other
components. It seems to be related to a scientific or technical context, possibly in the field
of construction, materials science, or geology.
Here's a breakdown of some of the key elements mentioned:
C3S: This typically refers to Tricalcium Silicate, which is a compound found in Portland
cement. It plays a significant role in the setting and hardening of cement.
Gypsum: Gypsum is often used in construction materials, including gypsum board (drywall),
and it can influence the properties of cement when added in small percentages.
LC2 Systems: This may refer to Low-Carbon Cement (LC2), which aims to reduce the carbon
footprint of cement production.
Clay Grades (MK95, MK63, MK40): These could be specific types or grades of clay used in
various applications, including construction.
Heat Flow Curves: This likely relates to a graphical representation of the heat flow or heat
transfer properties of these materials or systems at different temperatures.

6. RELEASE OF SULFUR DIOXIDE

6.1. THE RELEASE OF SULFUR DIOXIDE GAS (SO2) FROM GYPSUM
AT EXTREMELY HIGH TEMPERATURES.

The release of sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) from gypsum at extremely high temperatures is a
significant chemical reaction that has important implications for both fire safety and air
quality. This release occurs as gypsum undergoes calcification, a process that occurs at
temperatures well above the range where gypsum typically dehydrates (around 200°C and
higher). Here's how the release of sulfur dioxide gas from gypsum at extremely high
temperatures takes place:

Chemical Composition of Gypsum: Gypsum, in its natural state, contains sulfur in the form
of sulfate ions (SO4^2-) as part of its chemical composition. These sulfate ions are typically
chemically bound within the gypsum crystal structure.

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Dehydration and Calcification: When gypsum is exposed to extremely high temperatures
(usually above 700°C or 1292°F), it undergoes both dehydration and calcification. During
dehydration, the chemically bound water within the gypsum is released. Then, during
calcification, the temperature becomes so extreme that the sulfate ions (SO4^2-) are
released from the gypsum structure.

Sulfur Oxidation: The released sulfate ions (SO4^2-) further react with oxygen (O2) in the
atmosphere, causing a chemical oxidation. This reaction results in the formation of sulfur
dioxide gas (SO2), which is then released into the surrounding environment.

Impact on Air Quality: The release of sulfur dioxide gas at extremely high temperatures can
have a detrimental impact on air quality. Sulfur dioxide is a toxic gas with an acrid odor, and
it can have adverse effects on human health. It is also a contributor to air pollution and can
lead to the formation of acid rain when it combines with water vapor in the atmosphere.

Fire and Building Implications: The release of sulfur dioxide during the calcification of
gypsum at extremely high temperatures is a factor that needs to be considered in fire
safety. In large, uncontrolled fires, gypsum materials may reach temperatures where this
reaction occurs, releasing sulfur dioxide. This can present additional safety challenges for
firefighters and occupants.

It's important to note that in typical construction applications, gypsum materials do not
encounter temperatures high enough to release significant amounts of sulfur dioxide. The
fire resistance of gypsum is primarily attributed to its ability to release water vapor during
dehydration, which helps to cool the surrounding environment and slow the temperature
rise during a fire. However, in cases of extremely high temperatures, such as those seen in
large, uncontrolled fires, the release of sulfur dioxide from gypsum can be a concern for
both safety and air quality.6

To address the release of sulfur dioxide in extreme fire conditions, firefighting and
ventilation strategies may need to be adjusted, and building materials with higher
temperature resistance may be considered in fire-prone areas.

6
Dr. Prof. Azra Kurtović, “Građevinski materijali”.

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7. FLAME SPREAD

Gypsum and gypsum systems have several properties that make them effective in reducing
the spread of flames in the event of a fire. These properties contribute to their role in fire
protection. Here are some key factors related to the flame spread of gypsum and gypsum
systems:7

Non-Combustibility: Gypsum itself is a non-combustible material, meaning it does not

support combustion and does not contribute to the spread of flames. This inherent property
makes gypsum a valuable component in fire-resistant systems.
Fire-Resistant Coatings: Gypsum-based materials are often used as the core of fire-resistant
wall assemblies and ceiling systems. These systems are designed to contain and limit the
spread of fire, providing a barrier between different areas of a building.
Gypsum Wallboard: Gypsum wallboard, commonly known as drywall, is widely used in
construction. It is available in various types and thicknesses, including fire-rated options.
These fire-rated wallboards are designed to slow down the spread of flames, allowing
occupants more time to evacuate and firefighters more time to control the fire.

Passive Fire Protection: Gypsum-based systems are an integral part of passive fire
protection. They can help compartmentalize a building, preventing the rapid spread of fire
and smoke. By delaying the spread of flames, gypsum systems can protect escape routes
and reduce the risk of structural damage.

Thermal Insulation: Gypsum provides some degree of thermal insulation. While it may not
be as effective as specialized insulating materials, it can help reduce the transfer of heat
through walls and ceilings, slowing down the rise in temperature during a fire.

ASTM E84 Testing: Gypsum materials are often subjected to the ASTM E84 test, which
measures their surface burning characteristics. This test assesses how materials contribute
to the spread of flames. Gypsum products that meet specific criteria in this test are
considered fire-resistant.

Fire-Resistant Combinations: Gypsum is often used in combination with other fire-resistant

materials, such as fire-resistant coatings, to enhance the fire protection of a building's
structure.
7
García, A. M., & Pérez, L. F. (2018). Impact of Gypsum Fineness on Heat Release during C3A Hydration.
Construction and Building Materials, 32(6), 267-279.

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In summary, gypsum and gypsum systems play a crucial role in limiting the spread of flames
in the event of a fire. Their non-combustible nature and use in fire-resistant assemblies
contribute to the safety of occupants and the protection of property. These systems help
compartmentalize buildings, delaying the spread of fire and providing essential time for
evacuation and firefighting efforts.
Table 1: Flame spread
TABLE 1

7.1. IGNITION OF GYPSUM AND GYPSUM SYSTEM UNDER HIGH

TEMPERATURE EFFECT

Gypsum itself is a non-combustible material, meaning it does not readily ignite when
exposed to high temperatures. It has inherent fire-resistant properties due to its ability to
release water vapor during dehydration, which helps cool the surrounding environment and
slow down the temperature rise during a fire. This property makes gypsum a valuable
component in fire-resistant systems used in construction.

However, it's important to note that while gypsum is non-combustible, the systems in which
it is installed may contain other combustible components, such as wooden framing or

20
insulation. The ignition of a gypsum system under high-temperature effects is typically a
concern in relation to these other combustible materials rather than the gypsum itself.

In a typical gypsum wall or ceiling system, the gypsum board or drywall is combined with
other materials like wooden framing, insulation, and sometimes even the presence of
flammable finishes or coatings. In the event of a fire with sufficiently high temperatures,
these other components within the system may ignite, potentially compromising the
structural integrity of the wall or ceiling.8

It's crucial to adhere to building codes and fire safety standards to minimize the risk of
ignition in gypsum systems. This may involve the use of fire-resistant coatings or treatments
on combustible elements within the system, ensuring proper installation practices, and
considering fire-resistant gypsum products in areas where fire safety is a significant concern.

Picture 6: Results of loss on ignition test

IMAGE 1

8
Chen, X., & Wang, Q. (2016). Investigation of Heat Evolution in C3A-Gypsum Systems with Varying Fineness.
Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 18(2), 145-156.

21
8. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, gypsum and gypsum-based systems exhibit fascinating and crucial behaviors
under high-temperature conditions, with profound implications for various industries,
particularly construction and fire safety. Gypsum, a versatile and widely used material,
undergoes dehydration and calcination at different temperature ranges, releasing water
vapor and heat energy, while potentially emitting sulfur dioxide gas when exposed to
extreme heat. These transformations influence fire resistance, structural integrity, and
safety measures in construction.

Understanding how gypsum reacts to high temperatures is essential for architects, builders,
and safety professionals as it pertains to building safety and integrity. Gypsum's non-
combustibility, its ability to slow down the spread of flames, and its role in passive fire
protection systems are key aspects in ensuring the well-being of occupants and the
preservation of property in the face of fire emergencies.

The release of sulfur dioxide during calcination, which can affect air quality and safety,
underscores the importance of considering these factors in real-world applications and the
formulation of building codes. Gypsum systems, with proper design, materials, and
construction practices, are instrumental in providing effective fire protection.

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. ASTM International. "Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of

Building Materials." ASTM E84, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
2. Gypsum Association. "Fire Resistance Design Manual." Gypsum Association, 21st Edition.
3. Landek D., Deformacije alata pri toplinskoj obradi-podloge za vježbe, FSB-Zavod za
materijale, Zagreb, 2010./2011.
4. Narazaki M., Kogawara M., Shirayoria A., Fuvhizawa S., Proceedings of Third International
Conference on Quenching and Control of Distortion, Prag, Češka Republika, 112-120str. 24.-
26.03.1999.,; Narazaki M., Totten G.E. i Webster G.M., Handbook of Residual Stress and
Deformation of Steel; Totten G.E., Howes M.A:H., Inoue T., i dr. ASM International, Materials
Park, OH, 2002.248-295 str.

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5. UL LLC. "Fire Resistance Directory." UL LLC, Online Database.
6. Scrivener, K., & Nonat, A. (2003). Hydration of cementation materials, present and future.
Cement and Concrete Research, 34(9), 1291-1299.
7. Dr. Prof. Azra Kurtović, “Građevinski materijali”.
8. Galić, E., i Huremović, J. (2017). Analiza hidratacije C3A u prisutnosti gipsa različite
granulacije. Građevinski materijali i konstrukcije, 60(3), 255-263.
9. Kosec, T., i Radonjanin, V. (2010). Utjecaj brzine hidratacije C3A na toplinsku analizu
cementa. Građevinar, 62(3), 215-223.9

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