Archaeoastronomy

and the Roots

of Science
AAAS Selected Symposia Series
Archaeoastronomy
and the Roots
of Science

Edited by E. C. Krupp

~ ~ ~~o~1!~n~~~up
LONDON AND NEW YORK

AAAS Selected Symposium 71

First published 1984 by Westview Press, Inc.

Published 2018 by Routledge

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About the Book

Archaeoastronomy is a rapidly developing interdisciplinary

inquiry into the minds of our prehistoric and ancient ancestors,
one that attempts to reconstruct the ways in which early peo-
ples made use of the sky and its significance to them. Astron-
omy appears to be a fundamental component of culture, making
the scope of archaeoastronomy worldwide. This book, reviewing
recent research, includes new material on the megalith builders
in Western Europe, North American Indians, the literate civili-
zations of Mesoamerica, the Andean culture of the Incas, and
the Egyptians, among others. Recent discoveries and contro-
versies are highlighted, and the relationship of ancient sky-
watching to the development of true science is explored. This
is not a tracing of the historical thread leading from pre-
science to science; rather it is a cross-cultural search for
those elements of prescientific activity that might give us a
hint of the process of evolution of our own relationship with
the sky.
About the Series

The AAAS SeZected Symposia Series was begun in 1977 to

provide a means for more permanently recording and more
widely disseminating some of the valuable material which is
discussed at the AAAS Annual National Meetings. The volumes
in this Series are based on symposia held at the Meetings
which address topics of current and continuing significance,
both within and among the sciences, and in the areas in which
science and technology impact on public policy. The Series
format is designed to provide for rapid dissemination of
information, so the papers are not typeset but are reproduced
directly from the camera-copy submitted by the authors. The
papers are organized and edited by the symposium arrangers
who then become the editors of the various volumes. Most
papers published in this Series are original contributions
which have not been previously published, although in some
cases additional papers from other sources have been added
by an editor to provide a more comprehensive view of a
particular topic. Symposia may be reports of new research
or reviews of established work, particularly work of an
interdisciplinary nature, since the AAAS Annual Meetings
typically embrace the full range of the sciences and their
societal implications.

WILLIAM D. CAREY
Executive Officer
American Association for
the Advancement of Science
Contents

About the Editor and Authors . • . • . . . . . . . ix

Acknowledgments . .xi

1 As the World Turns--E. C. Krupp • • • • • • • • 1

2 California's First Astronomers--

Travis Hudson • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 11

3 Solar and Lunar Observatories of the

Megalithic Astronomers--Archibald S. Thom • • • • 83

4 Stones and Henges: Megalithic Astronomy

Reviewed--Ronald Hicks. • • • • • • • • • • • 169

5 The Nature of Mesoamerican Astronomy:

A Look at the Native Texts--
John B. Carlson. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 211

6 The View from the Tropics--

Anthony F. Aveni • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2 53

7 Egyptian Astronomy: A Tale of Temples,

Tradition, and Tombs--E. C. Krupp • • • • • • 289

Index . . . . . • . • . . . . • . • . . • . 321

vii
About the Editor and Authors

E. C. Krupp, director of Griffith Observatory in Los

Angeles, California, has specialized in archaeoastronomy,
ethnoastronomy, and the astronomical components of belief
systems. He has examined or visited 400 ancient and pre-
historic sites around the world, and he is the author or
editor of numerous publications, most recently Echoes of
the Ancient Skies (Harper and Row, 1983). In 1978 he was
awarded the American Institute of Physics/U. S. Steel Award
for Best Science Writing for his book In Search of Ancient
Astronomies (Doubleday, 1978).

Anthony F. Aveni is Charles A. Dana Professor of Astronomy

and Anthropology at Colgate University in Hamilton, New York.
He is the author or editor of more than fifty books and
articles in his field, among them Native American Astronomy,
Archaeoastronomy in Pre-Columbian America, and Skywatchers
of Ancient Mexico (all published by University of Texas Press,
1975, 1977, and 1980, respectively). In 1982 he was chosen
National Professor of the Year by the Council for the Advance-
ment and Support of Education.
John B. Carlson is founder and director of the Center for
Archaeoastronomy, affiliate assistant professor of astronomy,
and adjunct assistant professor of anthropology at the Uni-
versity of Maryland, College Park. A specialist in extra-
galactic astronomy and archaeoastronomy, he has done field
research at more than 100 sites in the southwestern United
States and Central America, with special emphasis on the Maya
civilization. Currently he serves as editor-in-chief of
Archaeoastronomy, associate editor of Current Anthropology,
and advisory editor of the Journal of the History of Astronomy.

Ronald Hicks, associate professor of anthropology at

Ball State University in MUncie, Indiana, has done research
on prehistoric archaeology and the folklore associated with
ix
x About the Editor and Authors
prehistoric earthworks in the British Isles and the midwestern
United States. He is a fellow of the American Anthropological
Association~ the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland~ and
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.
Travis Hudson, curator of anthropology at the Santa
Barbara Museum of Natural History in Santa Barbara~ California~
has done work on Native American astronomy and archaeoastronomy~
especially in California. He is the author of more than eighty
publications~ including Crystals in the Sky: An Intellectual
Odyssey Involving Chumash Astronomy, Cosmology, and Rock Art
(with E. Underhay; Ballena~ 1978)~ and he was a Science
Foundation Fellow and a National Academy of Sciences exchange
scientist to the U.S.S.R.
Archibald s. Thorn is honorary retired senior research
fellow in the Department of Aeronautics and Fluid Mechanics
at the University of Glasgow~ Scotland. An engineer by
training~ he has also done research and written extensively
on prehistoric sites in the British Isles. His books include
Megalithic Remains in Britain and Brittany (with A. Thorn;
Oxford University Press~ 1979) and Megalithic Rings: Plans
and Data for 229 Monuments in Britain (with A. Thorn and
A. Burl; BAR~ 1980).
Acknowledgments

I am most grateful to all of the participants in this

project for the vital commodity all possessed in abundance:
patience. When it became apparent that both usual and
unusual demands on the resources of Griffith Observatory
would slow development of the final camera-ready copy,
Joellen M. Fritsche, Associate Editor in the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science Publications Office,
adopted a tolerant and understanding approach toward the
delays. Her continuing support of the project and gentle
prodding kept my spirits up and brought this effort to its
earliest possible completion.

Similarly, the equanimity of the other five contributors

greatly enhanced the production of this book. Their courtesy
and professionalism made my job easier, and I am in their
debt.

Because this volume evolved out of an AAAS symposium,

the book would not have materialized had the symposium itself
not taken place. It was organized for the January annual
meeting in San Francisco in 1980. The symposium was possible
only through the financial support of several institutions
which subsidized the travel expenses for several of the par-
ticipants. Mr. Robert L. Merritt secured a contribution from
the Lloyd Foundation, which has supported research in archaeo-
astronomy before. Dr. John Carlson also was able to obtain a
grant for the program from the University of Maryland. Dr.
Priscilla Reining, representing the AAAS Section on Anthro-
pology, provided additional financial assistance, and finally,
Dr. Donat Wentzel, representing the AAAS Section on Astronomy,
committed a substantial sum so that the symposium could take
place. Indeed, Dr. Wentzel is very much responsible for the
existence of this book, for he originally proposed the idea
of holding an AAAS Symposium on archaeoastronomy and invited
me to organize it. When he realized that the participants

xi
xii AcknowLedgments
would have no independent sources of travel money, he took
the initiative to secure the necessary funds. Your reading
these words now is testimony of his success.

Certainly Griffith Observatory, Department of Recreation

and Parks, City of Los Angeles, must be regarded as a copro-
ducer of the symposium as well as of this book. I undertook
the project as part of my duties at the Observatory with the
approval of Mr. John Horan, Assistant General Manager, in
charge of the Department's Scientific and Educational Branch.
In addition, Griffith Observatory accepted the responsibility
to produce the entire camera-ready manuscript. This meant
preparation of many of the line drawings, diagrams, and photo-
graphs. Mr. Paul Roques and Mr. George Ewell Peirson did all
of the necessary photocopying and printing. Observatory
artists Ms. Helen Jorjorian and Mr. George Ewell Peirson did
some of the drawings. And Mr. Joseph Bieniasz, Civil Engi-
neering Drafter on the Observatory technical staff, executed
many fine pen-and-ink diagrams.

Typing the manuscript to the standards of camera-ready

pages was no small task either. Ms. Andrea Barkan, on the
Observatory clerical staff, saw this demanding chore through
from beginning to end and remained cheerful, dedicated, and
accurate despite the other distractions and responsibilities
of her job.

To all of those mentioned, then, I express my heartfelt

thanks. All of them watched the progress of this work, first
as one lunation followed another, and then as the sun itself
completed a few seasonal rounds, never losing faith that the
finish of this project was part of the natural order of things.

E. C. Krupp
 E. C. Krupp

1. As the World Turns

If careful observation of the world around us
counts as science, then there is no doubt that our
ancient and prehistoric ancestors were scientists.
They would not have survived without a detailed
knowledge of the environment.

Of course, there is much more to science than

looking at the world meticulously and systemati-
cally. How we handle the information we gather
and what we make of it are key components of the
scientific process. But science does begin with an
alert and curious eye. In antiquity, that eye was
often turned to the sky. There it plucked patterns,
snared cycles, and appropriated order from the de-
pendable, repetitious movement of celestial objects.
They became references in the landscape of time and
space. From them the ancients fashioned systems
of timekeeping and direction.

Calendars, clocks, and direction are part of

our common heritage from the past. We don't have
to reinvent them. They are foundations for organ-
ized human interaction, so necessary and so regu-
larly used that we take them for granted. But our
ancestors didn't take them for granted. To them,
the sky was alive and powerful. The sun, moon, and
stars did not answer to earth. In heaven, they
were free from manipulation and the will of others.
The sky's theatrics oriented the minds of our
ancestors; the sky put meaning into the world. It
made the world comprehensible.

Astronomy, then, was incorporated into numer-

ous aspects of life, and the interdisciplinary
study of ancient astronomy allows us to see how the

1
2 E. C. Kr>upp

sky was interwoven into traditions, temples, tombs,

and tales. Astronomy was a fundamental component
of culture.

Traditional peoples throughout the world and

in every era have watched the sky. We can hope to
understand how their relationships with the sky
affected their lives only by approaching their
views of nature on their terms. we are dealing
here with something much broader than the origins
of science. The way our ancestors interacted with
the sky--the methods they used to watch it and the
symbolic cultural expressions of what they saw
there--immerses us into their belief systems.

Like ourselves, our ancestors fabricated a

vision of the cosmos and tried to understand their
place in it. Their attempts to come to terms with
the universe were guided and inevitably sustained
by their perception of its structure. For them,
this structure was the cosmic pattern of time and
space revealed by the cyclical dramas played out
overhead.

If the earth did not turn on its axis each day

and orbit the sun once a year, we would have a very
different feeling about the orientation of the
landscape and the passage of time. And were there
no moon to parcel out the days in one-month pack-
ages, tied by the ribbon of its phases, there would
be virtually nothing in the sky to provide us with
a sense of ordered time and primary direction.
The sky would be a very different place, with no
beginnings, no endings, and no renewals. The
world would be still, unchanging.

Instead, the sky is in constant transforma-

tion. Day and night exchange places with endless
oscillation. The seasons pass on a continuous loop
from one to the next until the first comes to the
front of the line again to start the circuit once
more, while the sun and the stars keep in pace with
it. The moon keeps up a rhythm in movement and
shape that allows anyone who stops to watch it to see
a never-ending string of cycles.

The astronomical phenomena that supplied our

ancestors with cyclical time told them the same
story again and again:
 As the Wo~ld TU~ns 3
Things come.
Things go.
Things come again.
This pattern was paralleled in the seasonal cycles
of vegetation. This is the great pattern of life,
and the comings and goings of celestial objects
were associated with it. In these terms, the story
was more compelling:
Things are born.
Things grow and mature.
Things die.
Things start over again.
It is still a simple story, one that mirrors our
own experience. But it doesn't sound like science.

The sun doesn't really die at every sunset.

It doesn't expire in the dead of winter at every
winter solstice. The moon doesn't really die when
it seems to be pared--through one waning phase
after another--until there is no moon at all. The
stars don't really die when they set below the
western horizon. But we have said they do. These
are stories we have told about sky, metaphors that
helped us put the things we saw happening into
language that matched the things that mattered to
us most. Many things do die in the winter, and
the world comes to life in the spring. In more
tropical environments the basic pattern is the
same, but it is linked with the cycle of rain and
drought. Oar ancestors saw a connection between
the earth's seasons and the sun's annual movement.
Therefore, they associated the celestial events
overhead with the terrestrial events at their feet.

Metaphor was the link between these two realms,

and metaphor is just a way of describing--of empha-
sizing--a relationship between things. Celestial
metaphors have been expressed in many ways by
traditional peoples: in myth, in systems of kin-
ship, in the authorization of a ruler's power, in
monumental architecture, and in many other cultural
institutions. These embody the imagery of the sky
because the sky is a reservoir of power. Its order
provides a model for the order we must impose on
so many areas of human activity.

For example, the emperor of China was regarded

as the counterpart of the north celestial pole
4 E. C. KPupp

The place of the emperor in China was the Hall of

Supreme Harmony, the heart of the Imperial Palace
in Beijing. This building straddles the primary
axis of the capital, a north-south line that struc-
tures the entire city. Altogether the palace was
called "the Purple {Polar) Forbidden City." It
complemented the celestial zone around the pole of
the sky, which was known as "the Forbidden Purple
Palace." The emperor was the pivot, the hub, of
terrestrial affairs, just as the pole was the spot
around which all the sky turned. And in this
capacity the emperor was the conduit that carried
sacred cosmic order to earth. {Robin Rector Krupp)
because he, like the pole, was the source of sta-
bility and order. He was the fixed spot around
which society turned, the center of the world, and
his mandate to rule derived from the one fixed spot
in the sky, the center of its diurnal motion. As
the world turns, the pole stays put and appears to
be the hub of the fundamental cycle of the world:
the transformation of day and night.
Equating the celestial pole with the emperor
was more than evocative allusion. It was symbolic
language that established a relationship between
the world, the emperor, and the sky with economy
and precision.
Our brains help us get along in the world by
collecting, categorizing, and correlating infor-
mation, but if we really had to contend with all
of the data our senses collect, we would be lost
in a blizzard of details. Instead, most of the
time, we focus on those things that are important,
useful, and reconcilable with previous experience.
Our brains are filters. They edit the world for
us and so make it possible for us to survive in it.
Our brains process the information, and symbolic,
metaphorical thought allows us to manipulate it and
communicate it.
We look, then, for pattern and order, and they
show up in the sky more explicitly and more force-
fully than in any other realm in our environment.
But the sky is the scene, now and then, of ~epar­
tures from order: the violence of the storm,
the unexpected appearance of a comet, the erratic
path of a fireball, the devastating and sudden
aspect of an eclipse. But these intrusions of
chaos in an otherwise orderly kingdom pass. Order
is always restored, and it is the reliable, famil-
iar, cyclical behavior of the sky that makes it--
for traditional peoples--a model of the structure
of space and time.
Science uses models, too, and for the same
reason: to express relationships. The primary
difference between the use of models or metaphors
in the scientific process, and their use by tradi-
tional peoples is the means by which we abandon
the model.
It is possible, of course, to be mistaken
about some of the relationships we believe to be
true. In our culture, we have found it useful--a
6 E. C. KPupp
selective advantage--to refine our understanding of
nature by discarding metaphors, models, or theories
that don't stand up to scientific scrutiny. This
systematic testing of our metaphors against all
pertinent data is, to a great extent, just what we
mean by science, and it is different from what we
usually encounter in the belief systems of tradi-
tional peoples.
This book explores the celestial ingredients
in several ancient belief systems and probes the
boundary between them and science. The book began
as a special symposium with the same title and
organized for the 146th National Meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science
and presented in San Francisco 6 January 1980.
Because the theme of the National Meeting was
"Science: Our Common Heritage," a lecture series
on archaeoastronomy and the roots of science was
especially appropriate. The presentations of the
symposium were, in part, transformed into the six
articles included here, and each of the authors
demonstrates that the peoples considered here all
watched the sky and paid attention to it.
The evidence for ancient astronomy is not
always explicit or complete. In some cases, we are
dealing with peoples who had no written language
and so left no written account of their discoveries
and concerns. But in the first paper, on Califor-
nia Indian traditions, Dr. Travis Hudson, Curator
of Anthropology at the Santa Barbara Museum of
Natural History, lets us see the richness of the
ethnographic record. This record is extremely
important, for it confirms that calendars, sky lore,
astronomically inspired ritual were by no means the
exclusive province of settled, agricultural com-
munities.
Sometimes, however, the evidence is less
clear. Some alignments in the neolithic and bronze
age stone monuments of prehistoric Britain have
been recognized as astronomical for many decades.
Yet, only the old stones remain to tell us the
story. Interpretations of this archaeological
evidence is controversial. Dr. A.S. Thom is one
of the investigators who has worked extensively
out in the field for many years. He is very close
to the problem of "megalithic science," and his
paper here summarizes the case for precise solar
and lunar observatories among the megaliths.
 As the WoPZd TuPnB ?

Celestial metaphors rest upon concrete foundations

of careful, systematic observation. Observatories
like this, built by astronomer Guo Shou jing at Gao
cheng, were sources of the calendrical and astrono-
mical information that helped order Chinese life.
The emperor was responsible for acquisition of this
information, and it, in turn, helped provide his
mandate to rule. (Robin Rector Krupp)
Maat was the right order of things, the congruence of all components of the
cosmos. It was a gift from the gods in the sky because they, as cyclical
celestial objects, provided pattern and order on the stage overhead, and their
performances made life possible here on earth. Shown here as a goddess in the
Tomb of Seti I, Maat has wings, and they confirm her link with the sky.
(E.C. Krupp)
 As the WoPLd Tupns 9

Prehistorian Dr. Ronald Hicks of Ball State

University, takes a somewhat different point of
view on stone and bronze age astronomy in his con-
tribution to this collection. Although the con-
flicting opinions evoked by the megalithic align-
ments emphasize the limits of our knowledge of the
past, we can in any case be certain that the
events in the sky were an important part of pre-
historic life.

Dr. John Carlson, Director of the Center

for Archaeoastronomy, seems, by the title of his
paper, to have a less difficult task. His examina-
tion of Mesoamerican astronomy focuses on the
native texts. Unlike the previous researchers,
Dr. Carlson has a written record to help reveal the
goals, techniques, results, and meaning of skywatch-
ing in ancient Mexico. He shows us, however, that
interpretation of this record is not as straight-
foward as we might guess. A true appreciation of
its significance requires an understanding of its
symbolic content.

The Mesoamerican peoples observed the sky from

a tropical latitude. Dr. Anthony F. Aveni's exten-
sive fieldwork in Mesoamerica has documented some
of the consequences of the tropical view of the
cosmos in the monumental architecture of the Maya
and the other peoples of ancient Mexico. Dr. Aveni
is Professor of Astronomy and Anthropology at
Colgate University, and he has been responsible for
promoting genuine interdisciplinary study of an
ancient astronomy. His paper here incorporates
some of his work in Peru and embraces the broader
issue of the effect of latitude on astronomy and
the belief systems that attend it.

Finally, the last article takes a brief look

at the astronomy of ancient Egypt. We can be cer-
tain in some sense the roots of science must have
penetrated the black fertile soil of the Nile, for
the calendar and timekeeping conventions devised
by the Egyptians eventually evolved into our own.
Here, too, we have a written record to guide us,
but the record, again, is not explicit. The
Egyptian material reflects the astronomical systems
that were in place, but very little of it comes to
us straight from the files of the ancient Egyptian
astronomers.
10 E. C. KPupp
Despite the obstacles in the evidence, system-
atic observation of the sky has, we discover, a
respectable antiquity. It was a fundamental acti-
vity--something that just about everybody did. In
a quest for the roots of science, any sign of
systematic observation suggests we are on the right
track. But if we believe that our evaluation of
the precision of megalithic observatories, the
reliability of the Egyptian calendars, or the
accuracy of the computational techniques in the
Maya codices will put us face-to-face with science
as we practice it today, we are bound to be misled.
The skywatchers of antiquity were specialists in
the sacred, not in science. This does not mean
they were careless. Most of them knew the sky
intimately. Their observations of the heavens
supplied them with a sense of cosmic order. This
is not just an intellectual insight; it is an
emotional response as well. And it is this
sense of cosmic order that was at the center of
their concept of the sacred.

Recognition and celebration of cosmic order

animated the religions of our ancestors. The
rightness of things--or Maat, as the Egyptians
deified it--was the primary gift bestowed by
celestial gods. Guaranteeing the world's stabil-
ity, well-being, and congruence, was their respon-
sibility. The ancients' astronomies told them
about gods in the sky, not about objects in space.

It is, however, with such an eye on the cosmos

that science begins--curious, disciplined, and
imaginative. Our ancestors harvested powerful and
effective symbols from the sky. These resonated
with their brains and through patte~n and order
made the universe make sense. Through this pro-
cess the ancients fashioned a cosmology, a world-
view. And a world-view doesn't have to be scien-
tific to be useful.

Today cosmology is scientific, but our need

for it is hardly different from our ancestors.
The ancient astronomies may not be the same thing
as modern science, but they show us how important
understanding where we fit into the cosmos is to
us. we, like our ancestors, draw pictures of the
universe and try to figure out where in the cosmos
we are.
?4 TPavis Hudson

All these aspects of our attempt to understand

and to control our environments were highly devel-
oped among the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia
Egypt, China, Mesoamerica, and Peru, and were no
doubt further refinements of a body of knowledge
used by their food producing antecedents as well.
That these aspects may have had their roots even
earlier among their hunter-gatherer ancestors now
seems probable too.

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my appreciation to

Drs. Dennis Power, Lowell Bean, Maurice Zigmond, and
Thomas Blackburn, and to Mrs. Janice Timbrook, for
their many helpful comments and suggestions on this
paper. Also, my thanks are extended to Mr. Clifton
Smith and Mrs. Joan Pursell of our Museum library
for locating books and articles. Most of all, I
would like to express my sincere appreciation to
Dr. Edwin Krupp for inviting me to participate and
to the American Association for the Advancement of
Science for its support in making this paper a
reality.

Notes

lwhen the terms sun and moon are capitalized in this

paper, I am referring to these objects as super-
natural beings. The same is also true for various
beings identified with other celestial objects
(for example, "Morning Star").
 CalifoPnia's FiPst AstponomePs ?5
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 ObsePVatoPies of the Megalithie AstPonomeps 16?

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Thorn, A. and A.S. Thorn

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be? The evidence is ambiguous at best, and many of

the people working on these problems--myself among
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tended as are the Thoms.

Finally, one very positive aspect of the study

of megalithic sites is its interdisciplinary char-
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all to become familiar with one another's work. To
truly understand these monuments we cannot look on-
ly at the astronomy, the geometry, the metrology,
the iconography, or the archaeology and evidence
for social organization. We must look at all of
these. Those who work on any one aspect must be
aware of, and make a serious attempt to understand,
the work being done on all the others.

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~L~o~n~d~o~n~:~~E~l~e~k~.~~~--~~~~~~~~----~--~-

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0' Kelly, Claire

1973 "Passage-grave Art in the Boyne Valley,
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Patrick, Jon
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1979 "A Reassessment of the Lunar Observatory

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1973 "The Dorset Cursus Complex--a Neolithic
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Porteous, Hugh L.
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 Stones and Henges: Megalithic AstPonomy Reviewed 209

Journal for the History of Astronomy

4:22-24

Renfrew, Colin
1973 "Monuments, Mobilization and Social Organ-
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Smith, John
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1922 "Instances of Orientations in Prehistoric

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Stukeley, William
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Thorn, Alexander
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1978 "The Distances Between Stones in Rows."

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society,
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Thorn, A., & A.S. Thorn

1971 "The Astronomical Significance of the Large
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1972 "The Carnac Alignments." Journal for the

History of Astronomy 3:11-26.
210 Ronald Hicks
1978 Megalithic Remains in Britain and Brittany.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Thorn, Alexander, Archibald S. Thorn, & J.M. Gorrie

1976 "The Two Megalithic Lunar Observatories
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wainwright, Geoffrey
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Wainwright, Geoffrey, & Ian H. Longworth

1971 Durrington Walls: Excavations 1966-1968.
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 NatuPe of MesoamePican AstPonomy 249

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1977 Native American Astrono~. Austin:
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Aveni, Anthony F.
1980 Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico.
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Carls on, John B.

1976 "Astronomical Investigations and Site Ori-
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Carlson, John B.
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Carlson, John B.
1980 "On Classic Maya Monumental Recorded His-
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Codex Dresden
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1973 The Maya Scribe and His World.
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1978 A Selected Bibliography on Native Ameri-
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1976 Deciphering the Maya Script. Austin:
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1976 "A Rationale for the Initial Date of the
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High Room of the Sun, and it is skewed to the win-

ter solstice sunrise.

We need not doubt the existence of ancient

Egyptian astronomers. They assume, in fact, in-
creased importance as we realize how deeply astro-
nomy's applications penetrated Egyptian life. vle
relive their achievements in our calendars and
clocks. There is little direct evidence of the
astronomers themselves, however. Amenemhet, of the
Sixteenth Century B.C., is the earliest, and one
of the few, we know by name. It is the tomb of
Nakht, an astronomer of the Eighteenth Dynasty,
however, that offers the most convincing proof of
the presence of an astronomer's lifestyle. The
royal Theban tombs in the Valley of the Kings are
rich in astronomical associations and imagery: the
Northern Group, star clocks, representations of
Sirius, Orion, and the planets, and more. Nakht,
by contrast, decorated his tomb with those things
closest to an astronomer's heart--enthusiastic
winemaking, sumptuous banquets, and women as dan-
cers and musicians, delicate and scantily clothed.

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