Design of Electrical Distribution System

SUEZ CANAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
“Electrical Power and Machines Department”
DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR

TOURISTIC VILLAGE WITH AUTOMATION SYSTEM
Graduation project is submitted to achieve the requirements for the

Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering
Supervised by
Prepared by
1- Ahmed Sayed AbdelSalam Hassan
2- Ahmed Mohamed Mahmoud Ewada
3- Elsayed Mohamed Elsayed Eid
4- Hashem Fathy Ahmed Hassan
5- Mohamed Ahmed Mohamed Zidan
6- Mohamed Tohamy Aboualematy Tohamy
7- Mohamed Khalil Mohamed Atito
8- Mohamed Shaker AbdelMoula karim
9- Mohamed Kamel Ahmed Mahmoud
10- Alaa Abdo Ismail Hussein
July 2016
I
Abstract
With the increasing importance of tourism in the prosperity of the Egyptian economy
and raise the standard of living and the national income and bring in foreign
currency, it was necessary to raise the level of services and tourist facilities and
keep pace with the best entertainment and comfort for tourists.
Tourism village can encompass everything from chalets, swimming pools, medical
services, playgrounds, marketing services and Administrative Services. there are
considerations that must be taken into account regardless of the size of the project.
Location, materials, safety, energy, comfort and cost are just a few of the things that
should be kept in mind during design stage.
From above, it is clear that comprehensive and cohesive design methodology for
tourism buildings including outlets distribution, load estimation, branch circuit design,
cable sizing, and switchboard design is a difficult and specialized task.
Comprehensive design is usually achieved through a step-by-step procedure and
design checks. Although, electrical Egyptian code does cover building design, it
does not ban the using of other national/international codes. This enables us
searching in different national codes in order to achieve proper design.
In this project, constructional features of residential buildings are explained in detail

to explore their effects on indoor and outdoor lighting schemes, elevator design,
cable selection and protection system. Different design methodologies have been
applied throughout the work; however, the design by synthesis is applied for the
most of the work including indoor and outdoor design. Also different codes and
regulation have been applied such as NEC, BS, Egyptian Electrical code and IEE
regulations.
II
Acknowledgement
All Gratitude is due to allah
Thanks must go to Allah the creator of this universe who ordered us to study and
explore his creations in order to know him better. However, as we come to
understand more, we find that there is so much more knowledge to absorb and to
get to grip with.
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our supervisor

Dr.Bassem El-hady for his constant encouragement and invaluable suggestions
throughout this research work. His sacrifice, patience and devotion were a constant
inspiration to us.
Thanks to our staff and fellow students in Electrical power engineering department
for their invaluable discussions on many aspects of the project, Our families for their
sincere encouragement and supplications. All people who contributed to fulfillment of
this work.
Project team
July, 2016
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Tourism village design.................................................................................................2
1.2 Project objectives.........................................................................................................3
1.3 Outline ........................................................................................................................4
Chapter2: Load Estimation
2.1 Importance of Load Estimation............................... ...................................................... 6
2.2 Definition of Important terms in Load Estimate..............................................................6
2.3 considerations of load calculations........................... .....................................................8
2.4 Load calculations of buildings......................................................................................10
2.4.1 Hotel ……………………………………………………………………………..10
2.4.2 Residential buildings …………………………….………………….…………11
2.4.3 Services building ……………………………………………………………….17
2.4.4 Additional loads……………………………………………...………………….19
2.4.5 Total estimated loads of the village…………………………………………..20
Chapter3: Lighting
.31 introduction………………………………………..…………….……..……………………22
3.2 general Lighting………………………………………………,,……………………………22
3.3 lighting designed requirements………………………….………………….…………….23
3.4 Fundamentals of Lighting Definitions………………………………………….…………23
.33 Types of lighting schemes:……………………..……………………………….…..……25
3.6 Types of lamps:……………………………………………..…………….……….…….…27
3.7 luminers……………………………………………………..……………….……..………34
3.7.1 introduction of luminaires……………………….…..…………………...………34
3.7.2 type of luminaires................................................. ..………...........................34

3.8 street lighting ……………………………………………………..…………..……….…... 36
3.8.1 introduction………………………………………………..………..……......……36
3.8.2 luminance level ………………………………………..………….…….…......…36
3.8.3 luminance uniformity………………………………..…………….………..….…37
3.8.4 glare limitations……………………………………..……………..………………37
3.8.5 the required data at design of street lighting…………..……….……..…….…38
3.8.6 components of street lighting lanterns…………………..……….………..……38
IV
3.8.7 types of poles in street……………………………..……………………………39
3.8.8 method of street lighting design…………………..………………...……….…42
3.8.9. street lighting arrangements……………………..…………………..…………43
3.8.10. calculation of street lighting……………………..………………….…………46
3.8.11. illumination level for street for lighting and mounting height of lamps…....47
3.8.12. comparison between good and bad design of outdoor lighting…..……….48
3.9 lighting calculation of any space………………………………...…………..……………51
3.10 lighting calculation using dialux……………………………..…………...………………55

Chapter: 4 Sockets
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………….....……………61
4.2 Types of Sockets………………………………………………………..……………….….61
4.2.1 Normal Sockets………………………………………………………………….61
4.2.2 Power Sockets………....……………………………..………..……................61
4.2.3 U.P.S SOCKET…………………………………………….……………………62
4.2.4 Emergency Power Socket …………………….………………………...…...62
4.3 Methods of Layout……………………………………………………..……………………62
4.3.1 Wall Mounted………………………………………...…………….…………....62
4.3.2 Floor Sockets…………………………………………………………….………64
4.4 Sockets Design according to Egyptian code………………………...…………..…………64
CHAPTER: 5 Cables
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 66
5.2 General construction of cables ............................................... ............................. ... 66
5.3 Factors considered in design and selection of power cables .................................. 68 Chap
5.4 Cable insulation materials ............................................... ............................…….... 69
5.4.1 Paper .............................................. ................................ ........................ 69
5.4.2 P.V.C............................................... ................................ .......................... 69
5.4.3 Thermosetting (XLPE) .................................. ............................... ............ 69
5.5 Derating Factors ................................... ................................ ................................. 69
5.6 Calculation of cross section of cables ............................................... ...................... 71
5.7 Joints and terminations ............................................... .......................................... ... 77
5.8 Cable trays ............................................... .. ........................................................ ... 77
5.9 The Conduits ............................................... ...................................................... ... 79
V
5.10 Cable Trench / Channel ..................................................................................... ... 79
5.11 Method of Laying Underground Cable in Special Location..................................... 81
5.12 Distribution panels ............................................... ……….................................. ... 83
5.12.1 Medium voltage distribution panel (M.V.D.P) ......................................... 83
5.12.2 Low voltage distribution panel ................................................................ 85
Chapter: 6 transformer
6.1 Introduction ............................... ................................ ................................................... 89
6.2 What is a transformer? ............................... ................................ ……........................... 90
6.3 Types of transformers............................... ................................ ..................................... 91
6.3.1 Step-up transformers............................... ................................ ................. 91
6.3.2 Step-down transformers ............................... .................................. ..........91
6.3.3 Isolation transformers............................... .................................................91
6.3.4 Variable auto-transformers............................... .........................................91
6.4 Main Parts of Distribution Transformers ............................... ..........................................91
6.4.1 Iron Core…............................ …............................. …...............................91
6.4.2 Windings............................... ................................ ....... ............................92
6.4.3 Tank..................... ............................. ....................................................... 92
6.4.4 Oil Expansion Conservator......................................... ............................ ...92
6.4.5 Terminals............................... .................................................................... 92
6.4.6 Tap Changer.......................... .............................................. ..................... 92
6.4.7 Cooling Oil............................... ...................................... .......................... 93
6.4.8 Bushings............................... .................................. ...................................93
6.5 Number of phase....................... ..................................................................................... 94
6.5.1 Single phase. ...................... ................................ .....................................94
6.5.2 Poly phase. ...................... ................................ ........................................94
6.6 Transformer Ratio...................... .......................................... ..........................................94
6.7 The regulation of a transformer...................... ................................ ................................94
6.8 The efficiency of a transformer...................... ................................ .................................94
6.9 Parallel operation of the transformers...................... .......................................................95
6.10 Classification of Distribution Transformers...................... .................................. ..........96
6.11 Specification of the used transformer...................... ................................ ....................98
6.12 Transformers used in the village ...................... ................................ ..........................99
6.13 Protection Systems for Transformers..................... ................................ ...................101
6.14 Types of Substation bus schemes ...................... ......................................................103
6.14.1 Single Bus scheme ...................... .........................................................103
6.14.2 Double Bus, Double Breaker scheme...................... ..............................104
6.14.3 Main and Transfer Bus scheme...................... .......................................105
6.14.4 Double Bus, Single Breaker scheme...................... ...............................107
6.14.5 Ring Bus scheme ............................... ...................................................108
VI
6.14.6 Breaker-and-a-Half scheme ............................... ...................................109
6.14.7 Comparison of Configurations............................... ................................110
Chapter: 7 Power Factor Correction
7.1 Introduction............................... ....................................................... ......................112

7.2 Causes of low Power factor............................... ............................... ....................111
7.3 Disadvantage of low power factor............................... ..........................................113
7.4 Why Improve Low Power Factor? ............................... ...........................................114
7.5 Benefits of Power Factor Correction............................... ........................................114
7.6 Capacitor selection............................... ................................... ..............................115
7.7 Power factor correction capacitors............................... ...........................................116
7.8 Employ improvement the power factor in the project............................................. .118
Chapter 8 Electrical Protection

8.1 Introduction ............................... ................................................ ............................120
8.2 The function of Protective relaying includes the following.......................................120
8.3 Basic requirements of protection............................... .............................................121
8.4 Types of Protection............................... ................................ .................................121
8.4.1. Fuses............................... ................................ ......................................121
8.4.2. Over current and earth fault............................... .....................................121
8.4.3. Differential ............................... ................................ ..............................122
8.4.4. Distance ............................... ................................ ………......................122
8.4.5. Phase comparison............................... ................................ .................122.
8.4.6. Directional comparison ............................... ................................ ..........122
8.5 Circuit breakers............................... ................................ ......................................122
8.5.1 Construction of circuit breakers............................... ................................122
8.5.2 Medium voltage circuit breaker............................... ................................123
8.5.3 Low voltage circuit breakers............................... .....................................125
8.6. Protection used in our project............................... ................................ ................126
8.6.1. Over current relay............................... ................................ ...................126
8.6.2 Short circuit current protection............................... .................................128
8.7 Transformer Protection............................... ................................ ..........................129
8.7.1. Types of Transformer Faults ............................... ...................................129
8.7.2. Types of Transformer Protection............................... .............................129
8.8 Feeders protection............................... ................................ ……….......................131
VII
8.9 Motor Protection............................... ............................................... ......................131
Chapter 9: Earthing
9.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...133
9.2 Advantages & disadvantages of earthing…………………………………………………134
9.2.1 Advantages…………………………………………………………………....134
9.2.2 Disadvantages………………………………………………………………...135
9.3 Combining neutral with earth………………………………………………………………..135
9.4 Types of earthing…………………………………………………………………………….136
9.4.1 TN-C earthing system………………………….……………………………..137
9.4.2 TN-S earthing system………………………………………………………..137
9.4.3 TN-C-S earthing system……………………………………………………..138
9.4.4 TT earthing system……………………………………………………………138
9.4.5 IT earthing system…………………………………………………………….139
9.5 IEC terminology……………………………………………………………………………...139
9.6 In household wiring…………………………………………………………………………..140
9.7 Theory vs. practice…………………………………………………………………………..140
9.8 Soil resistivity………………………………………………………………………………....141
9.9 Earthing calculation for the hotel building in our village………………………………….145
Chapter 10: Light Load
10.1 Firing system…………………………………………………………………………………148
10.1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….148
10.1.2 Types of Fire Alarm Systems………………………………………………...148
10.1.3 Points to consider during design alarm system…………………………….150
10.1.4 Main component of fire alarm system……………………………………….150
10.1.5 Position of detectors…………………………………………………………..153
10.2 Local Area Network (LAN)………………………………………………………………….155
10.2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………155
10.2.2 ADSL connections……………………………………………………………155
10.2.3 Types of LANs………………………………………………………………..156
10.2.4 Which is better-wired or wireless?..........................................................159
10.2.5 Components of LAN…………………………………………………………160
10.3 Closed Circuit Television System (CCTV)………………………………………………..163
10.3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………163
10.3.2 Aims of a surveillance camera system…………………………………….164
VIII
10.3.3 System design elements…………………………………………………… 164
10.3.4 Types of cameras used in CCTV systems………………………………...165
10.3.5 Power supply systems……………………………………………………… 166
10.3.6 Camera functions…………………………………………………………….168
10.4 Audio System……………………………………………………………………………….169
10.4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………...169
10.4.2 Basic types of distributed audio systems…………………………..….….169
10.4.3 The factors of distributed audio systems……………………………..…...170
10.4.4 Types of Speakers…………………………………………………………...170
10.5 Satellite System……………………………………………………………………………..176
10.5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………176
10.5.2 Satellite system components……………………………………………….176
Chapter 11: Air conditioning
11.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….181
11.2 Fan coil unit………………………………………………………………………………….181
11.3 Water cooled chillers……………………………………………………………………….181
11.4 Heat exchange process……………………………………………………………………183
11.4.1 Convection…………………………………………………………………..183
11.4.2 Radiation…………………………………………………………………….184
11.4.3 Evaporation………………………………………………………………….184
11.5 Air conditioning process……………………………………………………………………184
11.6 Cooling capacity and unit efficiency………………………………………………………185
11.7 Improving the efficiency of the chiller…………………………………………………….186
11.8 Types of air conditioners…………………………………………………………………..187
11.8.1 room air conditioner………………………………………………….……187
11.8.2 Central Air conditioning……………………………………………………188
11.9 Air conditioning calculation………………………………………………………………...188
Chapter 12: Emergency
12.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………... 190
12.2 Emergency Lighting………………………………………………………………………..190
12.3 Emergency loads………………………………………………………………………......191
12.3.1. Lightning loads…………………………………………………………….191
12.3.2. Transport loads……………………………………………………………192
12.3.3. Fire fighter load……………………………………………………………192
IX
12.3.4. Communication loads…………………………………………………….192
12.4 Diesel Generators ………………………………………………………………………..193
12.4.1 Rating and speed ………………………………………………………... 193
12.5 Electronic Device Protection …………………………………………………………….197
12.6 Structure and Operation in Utility Stations……………………………………………..197
CHAPTER 13: UPS
13.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………203
13.2 Common power problems……………………………………………………………...204
13.3 UPS designs........................................................................................................ 205
13.4 Choosing a UPS................................................................................................... 205
13.5 Features to Look for……………………………………………………...……………. 207
13.6 Replacing batteries……………………………………………………………………. 207
13.7 Disposing of UPS batteries………………………………………………………….. 208
13.8 Outdoor UPS………………………………………………………...…………………. 208
13.9 Typical applications……………………………..……………………………………. 209
13.10 Internal UPS…………………………………………………………...……………… 210
13.11 UPS Sizing & Estimating from Available Data ……………………….…………… 211
13.12 Maintenance on the Equipment………………….…………………………………. 212
13.12.1 Battery Selection………………………………………...…………… 212
13.12.2 Battery Room Physical and Environmental Consideration…….... 213
13.12.3 Start-Up Supervision……………………………………………..…. 213
CHAPTER 14: ATS
14.1 Introduction…………………………….……………………………………..….…….. 215
14.2 What is the Interruption?……………………………………………………..…..…… 215
14.3 Solve the problem of electric outages either by using emergency generators,
or using UPS…………..……………………………………………………………..… 216
14.3.1 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)……………………….…….. 216
14.3.2 BCKGs (backup generator)……………………………………..…. 217
14.4 Automatic transfer switch (ATS)......................................................................... 218
14.5 ATS for three source………………………………………………………………… 218
14.6 ATS for Two Source ………………………………………………………………… 219
14.6.1 General Concept………………………………..…………………… 219
14.6.2 Practical Considerations……………………………………………… 221
14.6.3 Implementation…………………………………………...………….. 221
X
14.6.3.1 System Requirements …………………………………………….. 222
14.6.3.2 Sensors and Actuator…………….………………………….…….. 222
14.6.3.3 Hardware connections……………………………………..….…… 222
14.7 Operating panel ………………………………………...…………………………….. 226
CHAPTER 15: Smart Parking
15.1 introduction………………………………………………………………….………….. 230
15.2 Problems …………………………………………………………………….…………. 230
15.3 Goals and objectives …………….………………………………………….……… 231
15.4 Project overview ……………………………………………………………….…..… 231
15.5 Proto type ………………………………………………………………..…….…… . 232
15.5.1 Hardware …………………….……………………………..…….. 233
15.5.1.1 Gate identification system……… …….………….…….. 233
15.5.1.2 Parking system ……………………….…….……..……… 243
15.5.2 Software………………………….…………………………………….255
15.5.2.1 Gate identification system………………..……….……… 255
15.5.2.2 Parking system…………………………....………………258
15.5.3 Interface between plc and Arduino ……………..…………..………269
CHAPTER 16: Design of Electrical Distribution System for the village
16.1 Calculation steps of sub-main panel boards……………………………………...… 271
16.2 Calculation steps of main panel boards………………………………………….….. 277
16.3 Calculation steps of street lighting…………………………………………………… 279
16.4 Total power of the village………………………….……………...………….……….. 279
16.5 Short Circuit Calculations………..…………………...…………………….………… 280
16.5.1 using ETAP 12.6 program………………...…..……….…….……… 280
16.5.2 Short circuit calculation Suring impedance method……….……….. 282
16.6 voltage drop calculations………………….…………………………………… ….…. 288
16.6.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………....288
16.6.2 Voltage drop calculation…………………….……………….………..288
Conclusion ..……………………………………………………………………………………291
Future Work ……………..………………………………………………………………………292
References ....……………..……………………………………………………………………293
XI
Introduction
In this Chapter:
 Touristic village design
 Project objectives
 Outline
Chapter 1
Introduction Chapter 1
1.1 Tourism village design:

The Village is close to the sea and has a total area of 253,246 KM2 Without sea
land and the sea land which belongs to the resort has a total area of 15,921
KM2.Village consists of three types of buildings of different loads, hotel, residential
buildings, and services buildings.
Hotel:
element Area of Area of Area of Total area Number of
ground first floor second of floors rooms
floor floor
Hotel (F) 3270 3270 3270 9810 140
Residential buildings:
Model Number of units Total

Number Number Height Number Area of
of of units of units floors
models in one in all
floor floors
Villa (A) 35 1 2 35 9328
Villa (A') 36 2 2 144 9012
Chalet (B) 28 2 2 112 13689
Chalet (B') 11 2 3 66 8067
Chalet (B'') 2 1 3 6 737
Chalet (C) 30 2 3 180 18289
Chalet (C') 4 2 3 24 2487
Chalet (C'') 2 1 3 6 625
Chalet (D) 16 2 3 96 7815
Chalet (E) 16 2 3 96 5799
Total 180 ‫ــــــ‬ ‫ــــــ‬ 765 75853
Services buildings:
Element Number of Total area of

floors floors
Mosque(G) 2 982
Shopping 3 9574
mall(H)
Housing 3 1500
Workers (I)
Services (J) 1 450
2
1.2 Project objectives:
Generally, the main objective of designing an electrical distribution system for

any application is to achieve the consumer requirements in acceptable engineering
way. The design procedure itself contains the following tasks:
 Determining the correct size of cables.

 Choosing the suitable capacity for switchgear system.
 Deducing the current rating of over current devices.
So, in order to achieve these tasks, there are many considerations must be
taken into account as:
 Subdivision and number of circuits needed.

 Nature and type of electrical loads.
 Normal current of protective devices.
 Different cable derating factors.
 Necessary design checks such as voltage drop and short circuit
calculation.
And the main objectives of our project is to:
 Execute an automation system using PLC, Arduino and SCADA system.

 Design ATS panel as an effective solution with backup generator for critical loads.
 learn the basics of Power Quality and safety standards for electrical installations.
3
1.3 Outline :
The thesis is structured into sixteen
fifteen chapters as follows:
Chapter 1: village design, objectives, and thesis outline are described.

Chapter 2: Initial estimation for the loads of the village at its construction stage.
Chapter 3: Overall view of lightening loads of our village.
Chapter 4: Overall view of socket loads of our village
Chapter 5: in this chapter we study types of cables, calculation of C.S of cables
and Voltage drop calculation.
Chapter 6: explains transformer connection, types, determining capacity and
indication of the actual transformers in our village.
Chapter 7: disadvantages of low P.F and the methods of P.F improvement.
Chapter 8: requirements and types of protection for distribution systems.
Chapter 9: types of earthing systems, advantages and disadvantages of earthing.
Chapter 10: study project’s light loads “Audio system, TAN, CCTV, Firing system
and satellite “
Chapter 11: process, types and calculations of air conditioning.
Chapter 12: study different types of emergency loads in the distribution system and
diesel generators
Chapter 13: common power problems and UPS.
Chapter 14: study electric outages, its solutions and ATS studying.
Chapter 15: smart parking for our village.
Chapter 16: Detailed overview on the village design, short circuit,
voltage Drop calculations.
4
Load
Estimation
In this Chapter:
 Importance of Load Estimation.
Chapter 2
 Definition of Important terms.
 considerations of load
calculations.
 Load Estimation calculations of
the village buildings.
Load Estimation Chapter 2 C
2.1 Importance of Load Estimation:

Electrical Load Estimation is very important in the draft design (early design) stage
because it help to:
 Plan the connection to upstream network and MV circuit configurations.
 Plan the transformers substation(s) and the main switchgear room.
 Apply to Power Company for supply.
 Calculate initial budget for the electrical works.
2.2 Definition of Important terms in

Load Estimation:
there are many Important terms which must be understood before performing the
load estimation, these terms are:
 Demand
“The demand of an installations or system is the load at the receiving terminals
averaged over a specified interval of time. Here load can take (kW -KVARS-KVA-
kA-A).”
 Demand interval
“It’s the period over which the load is averaged.

This selected period may be 15min, 30min, 1hr, or even longer”.
 Load duration curve
“It is a plot of demand as per unit of the peak load.

It can be daily, weekly, monthly, annually”.
Daily demand duration curve

For a Residential Load
6
 Max demand
“The maximum demand of an installation or system is the greatest of all demands

which have occurred during the specified period of time”.
 Connected load
“The sum of the continues ratings of the load consuming apparatus connected to
the system or any part.”
 Load Factor
“The ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to the peak load
according to that period”
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Fld=
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
 Loss Factor
“The ratio of the average power losses to the peak power losses during a
specified period of time”
Fls = Av Power loss

Power loss at peak load
 Demand factor
“The ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the total connected load of the
system”.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
D.F =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
7
 Diversified demand (or coincident demand)

Consumer load diversity describes the variation in the time of use, or of
maximum use, of two or more connected loads. Loads diversity is the difference
between the sum of the maximum demands of two or more individual consumers’
loads and the maximum demand of the combined loads (also called the
maximum diversified demand or maximum coincident demand). For example,
one consumers:
maximum demand may occur in the morning, while another’s may occur in
the afternoon, and still another’s in the early morning hours.
“The ratio of the individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of a
system”
FD = Sum Of Individual Maximum Demands

Coincident Maximum Demand
Difference between demand and diversity factor:
 The Demand factor must be applied to each individual load, with particular
attention to electric motors, which are very rarely operated at full load.
 The Diversity Factor is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied
from a distribution or sub-distribution board).
2.3 considerations of load calculations:

Tables below investigates the points taken into considerations while calculating the
building Loads in our project.
the lighting and air condition loads consideration
Type Lighting Air Condition

2
(kva / 100 m ) (kva / 100 m 2)
Hotel 3 4
Ground 4
Office 3 5
Ground 3
shops 5 7
Mall 4 8
Flat unit 3 7
8
the power load consideration
Load type KVA

Fire Pump 14
Water Pump 9.4
Elevators Motor 18.75
Elevators Motor of Mall 9.4
Escalators 9.4
the sockets load consideration
Load type KVA/100m2
Office- House 6
Shop 7
School 2
In addition, these points are taken into considerations:

 Basement 2 KVA /100m².
 Swimming pool:
-Lighting 2 KVA/100 m²
-Pump 15 hp
 water fountain
-Lighting 2 KVA/100 m²
-Pump 5 hp
 Tennis playground 4 KVA/100 m²
 Street lighting 2 KVA/100 m²
the values of the diversity factors used in our project
Type Diversity factor

Flat 0.6
Hotel 0.4
Office 1
Mall 1
9
Note:
• In our project, 0.8 power factor is used.
2.4 Load calculations of buildings:

The load calculation of the building depends on its area and the previous
consideration.
2.4.1 hotel:
Hotel consists of 2 floors each floor has area of 3270 m2
Load of lighting =area* no. of floors* standard lighting
Load of building 2 floors =3270*2*3/100=196.2 KVA
Load of lighting of ground = area* standard of ground
=3270*4/100=130.8 KVA
Total Load of lighting=130.8 +196.2 =327 KVA
Load of sockets = area* no. of floors* standard sockets load
=3270*2*6/100=392.4KVA
Load of water pump = no. of pumps* KVA of pump
=4*9.4=37.6 KVA
Load of fire pump =no. of pumps* KVA of pump
=4* 14=56 KVA
Load of elevators = No. of elevators* standard of motor of
elevators=4* 18.75 = 75 KVA
Load of A.C = total area of floors* standard of A.C
=9810*4/100=392.4 KVA
Total load of hotel =196.2+130.8+392.4+37.6+56+75+392.4=1280.4KVA

By using the diversity factor, the load becomes
Total load of hotel =total load* diversity factor
=1280.4*0.4=512.16 KVA
10
Total load of hotel.

Load KVA
lighting 327
sockets 457.8
water pump 37.6
fire pump 56
elevators 75
A.C 392.4
Total 512.16
2.4.2 residential buildings:
2.4.2.1 Villa Model (A)

Vila consists of one unit in each floor, height of two floors and each floor has area of
133m2
Load of building =133*2*3/100=7.98 KVA
=133*2*6/100= 15.96 KVA
1*9.4=9.4 KVA
1* 14=14 KVA

=266*7/100=18.62 KVA
Total load of Villa =65.96 KVA

Total load of Villa =total load* diversity factor
=65.96 *.6= 39.576 KVA
11
2.4.2.2 Villa Model (A')

Vila consists of two units in each floor, height of two floors and each floor has area of
125m2

Load of building =125*2*3/100=7.5KVA
=125*2*6/100= 15KVA
2*9.4=18.8KVA
2* 14=28 KVA

=250*7/100=17.57KVA
Total load of Villa =86.87KVA

Total load of Villa =total load* diversity factor
=86.87*.6= 52.122 KVA
2.4.2.3 Chalet Model (B)

Chalet consists of two units in each floor, height of two floors and each floor has
area of 245m2

=245*2*6/100= 29.4 KVA
2*9.4=18.8KVA
2* 14=28 KVA

=490*7/100=34.3 KVA
Total load of chalet =125.2 KVA

Total load of chalet =total load* diversity factor
=125.2*.6= 75.12 KVA
12
2.4.2.4 Chalet Model (B')

Chalet consists of two units in each floor, height of three floors and each floor has
area of 245m2

=245*3*6/100= 44.1 KVA
2*9.4=18.8 KVA
2* 14=28 KVA

=735*7/100=51.45 KVA
Total load of chalet =164.4KVA

=164.4*.6= 98.64 KVA
2.4.2.5 Chalet Model (B'')

Chalet consists of one unit in each floor, height of three floors and each floor has
area of 123m2

Load of building =123*3*3/100=11.07KVA
=123*3*6/100= 22.14KVA
1*9.4=9.4KVA
1* 14=14 KVA

=369*7/100=25.83KVA
Total load of chalet =82.44KVA

=82.44*.6= 49.464 KVA
13
2.4.2.6 Chalet Model (C)

area of 204m2

=204*3*6/100= 36.72 KVA
2*9.4=18.8KVA
2* 14=28 KVA

=612*7/100=42.84 KVA
Total load of chalet = 18.36 +36.72+42.84+28+18.8 = 144.72KVA

=144.72*.6= 86.832 KVA
2.4.2.7 Chalet Model (C')

area of 208m2

=208*3*6/100= 37.44 KVA
2*9.4=18.8KVA
2* 14=28 KVA

=624*7/100=43.68KVA
Total load of chalet = 146.64 KVA

=146.64*.6= 87.984 KVA
14
2.4.2.8 Chalet Model (C'')

Chalet consists of one unit in each floor, height of three floors and each floor has
area of 105m2

=105*3*6/100= 18.9 KVA
1*9.4=9.4 KVA
1* 14=14 KVA

=315*7/100=22.05 KVA

=73.8*.6= 44.28 KVA
2.4.2.9 Chalet Model (D)

area of 163m2

=163*3*6/100= 29.34 KVA
2*9.4=18.8KVA
2* 14=28 KVA

=163*7/100=11.41 KVA

=102.22*.6= 61.332 KVA
15
2.4.2.10 Chalet Model (E)

area of 121m2

=121*3*6/100= 21.78 KVA
2*9.4=18.8KVA
2* 14=28 KVA

=363*7/100=25.41 KVA

=104.88*.6= 62.928 KVA
Total load of residential buildings.
Model No. of KVA Total

models KVA
Villa (A) 35 39.576 1385.16
Villa (A') 36 52.122 1876.392
Chalet (B) 28 75.12 2103.36
Chalet (B') 11 98.64 1085.04
Chalet (B'') 2 49.464 98.928
Chalet (C) 30 86.832 2604.96
Chalet (C') 4 87.984 351.936
Chalet (C'') 2 44.28 88.56
Chalet (D) 16 61.332 981.312
Chalet (E) 16 62.928 1006.848
Total ‫ـــــــ‬ 658.272 11582.496
16
2.4.3 services buildings:
2.4.3.1 Mosque(G)
Mosque consists of two floors and each floor has area of 491 m2

Load of building 2 floors=491*2*3/100=29.46 KVA
=491*2*6/100= 58.92 KVA
1*9.4=9.4 KVA
1* 14=14 KVA

=982*7/100=68.74 KVA
Total load of building =180.52 KVA

Total load of building =total load* diversity factor
=180.52*.6= 108.312 KVA
2.4.3.2 Shopping mall(H)

Shopping mall consists of three floors and each floor has area of 3191 m2

Load of building 2 floors=3191*3*5/100=478.65 KVA
=3191*3*7/100= 670.11 KVA
4*9.4=37.6 KVA
4* 14=56 KVA

=9574 *7/100=670.18 KVA

=1912.15 *1 = 1912.15 KVA
17
2.4.3.3 Housing Workers (I)

Housing Workers consists of three floors and each floor has area of 500 m2

Load of building 3 floors=500*3*5/100=75 KVA
=500 *3*7/100= 105 KVA
2*9.4=18.8 KVA
2* 14=28 KVA

=1500*7/100=105 KVA

=331.8*.6= 199.08 KVA
2.4.3.4 Services (J)

Services building consists of one floor and has area of 450m2

Load of building one floor=450*1*5/100=22.5 KVA
=450*1*7/100= 31.5 KVA
1*9.4=9.4 KVA
1* 14=14 KVA

=450 *7/100=31.5 KVA

=108.9*.6= 65.34 KVA
18
Total load of services buildings.

building KVA
Mosque(G) 108.312
Shopping mall(H) 1912.15
Housing 199.08
Workers (I)
Services (J) 65.34
Total 2284.88
2.4.4 Additional loads:
2.4.4 .1 Street lighting:

Total area of streets and parking lots is 26,437 KM 2
Total estimated load with diversity factor of unity
=26437*2/100=528.74 KVA
2.4.4 .2 water fountains:

total area of water fountains all over the village is 4 KM2
Total estimated Lighting loads with diversity factor of unity
4000*2/100=80 KVA
Total estimated pump loads with diversity factor of unity
4*9.4=37.6 KVA
Total estimated water fountains load = 117.6 KVA
19
Total additional loads.

Load type KVA
Street lighting 528.7
water fountains 117.6
Total 646.3
2.4.5 Total estimated loads of the village:
Load type MVA

hotel .512
residential building 11.582
services buildings 2.284
additional loads .646
Total 15.024
20
Lighting
In this Chapter:
 Introduction
 General Lighting
 Lighting Designed
Requirements
Chapter 3
 Fundamentals of Lighting
Definitions
 Type of Lighting Schemes
 Type of Lamps
 Luminers
 Outdoor lighting
 Lighting calculation of any
space
 Lighting calculation by using
DIALux
Lighting Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction
Electrical power now a day plays a great part in life of towns and cities, and
progress of countries. Hence a good distribution of electrical power is an important
factor for development. In this report we present the basis of indoor lighting design,
which include the illumination calculations.
3.2 General Lighting

An arrangement of lighting equipment, which will produce a reasonably
uniform level of illumination throughout an interior, is known as “General lighting”.
The physical dimensions of the room, the distribution characteristics of luminaries,
the level of illumination desired and the appearance of the finished installation are
factors, which determine equipment location.
Even distribution is most readily obtained by a symmetrical positioning of

luminaries. After computing the number of luminaries necessary to produce the
quantity of light desired, a rough approximation of location should be made, so that
total number of luminaries can be adjusted to be evenly divisible by the number of
rows.
The exact distance between fixtures is determined by dividing the length of
the room by the number of luminaries in a row, allowing for about one — third of the
distance between the wall and the first unit.
In a similar manner, the distance between rows is the width of the room
divided by the number of rows, with about one third of the distance left between the
sidewall and the first row.
In high ceiling industrial areas, the distance may be up to one half of the
luminaries spacing. In low ceiling areas, it should generally be 2.5 to 3 feet.
For even distribution of illumination with most types of luminaries, these
two dimensions should be approximately equal. In some cases as when
fluorescent luminaries are used to obtain relatively high levels of
illumination, appearance and ease of witting dictate the use of continuous
rows of luminaries spaced close enough together to meet the requirements of good
distribution.
22
Lighting Chapter 3
The space to mounting height ratio must be within the limits established by
the distribution characteristics of the luminaries, particularly in the use of high
wattage sources. Care must be exercised in the selection of luminaries’ capacity,
since spacing to mounting height ratios frequently dictate the use of smaller
luminaries than would at first seem acceptable.
The wider the distribution of luminaries, the greater the permissible

spacing. For this reason indirect luminaries, which make use of the ceiling as a
source, can normally be mounted father apart than direct units.
The constructional features of an area frequently influence luminaries’

location. Where the ceiling area is divided into bays by beams or trusses, it is usually
desirable to install luminaries symmetrically in each bay or pair of bays.
3.3 LIGHTING DESIGNED REQUIREMENTS
1. Provide adequate illumination.

2. Provide sufficiently distribution of light over all working plane.
3. Provide a comfortable colures lighting of the objects for eye,
with correct discrimination for various colures.
4. Avoids glare and hard shadows.
5. Minimum Cost.
3.4 Fundamentals of Lighting

Definitions
 Lamp:
Energy conversion device that converts electrical energy into light
23
Lighting Chapter 3
 Luminous flux (lumen):

It is the energy in the form of light wave radiated per second from a luminous body.
Its symbol is (F) and is measured in lumens.
 Lumen:
It is the luminous flux per unit solid angle from a source of candlepower
Lumen = candle power * solid angle
 Illumination:
When the light falls on any surface, the phenomenon is called is called the
illumination. It is defined as the number of lumens, falling on the surface per Unit
area. It is represented by symbol E and its unit in (lumens /m2) or (Lux)
Illumination (E) = Lumens (F)/Area (a) (lux)
 Lux:
It is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 m at the
center of which there is a source of (1) candlepower.
 Luminous intensity (candela):

It is the luminous flux emitted by the source of light per solid angle measured
in the direction, which the intensity is required.
 Lamp efficacy:
It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power. It is expressed in
lumen per watt
 Utilization factor:
It is defined as the ratio of total lumens reaching the working plane to total
lumens given out by the lamp. Its value lies between 0.3 & 0.5
24
Lighting Chapter 3
and it is affected by:

 Colors of walls and ceilings
 Room dimension.
 Type of lamp
UF = Total lumen giving out by the lamp

Total lumen reaching the working plane
 Maintenance factor (M.F):

Due to accumulation of dust, dirt and smoke on lamps, they emit when they
are new ones and similarity that the walls and ceiling
0.9 for indoor application&
(0.7 -0.9) for outdoor application
 Space high ratio:

It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and
bright of their mountains.
Space high ratio = horizontal distance between two adjacent lamps

Mounting height of lamps above working plane
3.5 Types of lighting schemes:

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as:
 Direct lighting
 Semi-direct lighting.
 Semi indirect lighting.
 Indirect lighting.
 General lighting.
25
Lighting Chapter 3
 Direct lighting:
More than 90 % of the total light flux is made to fall directly on the
working plane. It is mainly used for industrial and outdoor lighting.
 Semi direct:
60-90 % of the total light flux is made to full down words directly
 General diffusing
The total light flux thrown upward =total light flux falls downwards
 Semi indirect:
60-90 % of total light flux is thrown upward to the ceiling and the
rest reaches the working plane directly. It is mainly used for indoor light
decoration purpose.
 Indirect lighting:
More than 90% of the total light flux is thrown upwards to the
ceiling, it is used for decoration purpose in cinemas, theaters and hotels and
workshops.
 Light output ratio

= Light from luminaries
Light from lamp
 Light output ration
= downwards light
Light from lamp
 Downward light output ratio
= Light from luminaries

Light from lamp
26
Lighting Chapter 3
 Upper flux fraction

= Upwards light
Total Light from luminaries
 Lower flux fraction

= Downwards light
Total Light from luminaries
 Flux fraction ratio
= Upper flux fraction

Lower flux fraction
3.6 Types of lamps:
27
Lighting Chapter 3
 Arc lamps.
- Carbon arc lamps.
- Flame arc lamps.
- Magnetic lamps.
 Incandescent lamps.
- Vacuum lamps
- Gas filled lamps
 Discharge lamps.
- Sodium vapor lamp.
- High-pressure mercury vapor lamp.
28
Lighting Chapter 3
- Low-pressure mercury vapor lamp.
 Fluorescent Lamps.
(Low pressure mercury lamps), it is called also fluorescent tubes.
 Advantages: -
1. The tube can be obtained in a variety of length without excessive temperature
Rise
2. The danger of glare is minimized
The fluorescent surface of the tube consists of glass tube. The inside surface
of the tube is coated with a thin layer of fluorescent material in the form of powder.
Various fluorescent materials give different color of light by mixing the various
powders. The tube contained a small quantity of argon gas and one or two drops of
mercury, it is provided with two electrons emissive material.
29
Lighting Chapter 3
 According to Egyptian code

The fluorescent lamp differs from shape, its power and the average lifetime
=7500 hours &for modern type reached to 12000&20000 hours .
Standard Length (cm) 59 120 150
Fluorescent
Lamp Power (watt) 20 40 65
U shaped Length (cm) 31 61.7 76.5
Fluorescent
Power (watt) 20 40 65
Circular type Radius (cm) 21.6 31.1 41.3
Fluorescent
Power (watt) 34 43 50
Fluorescent Length (cm) 59 120 150
Lamp with low
power Power (watt) 18 36 58
Fluorescent lamp Circular type U shaped
Incandescent or filament lamps

Light when an electric current is passed through a fine metallic wire, heat is
produced and the temperature of wire increases due to heating, as well as light
energy. The higher the temperature of the wire is, the higher is the amount of light
energy radiated. The incandescent or filament type lamp consists of glass globe
completely evacuated and a fine wire known as filament within it. The glass globe is
evacuated to prevent oxidization of the filament and also to prevent the temperature
being lowered by radiation.
30
Lighting Chapter 3
The material, which can be used for the filament of incandescent lamps,
must posses the following:
 Properties:
- High melting point.
- Low vapor pressure.
- High specific resistively.
- Low temperature coefficient
- Ductility and sufficient mechanical strength to withstand vibration during use.
 Advantage:
- Operating power factor unity.
- Direct operation on stander distribution voltage.
- Availability in various shapes and shades.
- Good radiation c/c’s in luminous range.
- No effect of surrounding air temperature
 Principal utilization:
Entrance - Halls -Kitchen - Air condition room- Refrigerators
 Luminaries
- It permits the lamp to function
- It control the light the lamp produces
- It may contain more than one lamp in it
31
Lighting Chapter 3
 Luminaries
- It permits the lamp to function
- It control the light the lamp produces
- It may contain more than one lamp in it
 Types of fluorescent luminaries:

 Surface mounted luminaries (4 fluorescent lamp) fig a
 Water proof (fluorescent lamp) fig b
 Surface mounted luminaries (2 fluorescent lamp) covered opal fig c
 Surface mounted luminaries (2 fluorescent lamp) fig d
 Types of incandescent luminaries:

Incandescent filament Fluorescent
Lamp Lamp
Initial cost per lamp is quite low Initial
Initialcost
costper
perlamp
lamp
is is
more
more
Luminous efficiency per watt Luminous
Luminousefficiency
efficiencyper
per
watt
watt
increases with increase in voltage of increases
increaseswith
withincrease
increase
in in
tube
tube
lamp length
length
More bright Less
Less bright
bright
Normal life time 1000 working hours Normal
Normallife
lifeofofthe
thetube
tube
is is
about
about
4000
Principle utilization shops, Stairs, working
4000 working
hours hours
Terrace, Reception Principle
Principleutilization
utilization:Office,
:Office,
Store,
Store,
Toilet,
Toilet,Kitchen,
Kitchen,hotel
hotelRoom
Room
32
Lighting Chapter 3
The following table presents the different illumination levels required

various parts in hospitals & the type of lamp used:
Type of area illuminance (lux)

Disinfections rooms 300
Examination rooms 300
Doctor stations 300
Machine rooms 300
Patient rooms 300
Nurse stations 300
Clinics 300
D.U & C.U 300
Kitchen 300
Offices 300
Corridors 150
Stairs 150
Air condition room 150
Refrigerators 150
Entrance 150
Surgery rooms 750
Autopsy room 750
Intensive care 750
Babies room 100
Observation rooms 400
1000
Isolation room
500
Laboratories
33
Lighting Chapter 3
3.7 LUMINERS
3.7.1 Introduction of Luminaires:
There are many types of industrial luminaries. Selection of specific types for
an installation requires consideration of many factors: candlepower distribution,
efficiency, shielding and brightness control, mounting height, lumen maintenance
characteristics, mechanical construction, environmental suitability for use in normal
or special areas. In accordance with CIE classification for interior applications.
3.7.2 Type of Luminaires:
In general, there are five types of luminaries, in accordance with CIE

classification for interior applications.
1- Direct type:
2- Semi -direct type:
3- General diffuse or direct-indirect type:
4- Semi-indirect type:
5- Indirect type
Stroboscopic effect
Gas discharge lamps operating on the A.C. supply flicker off and on. When
the voltage passes through zero the lamp is extinguished. In the other half of the
wave the voltage rises until breakdown again occurs. There are thus, two
interruptions per cycle i.e., 100/sec for a 50/c/s supply, or in other words there are
100 flashes and 100 dark periods every second.
This gives to the stroboscopic effect, which may be explained by considering

a rotating
wheel with 4 spokes. Assuming for the present that duration of flashes is
much shorter than the dark periods we shall consider their cases when the wheel
rotates at 25 r.p.s. And 30 r.p.s.
34
Lighting Chapter 3
35
Lighting Chapter 3
3.8 Street lighting:

3.8.1 Introduction
With the increase of high-speed traffic upon our roads, it has become
essential, in order to reduce accidents, to provide adequate illumination on all
streets, roads traffic junctions, tunnels, bridges etc. The function of road lighting
installation is to provide the visual Conditions needed for
the safe, quick and comfortable movement of road users.
The most important quality criteria in road lighting from the point of view of
both visual performance and visual comfort are: -
1. Luminance level.
2. Luminance uniformity.
3. Degree of glare limitation.
3.8.2 Luminance level :-

- An important criterion for the required luminance level is the brightness of
the surroundings.
- It is desirable that a stretch some five meters in width beyond the
carriageway is illuminated to a luminance level not less than 50 per-cent of that of
the adjacent five meters of carriageway.
- Adequate luminance level ranging from 0.5 to 2 cd/m2
Where: -
Q0= Average luminance factor.
Table 7 Different Classes of Roads
Illumination level (Eav) ranging from 5 to 25 lux. Up to 30 lux.
36
Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.3 Luminance uniformity: -

- Overall uniformity ratio (U0)
U0=Lmin/Lavg ≥ 0.4
- It has been found that a road lighting installation with a good value of
U0 may still give an uncomfortable impression of patchiness.
- Longitudinal uniformity ratio (UL)
UL=Lmin/Lmax ≥ 0.5
3.8.4 Glare Limitations: -
There are two criterion used in connection with glare ‘Physiological’ or
‘Disability’ glare is judged in terms of visual performance, while ‘Sicalogical’
or ‘Discomfort’ glare is judged in terms of visual comfort. … (4)
3.8.4.1. Disability Glare:
In this type, the veiling luminance decrease the perception of objects along the
roads.
# Types of lamps used for lighting the roads
For high ways low pressure sodium lamps are preferred, as its light has
Advantages over other types of lamps: -
1. It gives adequate illumination and so good perception of objects.
2. Fast distinguishing degree.
3. Less discomfort glare.
4. Less time taken by eyes to return to its normal state after glaring
occurrence.
The most used power ratings in high ways are around (135W) on height of 10
meter and (180W) at height of (12m).
In roads where large numbers of cars and humans, high pressure sodium lamps
are preferred due to its its capability to transfer colors with great honesty. The
power available are (150 W at height of 10m) and (250-400 W) at height of(12m).
37
Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.4.2 Discomfort Glare:

Table 8 Scale used for Assessing Discomfort Glare
The discomfort glare in roads is affected by many factors:

1) The area of luminaries
2) Distance between eyes and light source
3) Number of luminaries per Km
4) Color factor = 0.4 for low pressure sodium lamp.
= 0.1 for high pressure sodium lamp.
=-0.1 for high pressure mercury lamp.
= 0 for other types of lamps.
5) Average luminance in the surface of the road .The following equation
determine the degree of (G), it is convenient to make luminaries at height of
(20m).
3.8.5 The Required data at design of Street lighting.

- Road Dimension.
- Road Function.
- Road Surface Class.
- Surrounding Type.
3.8.6 Components of Street lighting lanterns

1) Lantern body
2) Light diffuser cover
3) Reflector
4) Lamp Base
5) Lamps 6) Ballast
7) Condenser 8) Torch
9) Cables and Connectors internal nutrition
lighting lanterns
38
Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.7 Types of poles in street.
2.2.7.1. Cobra head

Usage: standard.
Applications: Streets or highways Single or twin mounting.
Material/Color: Steel/silver (street), Aluminum/silver (highway).
Cobra Head
3.8.7.2. Fulton head

Usage: optional
Applications: Commercial districts Roadway width of 36 ft. or less.
Material/Color: Aluminum/silver.
Fulton
39
Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.7.3. Alliance
Usage: optional.
Applications: Commercial districts roadways with width of 36 ft. or more.
Material/Color: Steel/silver and black.
Alliance
3.8.7.4. Flatbush Avenue
usage: optional.
Applications: Commercial and residential streets, Streets with roadway width
of 36 ft. or more and Single or twin mounting (center medians).
Material/Color: Fabricated steel pole/black, brown and green.
Flatbush Avenue
40
Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.7.5. TBTA (Triboro Bridge Tunnel Authority)

usage: Optional
Applications: Commercial and residential streets, Single or twin
mounting, Streets with roadway width of 36 feet or more
Material/Color: Fabricated steel pole/black, brown and green
TBTA
3.8.7.6. Type M (known as the Mast–Arm post)

usage: historic.
Applications: Selected historic districts, Streets with roadway width of 36 feet
or more, Single or twin mounting.
Material/Color: Ductile iron pole/black, brown and Green.
Type M
3.8.7.7. Type F (known as the Reverse Scroll Bracket)
usage: historic.
Applications: Selected historic districts, Streets with roadway width of 36 ft.
41
Lighting Chapter 3
or less single or twin mounting.

Material/Color: Ductile iron pole/black, brown and Green.
Type F
3.8.7.8. LED
The LED Type E luminaire is a rectangular design housing modular light bars.
Usage: pilot.
Applications: Commercial or Residential districts TBD, Parks, plazas,
esplanades, pedestrian, bridges, walkways and bikeways.
Material/Color: TBD
LED
3.8.8 Method of Street Lighting Design:
- Selection of Pole Height.
- Selection of luminaire and lamp type.
- Selection of Arrangement.
- Estimation of pole Spacing.
-Selection of pole height is linked to: Road width, Cost (Budget).
-Selection of Luminaire and Lamp
42
Lighting Chapter 3
Type: -
The selection of luminaries according to its lighting distribution
- two way streets
- crowded streets and high way
- crosses and intersection.
The modern methods of street lighting are with using “high pressure Sodium-lamps
“or “Low pressure sodium Lamps “.
- Low pressure sodium lamps are very suitable for quick roads
Lighting to their light characterized w.r.t the other types of lamps by:
1-Larger sharpness of objects seeing
2- Larger luminance indication at the same value of street luminance.
3- Larger and rapidly attention.
4- Lower glare.
- The most using powers of these lamps in quick roads are:
1- 135W at a height of lanterns by 10 m
2- 180W for 12 m Lantern height.
- While the high pressure sodium- lamps are very suitable for the commercial
streets due to their honesty of colors transfer.
The most using powers of these lamps in quick roads are: -
1- 150 watt at height 10 m by lanterns
2- 250 / 400 watt for 12 m lantern height
3.8.9. Street lighting arrangements

3.8.9.1 Two-way traffic roads
There are four basic types of street lighting arrangements, which can be
summarized in the following points
2.2.9.1.1. CENTRALLY SUSPENDED
In this type the light source is suspended along the central axis of the road as
shown in Fig. Below It is used in narrow ways surrounded by building from.
centrally suspended
43
Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.9.1.2 OPPOSED
The light source is suspended on sides of road and both of themis in
opposite direction to each other as shown Fig. Below This type is used when
the width of the road is (1.5 times) the height of light source.
opposed design
3.8.9.1.3. STAGGERED
In this type light sources are distributed along sides of road and take Zigzag
shape as shown Fig. Below It is used when width of road is about (1 to 15) times the
height of light source.
staggered (zigzag)
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Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.9.1.4. SINGLE SIDED:

Here light source is suspended on one side of the road and it is used in case of
road width equal the height of the light source as shown in Fig. Below
SINGLE SIDED
3.8.9.2. CURVED-WAYS LIGHTING:

If the width of road is lower than (1.5) times the height of light source. The
light arrangements are as shown Fig. Below. For wider roads, the opposed
arrangements are highly recommended, and the Zigzag is not preferred as it
gives poor illumination. For all curves, distance between light fixtures depends
entirely on radius of the curves, as the radius decrease, the distance will
decrease and vice versa. As general distance between two fixtures is (0.5 to
0.75) times of distance that is used for straight roads.
(curved-way)
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Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.9.3. CROSS WAYS LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Here the illumination must be adequate and denser than that for straight roads.
An indicator lamp is used here for illustration as shown in Fig. Below
(cross ways lighting techniques)
3.8.10. Calculation of street lighting
Where:
F: total luminous flux of the lamp.
UF: utilization factor ranges from (0.2:0.6). MF: maintenance factor (0.8:0.9).
L: space between the poles in meter. W: width of the road in meter.
E: Average illumination over the working plane. (10 lux for Submain streets
and up to 30 lux for main streets).
Notes: For primary initial design the street loading can be estimated according to the
next table.
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Lighting Chapter 3
Primary initial design
3.8.11. Illumination level for street for lighting and

mounting height of lamps
Lux according to type of road, way
luminous flux of luminaries according to Mounting height of

luminaries
47
Lighting Chapter 3
3.8.12. Comparison between good and bad design of

outdoor lighting
Below are bad and good examples of outdoor lighting. Lighting with high
glare will have a bright ball of light around the fixture where as lighting that is
well shielded, low glare, and with minimal spillage will appear with a smaller or
ball of light. First we will look at some bad lighting examples, then some good.
a) Bad Lighting Design Examples
Bad street lighting design
6 Mile by Laurel Park Mall. Notice the large halos around the lamps. These are
bright 400 watt HPS fixtures that have very high glare giving a harsh
appearance, plus causing unnecessary stress and distraction to the eye. This
problem could be significantly reduced by using shielded fixtures and/or
reduced wattage.
Bad canopy lighting design
Mobil gas station on NW corner of Merriman and I-96. Notice the bright balls
of light under the canopy, indicating high glare.
48
Lighting Chapter 3
b) Good Lighting Design Examples
Good street lighting design
Livonia City Hall's parking lot on Farmington and 5 Mile. The area uses non
excessive
flat glass shoe box fixtures rendering good visibility with low glare.
Notice how halos are smaller compared to previous pictures and the parking lot is
well lit. (Camera shows HPS brighter that the blue white Metal Halide fixtures
in earlier photos).
Good canopy lighting design
Sunoco on SW corner of 6 Mile and Farmington. Although the fixtures are not
shielded, they are recessed under the overall canopy, and because they are not
overly bright, the station is well lit and does not have obtrusive glare. Because the
fixtures are not glaring or at excessive levels, attention is not drawn away from the
area or activity because of lighting.
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Lighting Chapter 3
For our village we used UrbanLine led luminaire for street lighting around
the Village.
We selected this luminaire from Philips catalogue, it is shown below.
And its data sheet is indicated below
The power rating of The selected module is 18.3 W
And the calculations of the street lighting are discussed in calculations chapter
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Lighting Chapter 3
3.9 Lighting calculation of any space:
 Steps
 Determine the room dimensions L & W & H
Where: L = length of room.
W = width of room.
H = height of room.
 Specify the amounted of illuminance (E) lux required, according to the room
purpose (from pervious tables)
Assume: we use semi direct lighting.
 The lighting is clean.
 Cleaning lamps will be each 9-month.
 Specify the lamp type according to place application
 Determine the room index (K) as follows
K = length * width
Mounting height * (L+W)
 The room index reveals whether a room is narrow, high, low and wide. It
influences the amount of light that is emitted from the fitting on the
working plane
 Determine the Utilization factor (U.F) of the room this number reveals how
much of the flux emitted by the lamp reach the working plane; this is
obtained from the tables.
 P.S: ceiling and wall reflectance are of the factors affecting the (U.F).
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Lighting Chapter 3
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Lighting Chapter 3
 Choose the appropriate Maintenance factor (M.F).

 Selected based on where the luminaries (fixture) are to be used;
 0.9 for the indoor application.
 0.7-0.9 for the outdoor application.
 Calculate the total flux (T) to be installed in the room required to achieve
the required illuminance
T = E * (L * W)
U.F * M.F
 Calculate Wattage = T / (η) lamp efficiency
Where: (η ) for fluorescent = 60

for Incandescent = 14
 Calculate the no. of the lamps (n) required to give the calculated amount of
lumen:
n= wattage
Power / lamp
Where Incandescent =60 watt & fluorescent = 18 watt
= 100 watt
 Calculate: the no. of the luminaries (N)
N = Total number of lamps

Number of lamps / laminar
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Lighting Chapter 3
Here are some examples to clarify the steps of solution:
Example 1
{Double Patient room} in the 6 the floor code no 613
1-Required illuminance = 300 Lux

2- Lamp type Flourescent.
3-Room dimension = 3.48x4.67 m2
4-Room index = K = (3.48x4.67)/(3.2x8.15) =0.6
5- from table U.F = 0.24.
6-M.F=0.8.
7-Installed flux = (300x15.56)/(0.8x0.24) = 25882.5 Lumen.
8-Total no of lamp = (25882.5 / 3200) = 8 Lamps.
9- Total no of luminaries = 8/2 = 4 fixture.
Example 2
{Surgery room} in the 3 rd floor code no 350.
1-Required illuminance = 750 Lux

2- Lamp type Fluorescent.
3-Room dimension = 5.4x6.34 m2
4-Room index K = (5.4x6.34)/(3.2x11.74) =0.6
5- from table U.F = 0.32.
6- M.F=0.8.
7-Installed flux = (750x34.24)/(0.8x0.32) = 100312.5. Lumen.
8-Total no of lamp = (25882.5 / 3200) = 32 Lamps.
9- Total no of luminaries =32/2 =16 fixture.
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Lighting Chapter 3
3.10 Lighting calculation using DIALux

 Open the AutoCAD project
 Open DIALux and import DWG file
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Lighting Chapter 3
 The AutoCAD project appears in DIALux
 Choose the room which is lighting by "Edit room geometry"
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Lighting Chapter 3
 Select this room "bed room"
 Insert luminaires and choose Field arrangement
57
Lighting Chapter 3
 Choose luminaire "led lamp"
 3D VIEW
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Lighting Chapter 3
 We can return it to the AutoCAD again
 Open the AutoCAD project
59
Sockets
In this Chapter:
 Introduction
 Types of Sockets
 Methods of Layout
 Sockets Design according
Chapter 4
to Egyptian code
Sockets Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction
sockets are the electrical outlets, which supply the electrical
equipment & instruments by its needed power (current & voltage).
Distribution of different types of sockets in a building depends mainly on the
type and use of that building.
4.2 Types of Sockets

 Normal sockets.
 Power sockets.
 U.P.S. Socket.
 Emergency Power Socket.
4.2.1 Normal Sockets
 They are used mainly for light loads only.

 The rating of each normal socket is 200w.
4.2.2 Power Sockets
They are used mainly for heavy loads such as heaters, dishwasher,
microwave, freezer, exhaust fans, oven, and cleaners.
The rating of each power socket between 1408-2000 W .
Each power socket is a single circuit directly connected to the distribution panel
board.
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Sockets Chapter 4
4.2.3 U.P.S SOCKET
 An uninterruptible power supply socket they are mainly used in offices to

avoid disconnecting in case of power failure.
 The rating of each U.P.S. socket is 200VA.
4.2.4 Emergency Power Socket
 They are mainly used in ventilation system.

 The rating of each socket for charging emergency EXIT sign is 200VA.
 Each power socket is a single circuit directly connected to the panel board.
4.3 Methods of Layout

There are two methods for sockets layout:
 Wall Mounted
 Floor Sockets
4.3.1 Wall Mounted
Sockets or mounted on wall at different locations.
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Sockets Chapter 4
4.3.2 Floor Sockets
For under floor trucking system is required enables a quick and neat
installation of all the new buildings as well as for the refitting of modern facilities,
airports and office areas, cables and equipment for power, communications and data
processing, yet permitting the clean combination of a number of different cable
layouts within the same trucking.
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Sockets Chapter 4
4.4 Sockets Design according to

Egyptian code
1. Sockets used to supply the electrical equipments must be corresponding to the
specifications of (IEC884 / 1987-1989).
2. Sockets should be fixed at height (35-40 cm), but in kitchen & bathrooms
should be fixed at height (135 cm) that's from the final ground datum.
3. Sockets are defined at a certain value of voltage & current ,there are
sockets may work under different values of voltage , so when the previous
two types are used in the same project they must be of different terminals
to avoid overlap of using them.
4. Sockets must have a strong mechanical & electrical contact with its suitable
plug.
5. Sockets must have an earthed contact with size differs from the size of the life &
neutral contacts (terminals).
6. Sockets copper terminals must be prevented from touching during the
operation.
7. The socket box must contain the value of its rated voltage &current.
8. The socket box is made of rigid insulating material & also non flamable material
& has high melting temperature.
9. Sockets are either single or double outlet & either recessed or mounted on wall.
10. Each two successive sockets are placed (2.5-3m) apart according to the
location where it is placed.
11. Each circuit contains maximum 8 sockets in order to use cable to the distribution
board 4 mm2.
64
Cables
In this Chapter:
 Introduction
 General construction of cables
 Cables classified
 Cable insulation material
 Derating Factor
 Calculation of C.S of cables
 Joints and terminations
Chapter 5
 Cable trays
 The conduits
 Cable Trench / Channel
 Method of Laying Underground
Cable in Special Location
 Distribution Panels
Cables Chapter 5
5.1 Introduction
This Chapter is concerned with the selection of wiring cables for use in an
electrical installation. It also deals with the methods of supporting such cables,
ways in which they can be enclosed to provide additional protection, and how the
conductors are identified. All such cables must conform in all respects with the
Egyptian Code (E.C).
The necessary requirements of a cable imply that it should conduct

electricity efficiently, cheaply and safely. It shouldn’t be too long to limit the cost.
It shouldn’t be small to limit the large interval voltage drop. its insulation should
be such as to prevent leakage of current and minimizing the losses.
5.2 General construction of cables

• Core or Conductor
A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of
service for which it is intended. The conductor could be of aluminum or copper
and is stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
Aluminum conductor Copper conductor

It requires larger sizes to carry It requires lower sizes to carry
the same current as copper. the same current as aluminum.
It is light in weight and large in It is large in weight but light in
diameter. diameter.
It is cheaper. It is expensive.
It has high losses. It has less losses.
1mm2= 1 ampere. 1mm2= 2 or 3 ampere.

• Insulation
The core is provided with suitable thickness of insulation, depending upon
the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly used material for
insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral
compound.
• Metallic Sheath
A metallic sheath of lead or aluminum is provided over the insulation to
protect the cable from moisture, gases or others damaging liquids.
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Cables Chapter 5
• Bedding
Bedding is provided to protect the metallic sheath from corrosion and from
mechanical damage due to armoring. It is a fibrous material like jute or hessian
tape.
• Armoring
Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it or
during the course of handling. It consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel
wire or steel tape.
• Serving
To protect armoring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous

material is provided.
In general, cables are classified according to their uses into

the following categories:
1- power Cables
o Single core.
o Double cores (often line & Neutral).
o Triple cores (often 3-phase).
o Four cores (often 3-phase & Neutral).
o Five cores (often 3-phase, Neutral & Ground).
Chapter 6
2- Control & measurement cables (multi-core with the same color).
3- Telephone cables (in pairs).
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Cables Chapter 5
Electrical Power could be transmitted via two methods:

 Overhead lines.
 Underground cables.
& we can compare them as a following:
Underground
Feature Overhead lines
cables
COST Lower. Higher.
Maintenance Easy. Difficult.
Used in open
Used in congested
Use country for long
industrial areas.
distance.
Up to 33 KV
Up to highest
Rated Voltage XLPE up to 420
voltage.
KV.
5.3 Factors considered in design and

selection of power cables
The following factors are important when selecting a suitable cable
construction which is required to transport electrical energy from the power
station to consumer:
 Maximum operating voltage.

 Insulation level.
 Frequency.
 Load to be carried.
 Magnitude and duration of possible overload.
 Magnitude and duration of short-circuit current.
 Voltage drop.
 Length of line.
 Mode of installation.
 Underground (direct or in ducts).
 In air.
 Chemical and physical properties of soil.
 Max and min. ambient air temperatures and soil temperature.
 Specification and requirements to be met.
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Cables Chapter 5
5.4 Cable insulation materials

5.4.1 Paper
Dry paper is an excellent insulator but loses its insulating properties if it
becomes wet. Dry paper is hygroscopic, that is, it absorbs moisture from the air.
It must be sealed to ensure that there is no contact with the air. Because of this,
paper insulated cables are sheathed with impervious materials, lead being the
most common. PILC (paper insulated lead covered) is traditionally used for heavy
power work. The paper insulation is impregnated with oil or non-draining
compound to improve its long-term performance. Cables of this kind need special
jointing methods to ensure that the insulation remains sealed.
5.4.2 P.V.C.
Poly vinyl chloride (p.v.c.) is now the most usual low voltage cable
insulation. It is clean to handle and is reasonably resistant to oils and other
chemicals. When p.v.c. burns, it emits dense smoke and corrosive hydrogen
chloride gas. The physical characteristics of the material change with
temperature: when cold it becomes hard and difficult to strip, and so BS 7671
specifies that it should not be worked at temperatures below 5°C. However a
special p.v.c. is available which remains flexible at temperatures down to -20°C.
5.4.3 Thermosetting (XLPE)

Gross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) is a thermosetting compound which has
better electrical properties than p.v.c. and is therefore used for medium-and high-
voltage applications. It has more resistance to deformation at higher
temperatures than p.v.c., which it is gradually replacing. It is also replacing PILC
in some applications. Thermosetting insulation may be used safely with
conductor temperatures up to 90°C thus increasing the useful current rating,
especially when ambient temperature is high.
5.5 Derating Factors

The environmental and thermal conditions where a trailing cable is used
and the thermal resistance of its insulation determine a cable’s ampacity rating.
Cables used on reels on mobile machinery also have a derating factor applied to
account for the heating effects of having one or more layers consistently on the
reel. The more layers on the reel, the less amperage a cable can handle due to
the effects caused by the buildup of heat.
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Cables Chapter 5
These following derating factors are considered in

our calculation:
1- Ground temperature derating factor
2- Burial depth derating factor
3- Soil thermal resistivity Derating factor
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Cables Chapter 5
4- Trefoil or flat Derating factor
In our calculation we used this values:

1- Ground temperature derating factor = 1 at ground temperature = 35° c.
2- Burial depth derating factor = 0.99 at 0.06m.
3- Soil thermal resistivity derating factor=1 at Soil thermal resistivity=120 Ώ m.
4- Trefoil derating factor.
5.6 Calculation of cross section of cables

First we can calculate the load current from the relation:
where S : the load in KVA
V : the operating voltage in KV
I(load): load current in Amp
After that we can calculate the rating current by dividing the load
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Cables Chapter 5
current by the total derating factor (df)
As total derating factor (df)=
Ground temperature derating factor * Burial depth derating factor*Soil thermal

resistivity derating factor* Trefoil derating factor.
With the result of rating current, we can calculate the cross section area
of cable
5.6.1 Cables selected in our project:
Cable can be classified according to rated voltage as follows:

1- Low voltage cable. 2- Medium voltage cable. 3- High voltage cable.
5.6.1.1 Low voltage cable:
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Cables Chapter 5
73
Cables Chapter 5
74
Cables Chapter 5
5.6.1.2 Medium voltage cable:
75
Cables Chapter 5
5.6.1.3 High voltage Cable:
‫صوره الكلبل‬
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Cables Chapter 5
5.7 Joints and terminations:

The normal installation has many joints, and it follows that these must all
remain safe and effective throughout the life of the system. With this in mind,
regulations on joints include the following:
1.All joints must be durable, adequate for their purpose, and mechanically strong.
2. Where sheathed cables are used; the sheath must be continuous into the joint
enclosure
5.8 Cable trays:

Is Stephens Metal Plates fixed in the walls hinged on roofs to put the cables in it
and it used in case of a lot of feeders for installation as shown in figure
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Cables Chapter 5
5.8.1Types of cable trays:

It may be metallic or non-metallic made of suitable substance.
5.8.1.1 Ladder
Made of steel as tow plates connected together. These trays offer strength
and high capacity in industrial facilities. Also it is good in case of heavy loads of
cables as (power station –cement factory –heavy industries – chemical
industries) and it gives the best solution for towers and high building. Figure
5.8.1.2 Cable Tray (Race Ways):

* Features:
- Highly durable - Excellent finishing - Resistance to corrosion
- High performance - Cost effective.
* Application:
Widely used in glass, electronic, photo voltaic and automotive industry. Figure
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Cables Chapter 5
5.9 The Conduits:

The electrical color to distinguish conduits from pipelines of other services is
orange.
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Cables Chapter 5
5.10 Cable Trench / Channel:

Trench is an ideal, accessible runway for power cables / distribution,
Control and communication wiring, industrial piping, and Telecommunication
wires.
It is suitable to choose the best underground installation cables far from the lines
of water, gases and telephone, choose the places at intersections with streets,
and put the best conduits for cables cross sections.
For the under voltage the cutting section will be 400 cm wide and 80 cm depth for
the single cable and 100 cm in case of the medium voltage and the wide
increases with a space of 20cm in for any additional cable.
At the bed cutting it put layer of sand with a depth of 10 cm and over the cable. It
put layer of sand with a depth of 20 cm.
Layer of Brick put then smooth fill put after that alarm tape put at the depth of 30
cm. as shown in fig
Benefits of Cable Trench

1) Handling easy.
2) Installation is simple
3) Substation expansion
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Cables Chapter 5
5.11 Method of Laying Underground

Cable in Special Location:
(i) Road crossing
For laying underground cables under the road, cast iron, galvanized-steel
concrete pipes are employed for carrying them. Steel pipe is preferred as they
can easily installed and having high resistance against mechanical damage. The
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Cables Chapter 5
pipe should be inclined to reduce the angle of bend as the cables enter and leave
the road crossing.
(ii) Railway crossing

The laying underground cables is to be carried out in accordance with the
rules and specification of the railway authorities and for that approval of railway
authorities is essential the pipe should be laid at depth of 1m below formation
level and should extend to minimum distance of 3m from the centre of the outer
most track on either side.
(iii) Water main crossing

While crossing water supply main by a power cable, a minimum clearance
of .4 m is to be provided between the two.
(iv) Communication line crossing

for laying power cable near communication line its desired to provide a
minimum clearance of .6 m between the two horizontally and vertically, so that
the disturbance to communication circuit are avoided .
(V) In tunnel
The cable normally cleated on walls or laid on earthed racks or brackets.
The cables are run straight so as to avoid sag.
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Cables Chapter 5
(VI) On bridge
in concrete bridge cover ducts in the form of pipe are provided but in the
steel bridge steel pipe are laid on them and the cables are drawn in through them
the pipe should be of a diameter large enough to accommodate required number
of cable.
5.12 Distribution panels:

A single panel or group of panels units designed for assembly in the form
of a single panel placed after the incoming feeders from transformer including
buses, automatic over current devices, and equipped with or without switches for
the control of light, heat, or power circuits; designed to be placed in a cabinet or
cutout box placed in or against a wall or partition and accessible only from the
front .
5.12.1 Medium voltage distribution panel (M.V.D.P):
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Cables Chapter 5
5.12.1.1 Measuring instruments:
a) At incoming panel:
- Voltmeter and voltage transformer (V.T).
- Three ammeter and current transformer (C.T).
- Wattmeter feds from (V.T , C.T).
- VAR meter feds from (V.T , C.T).
- Power factor (P.F) meter feds from (V.T , C.T).
- Watt hour meter feds from (V.T , C.T).
- VAR hour meter feds from (V.T , C.T).

- Frequency meter (Hz).
b) At outgoing panel:
- Three ammeter and (C.T).
- Watt hour meter (Wh).
- VAR hour meter (VARh).
c) at bus-tie panel:
5.12.1.2 Protection instruments:
a) At outgoing feeders:
- Non directional over current protection relay feds from (C.T, D.C).
- Non directional earth fault current protection feds from (C.T , D.C).
- D.C source.
b) At incoming circuits:
- Non directional over current protection relay fed from (C.T, D.C).
- Non directional earth fault current protection relay fed from (C.T ,D.C).
- D.C source.
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Cables Chapter 5
c) At BUS-Tie panel:
- Non directional over current protection relay feds from (C.T, D.C).
- Non directional earth fault current protection relay fed from (C.T , D.C).
- Earth leakage E/L relay.
- D.C source .
5.12.1.3 switchgears instruments:

In all panel ( incoming , outgoing and bus-tie or bus-coupler) there are:
- circuit breaker
- Earth switch.
- Load break switch
5.12.2 Low voltage distribution panel

Distribution boards is a panel used to distribution inside the floors
which is divided to two main types.
5.12.2.1 distribution panel

Consist of two types:
1-Distribution box (Pillar)
Distribution box links the distribution

transformer with the building box (coffree), the
distribution box should have an incoming from
the distribution transformer and another feeder
going to another distribution box so that in case
of faults on its distribution transformer it can be
fed from the other distribution box and vice
versa.
At normal operation the pillar should be loaded
from 70% to 80% to be able to withstand loads of the other pillar in case of faults.
The feeders of the pillar are loaded with 70% to 80% of its full load and these
feeders are usually made of aluminum because copper is expensive and subject
to stealing.
The ratings of the distribution box are usually 100 KVA, 150 KVA and 200 KVA.
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Cables Chapter 5
2-Building box (coffree)
Building box links the distribution box with the riser. The building box is fed
from a pillar that is fed from two different feeders one comes from a transformer
and the other comes from another pillar. The coffree has a supply in case that a
fault occurs at one of two incomings. By this method, many maneuverings which
ensure continuity of supply can be done.
The protective device that is connected on the riser may be a three-phase circuit
breaker or three single phase fuses to prevent the failure in supply in case of the
fuse of one phase is burnt, or one three- phase fuse. Riser is made of copper,
because it is inside the building and cannot be stolen easily.
5.12.2.2 Main panel

Main panel provide protection
against over current fault and
short circuit fault which can be
controlled by the rating selection
of breakers and short circuit level
which it’s depend on the load
rating and board distance from supply.
The components:
a) Fuse
b) Circuit breaker
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Cables Chapter 5
Types of circuit breaker:

a) Miniature circuit breaker
b) Molded case circuit breaker
5.12.2.3 Sub panels

The sub panel is panels which it’s distributed inside the floor and its
number depend on the floor geometry and floor loads (sockets, lighting,
appliance).
the sub panel is nearly look like the main floor panel in construction it’s consist of
main breaker 3 Ø and sub breakers 1Ø which feeds directly to the loads through
wires to the loads.
87
Transformer
In this Chapter:
 Introduction
 What is a transformer
 Types of transformers
 Main Parts of Distribution
Transformers
 Number of phases
 Transformer ratio
Chapter 6
 The regulation of a transformer
 The efficiency of a transformer
 Parallel operation of
the transformers
 Classification of Distribution
Transformers
 Specification of the used transformer
 Transformers used in the village
 Protection Systems for Transformers
 Types of Substation bus schemes
Transformer Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
The transformer is defined as a static device which by electromagnetic
induction transforms alternating voltage and current between two or more windings
at the same frequency and usually at different values of voltage and current. The
transformer consists of two winding and iron core; the winding connected to the
source is called the primary winding, and the one connected to the load is called
the secondary winding. The two windings are insulated from each other and from
the core; the core is high presence magnetic circuit that links all the transformer’s
windings. Energy is transferred from the primary to the secondary through a
magnetic induction. There may be more than one secondary windings, each
connected to a different load or interconnected to provide different output voltages.
Without high transmission and distribution voltages the power losses and voltage
drops associated with line resistance would make electrical power transfer very
inefficient. Currently the highest practical generating voltage is around 25 kV, so
transformers are needed to step up voltage for economical transmission, and step
down voltage to levels that safe for the customer to use.
 Long distance transmission is done at 132 kV, 220 kV and 500 kV

ac.
 Distribution is done at 66 kV, 33 kV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 3.3 kV ac.
 Utilization is done at various voltages from 11 kV to 380 volts.

Thus the electric power system has several voltage levels.
The transformer denoted by
 K.V.A. rating.
 Primary to secondary voltage and frequency.
 Winding connection (∆ or Y).
 Percentage regulation.
89
6.2 What is a transformer?

A "transformer" changes one voltage to another. This attribute is useful in
many ways. A transformer doesn't change power levels. If you put 100 Watts into
a transformer, 100 Watts come out the other end. [Actually, there are minor losses
in the transformer because nothing in the real world is 100% perfect. But
transformers come pretty darn close; perhaps 95% efficient.
A transformer is made from two coils of wire close to each other (sometimes
wrapped around an iron or ferrite "core"). Power is fed into one coil (the "primary"),
which creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field causes current to flow in the
other coil (the "secondary"). Note that this doesn't work for direct current (DC): the
incoming voltage needs to change over time - alternating current (AC) or pulsed
DC.
The number of times the wires are wrapped around the core ("turns") is very
important and determines how the transformer changes the voltage.
 If the primary has fewer turns than the secondary, you have a step-
up transformer that increases the voltage.
 If the primary has more turns than the secondary, you have a step-
down transformer that reduces the voltage.
 If the primary has the same number of turns as the secondary, the
outgoing voltage will be the same as what comes in. This is the case
for an isolation transformer.
simple structure of transformer
90
6.3 Types of transformers

In general, transformers are used for power supplies. power transformers
are used to convert from one voltage to another, at significant power levels.
6.3.1 Step-up transformers

A "step-up transformer" allows a device that requires a high voltage power
supply to operate from a lower voltage source. The transformer takes in the low
voltage at a high current and puts out the high voltage at a low current.
6.3.2 Step-down transformers
A "step-down transformer" allows a device that requires a low voltage power

supply to operate from a higher voltage. The transformer takes in the high voltage
at a low current and puts out a low voltage at a high current.
6.3.3 Isolation transformers

An "isolation transformer" does not raise or lower a voltage; whatever
voltage comes in is what goes out. An isolation transformer prevents current from
flowing directly from one side to the other. This usually serves as a safety device
to prevent electrocution.
6.3.4 Variable auto-transformers
A "variable auto-transformer" (variac) can act like a step-up transformer or

step-down transformer. It allows you to dial in whatever output voltage you want.
6.4 Main Parts of Distribution

Transformers
6.4.1 Iron Core
Made of cold rolled silicon steel sheets 0.3mm to minimize loss
91
6.4.2 Windings
6.4.2.1 High Voltage Windings
High tension turns are made of copper wires of either circular cross
sections varnish isolated or rectangular cross sections isolated by silicone paper.
6.4.2.2 Low Voltage Windings

Low tension turns are made of either no insulated copper foils with insulating
paper in between or of rectangular wires insulated by cylindrical paper sheets.
6.4.3 Tank
The transformer tank is made of corrugated steel, the corrugated tank
surface is itself the cooling surface, the tank is provided with an additional steel
reservoir for oil expansion, on which a piping device is installed to transmit oil cock,
a hole for silica gel apparatus and an oil level indicator.
6.4.4 Oil Expansion Conservator

It is fabricated from sheet steel with appropriate size and is connected to
the tank to ensure Filling of the transformer with oil to a certain level.
The conservator is provided with oil level indicator, dehydrating breather,

oil filling plug and a connection pipe for connecting the oil to the transformer.
Buchholz relay can be also mounted between the expansion conservator

and the tank for transformers with rated power of 200 KVA and above.
6.4.5 Terminals
(High voltage) H.V and (Low voltage) L.V. terminals are brought out through
porcelain bushings according to the rated voltage. The insulators are fixed to the
tank cover in such a way to ensure replacement without dismantling the
transformer cover. Cable end boxes on either H.T. or L.T. side or both can be made
if required.
6.4.6 Tap Changer

Tap changers are externally for allowing voltage regulation with ±5
% of the rated value in 5 equal steps of ± 2.5 % each, the tap changer is manually
operated while current is off.
92
6.4.7 Cooling Oil

Transformers are filled with special oil (Duala (5) or equal) of high insulating grade
according to IEC specifications
6.4.8 Bushings
The terminals of the low and high voltage windings are c onnected through
porcelain bushings suitable for the rated voltage and current and for indoor or
outdoor mounting. The bushing insulators are fixed on the tank cover such that
they can be changed without opening the tank cover.
The high voltage bushing is provided with arcing horn with gap clearance
which depends on the impulse withstand strength of the corresponding winding
and the altitude of the installation. The arcing horns serve as coarse protection
against external surge voltage and in the case of a flash-over. The cable boxes for
either the high voltage or the low voltage sides or for both can be provided
Transformer bushings and accessories
93
6.5 Number of phases

6.5.1 Single phase.
Two or more winding, coupled by a common magnetic core.
6.5.2 Poly phase.

A polyphaser transformer consists of separate insulated electric windings for
the different phases, wound upon a single core structure, certain portions of
which are common to the different phases as shown in figure
6.6 Transformer Ratio

The voltage ratio of a constant-voltage transformer, i.e., the ratio of primary to
secondary voltage, depends primarily upon the ratio of the primary to the secondary
turns. The voltage ratio will vary slightly with the amount and power factor of the load.
For general work the voltage ratio can be taken as equal to the turn ratio of the
windings. The current ratio of a constant-voltage transformer will be approximately
equal to the inverse ratio of the turns in the two windings.
6.7 The regulation of a transformer

The change in secondary voltage from no load to full load, It is generally
expressed as a percentage of the full-load secondary voltage.
6.8 The efficiency of a transformer

The ratio of the out-put to input or, in other words, the ratio of the output to the output plus the
losses, as a formula it can be expressed the
94
6.9 Parallel operation of the

transformers
Some factories need a parallel operation of two or more power transformers,
the essential requirements for this parallel operation are:
1. The polarity should be the same.

2. The voltage ratio should be the same.
3. The percentage impedance should be equal.
4. The phase rotation should be the same.
5. The vector diagrams and the phase displacement should be the
same.
If the voltage ratio not the same, for the same primary voltage the secondary
voltages will be different between the transformers which causes a circulating
current within the secondary circuit and heating the transformer even on no load.
Also, to operate two transformers in parallel operation they must have the
same percentage impedance to make the loading of them proportional to their kVA
rating as percentage.
Fig. shows the correct connection and the wrong connection

of transformers used in parallel operation.
95
6.10 Classification of Distribution

Transformers
Temperature Limits
 Maximum ambient temperature 45 °C.
 Maximum temperature rise of oil 55 °C.
 Maximum temperature rise of copper 60 °C.
1) According to method of insulating and cooling.
2) According to location of installation.
3) According to method of installation.
4) According to method of insulation and cooling.
There are two main types of transformers:
A) Fluid Immersed Transformer
 Oil Immersed Transformers

There are two types of fluid used with transformer
1) Mineral oil fireproof liquids.
2) Mineral oil extracted from petroleum
The second is considered the most widely used liquid with transformers. Oil
has a dual function; the first is insulated between turns with each other as well
between the turns and the core, while the second function is cooling by means of
transferring the so generated heat energy in the turns and the core to the cooler
surrounding.
 Electric stress: breakdown voltage not less than 30 KV/cm for new
untreated oil and not less than 50 KV/cm for treated oil.
 Silicon Liquid Transformers
This type is used when the technical requirement of plants need
oil immersed type transformers, and in the mean while for the
ambient there is the necessity of fire proof and security
requirements
96
B) Dry Type Transformers
Cooling in dry type transformers takes place by means of air circulation through
the turns under normal air pressure.
The core as well as the turns is exposed directly to air, also the transformer or
ventilation by air.
Advantages of Dry Type Transformers
* The cheapest fire proof transformers.
* Can be easily installed in buildings with complete security.
* Free of maintenance and cyclic testing other than fluid immersed transformers.
* Need no accessories, such as valves, breather and measuring devices of fluid

immersed transformers.
* Light, so can be easily installed on the roof of the buildings.
* Completely secure from the view of fire, explosion or environment pollution.
* Can withstand an acceptable amount of overload.
97
* High efficiency with good voltage regulation and noiseless.
* Large reliability index, and nowadays used in the form of complete substation
inside a metallic enclosure having cable connecting box in both the H.V. and
L.V. sides.
Note that the transformer must not be unloaded for large duration, since the
transformer will be exposed to humidity. Under such conditions the transformer
must be loaded, to remove the humidity formed inside the insulating materials.
In highly polluted area, the turns and core are completely enclosed
inside a sealed tank to protect the transform
Fig. (5-4) Oil-Immersed Distribution Transformer
6.11 Specification of the used

transformer
In selecting and committing a new transformer, the following must be specified:
Rating
Rating in KVA at a given temperature, this must be equal to maximum load
besides taking in consideration any further extensions, and with a voltage
allowance of 5 %± of the network voltage.
Protection of Transformers
The following information is necessary while selecting the protection system.
98
* Particulars of Transformer
a) Kva
b) Voltage ratio.
c) Connections of windings.
d) Percentage reactance.
e) Neutral point earthling.
f) Value of system earthling resistance.
g) Whether, indoor or outdoor, dry or oil filled.
h) With or without conservator.
6.12 Transformers used in the

village
Electrical characteristics of Transformers:
Rated power (1MVA)
Rated frequency 50 Hz
Installation outdoor
Type Oil type
Cooling Natural
Rated primary voltage 11 Kv
Primary coupling Delta
Neutral Without
Rated secondary voltage 380V
Secondary coupling Star + Neutral
Voltage adjustment Any
99
Transformer Load Power of each Total transformer

load (KVA) power(KVA)
Mosque 43.12
Service building 39.76
T1 Garden 39.76 685.9
Play ground 96
Service building 39.76
Shopping mall 427.5
T2 16 unit of Chalet E 349.44

4 unit of Chalet C’ 172.51 521.95
T3 8 unit of Chalet D 258.81 828.51

9 unit of Chalet C 569.7
T4 6 unit of Chalet C 379.83 759.66

6 unit of Chalet C’ 379.83
11 unit of chalet B’ 414.48

T5 1 unit of chalet B” 25.92 758.35
8 unit of chalet B 317.95
T6 35 unit of chalet A 672 672
T7 36 unit of chalet A’ 736.128 736.128

1 unit of chalet B” 25.92
T8 8 unit of chalet B 317.95 621.34
2 unit of chalet C” 39
Hotel 238.47
T9 12 unit of chalet B 476.92 476.92
8 unit of chalet D 258.81 340.02
T10 Worker house 81.21
T11 9 unit of chalet C 569.7 569.7
100
6.13 Protection Systems for

Transformers
The principal relays and systems used for transformer protection are:
(i) Buchholz devices providing protection against all kinds of
incipient faults i.e. slow-developing faults such as insulation failure of
windings, core heating, fall of oil level due to leaky joints etc.
(ii) Earth-fault relays providing protection against earth-faults only.
(iii) Overcurrent relays providing protection mainly against phase-
to-phase faults and overloading.
(iv) Differential system (or circulating-current system) providing
protection against both earth
and phase faults.
(i) Buchholz Relay:

It is used to give an alarm in case of incipient (i.e. Slow-
developing) faults in the transformer and to dis-connect the
transformer from the supply in the event of severe internal faults.
it is a universal practice to use buchholz relays on all such oil
immersed trans-formers having ratings in *excess of 750 kva
 Construction:
The upper element consists of a mercury type switch
attached to a float. The lower element contains a
mercury switch mounted on a hinged type flap
located in the direct path of the flow of oil from the
transformer to the conservator. The upper element
closes an alarm circuit during incipient faults
whereas the lower element is arranged to trip the
circuit breaker in case of severe internal faults.
 Operation.
The operation of Buchholz relay is as follows:
(i) In case of incipient faults within the
transformer, the heat due to fault causes the
decomposition of some transformer oil in the main tank.
The products of decomposition contain more than 70% of
hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas being light tries to go into
the conservator
(ii) If a serious fault occurs in the transformer, an enormous
amount of gas is generated in the main tank. The oil in
the main tank rushes towards the conservator via the
Buchholz relay and in doing so tilts the flap to close the
contacts of mercury switch. This completes the trip circuit
to open the circuit breaker controlling the transformer.
101
 Advantages
(i) It is the simplest form of transformer protection.
(ii) It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier than is
possible with other forms of protection.
 Disadvantages
(i) It can only be used with oil immersed transformers
equipped with conservator tanks.
(ii) The device can detect only faults below oil level in the
transformer.
Therefore, separate protection is needed for connecting
cables
102
6.14 Types of Substation bus

schemes
 Types of substation bus schemes
Various factors affect the reliability of a substation or switchyard, one
of which is the arrangement of the buses and switching devices. In
addition to reliability, arrangement of the buses/switching devices will
impact maintenance, protection, initial substation development, and
cost. There are six types of substation bus/switching arrangements
commonly used in air insulated substations:
1. Single bus.
2. Double bus, double breaker.
3. Main and transfer (inspection) bus.
4. Double bus, single breaker.
5. Ring bus.
6. Breaker and a half.
6.14.1 Single Bus scheme

This arrangement involves one main bus with all circuits connected
directly to the bus. The reliability of this type of an arrangement is
very low. When properly protected by relaying, a single failure to the
main bus or any circuit section between its circuit breaker and the
main bus will cause an outage of the entire system. In addition,
maintenance of devices on this system requires the de-energizing of
the line connected to the device. Maintenance of the bus would
require the outage of the total system, use of standby generation, or
switching to adjacent station, if available. Since the single bus
arrangement is low in reliability, it is not recommended for heavily
loaded substations or substations having a high availability
requirement. Reliability of this arrangement can be improved by the
addition of a bus tiebreaker to minimize the effect of a main bus
failure.
Advantages
1. Lowest cost.
2. Small land area required.
3. Easily expandable.
4. Simple in concept and operation.
5. Relatively simple for the application of protective relaying.
103
Disadvantages
1. High-profile arrangement equipped with circuit breaker bypass
facilities does not provide for circuit protection when bypass facilities
are being used inside the substation.
2. A single bus arrangement has the lowest reliability.
3. Failure of a circuit breaker or a bus fault causes loss of the entire substation.
4. Maintenance switching can complicate and disable some of the protective relay
scheme and over all relay coordination.
5. Maintenance at the upper elevations of high-profile arrangements necessitates

de-energization or protection of the lower equipment.
Single bus
6.14.2 Double Bus, Double Breaker scheme

This scheme provides a very high level of reliability by having two separate
breakers available to each circuit. In addition, with two separate buses, failure of a
single bus will not impact either line. Maintenance of a bus or a circuit breaker in
this arrangement can be accomplished without interrupting either of the circuits.
This arrangement allows various operating options as additional lines are added to
the arrangement; loading on the system can be shifted by connecting lines to only
one bus. A double bus, double breaker scheme is a high-cost arrangement, since
each line has two breakers and requires a larger area for the substation to
accommodate the additional equipment. This is especially true in a low profile
configuration. The protection scheme is also more involved than a single bus
scheme.
104
Double bus, double breaker.

6.14.3 Main and Transfer Bus scheme
This scheme is arranged with all circuits connected between a main (operating)
bus and a transfer bus (also referred to as an inspection bus). Some arrangements
include a bus tie breaker that is connected between both buses with no circuits
connected to it. Since all circuits are connected to the single, main bus, reliability of
this system is not very high. However, with the transfer bus available during
maintenance, de-energizing of the circuit can be avoided. Some systems are
operated with the transfer bus normally de-energized. When maintenance work is
necessary, the transfer bus is energized by either closing the tie breaker, or when a
tie breaker is not installed, closing the switches connected to the transfer bus. With
these switches closed, the breaker to be maintained can be opened along with its
isolation switches. Then the breaker is taken out of service. The circuit breaker
remaining in service will now be connected to both circuits through the transfer bus.
This way, both circuits remain energized during maintenance. Since each circuit may
have a different circuit configuration, special relay settings may be used
when operating in this abnormal arrangement. When a bus tie breaker is present, the
bus tie breaker is the breaker used to replace the breaker being maintained, and the
other breaker is not connected to the transfer bus.
A shortcoming of this scheme is that if the main bus is taken out of service,
even though the circuits can remain energized through the transfer bus and its
associated switches, there would be no relay protection for the circuits. Depending on
the system arrangement, this concern can be minimized through the use of circuit
protection devices (reclosure or fuses) on the lines outside the substation. This
arrangement is slightly more expensive than the single bus arrangement, but does
provide more flexibility during maintenance. Protection of this scheme is
105
similar to that of the single bus arrangement. The area required for a low profile
substation with a main and transfer bus scheme is also greater than that of the
single bus, due to the additional switches and bus.
Advantages
1. Accommodation of circuit breaker maintenance while maintaining service and line
protection.
2. Accommodation of circuit breaker maintenance while maintaining service and line
protection.
3. Reasonable in cost.
4. Fairly small land area.
5. Easily expandable.
Disadvantages
1. An additional circuit breaker is required for bus tie.
2. Since the bus tie breaker, have to be able to be substituted for any line breaker,
its associated relaying may be somewhat complicated.
3. Failure of a circuit breaker or a bus fault causes loss of the entire substation.
4. Somewhat complicated switching is required to remove a circuit breaker from
service for maintenance
Main and transfer bus.
106
6.14.4 Double Bus, Single Breaker scheme
This scheme has two main buses connected to each line circuit breaker and a bus
tie breaker. Utilizing the bus tie breaker in the closed position allows the transfer of
line circuits from bus to bus by means of the switches. This arrangement allows the
operation of the circuits from either bus. In this arrangement, a failure on one bus
will not affect the other bus. However, a bus tie breaker failure will cause the outage
of the entire system.
Operating the bus tie breaker in the normally open position defeats the advantages
of the two main buses. It arranges the system into two single bus systems, which as
described previously, has very low reliability.
Relay protection for this scheme can be complex, depending on the system
requirements, flexibility, and needs. With two buses and a bus tie available, there is
some ease in doing maintenance, but maintenance on Line breakers and switches
would still require outside the substation switching avoiding outages.
Double bus, single breaker.
107
6.14.5 Ring Bus scheme

In this scheme, as indicated by the name, all breakers are arranged in a ring
with circuits tapped between breakers. For a failure on a circuit, the two adjacent
breakers will trip without affecting the rest of the system. Similarly, a single bus
failure will only affect the adjacent breakers and allow the rest of the system to
remain energized. However, a breaker failure or breakers that fail to trip will require
adjacent breakers to be tripped to isolate the fault.
Maintenance on a circuit breaker in this scheme can be accomplished without
interrupting any circuit, including the two circuits adjacent to the breaker being
maintained. The breaker to be maintained is taken out of service by tripping the
breaker, then opening its isolation switches. Since the other breakers adjacent to
the breaker being maintained are in service, they will continue to supply the circuits.
In order to gain the highest reliability with a ring bus scheme, load and source
circuits should be alternated when connecting to the scheme. Arranging the
scheme in this manner will minimize the potential for the loss of the supply to
the ring bus due to a breaker failure.
Relaying is more complex in this scheme than some previously identified. Since
there is only one bus in this scheme, the area required to develop this scheme is
less than some of the previously discussed schemes. However, expansion of a ring
bus is limited, due to the practical arrangement of circuits.
Advantages
1. Flexible operation.
2. High reliability.
3. Isolation of bus sections and circuit breakers for maintenance without disrupting
circuit operation.
4. Double feed to each circuit.
5. No main buses.
6. Expandable to breaker-and-a-half configuration.
7. Economic design.
Disadvantages
1. Ring may be split by faults on two circuits or a fault during breaker maintenance
to leave possibly undesirable circuit combinations (supply/load) on the remaining
bus sections. Some consider this, however, to be a second contingency factor.
2. Each circuit has to have its own potential source for relaying. This configuration is
usually limited to four circuit positions, although larger rings are in service, including
10-position ring buses. A 6-position ring bus is usually considered as a maximum
limit for the number of terminals in a ring bus.
Ring bus
108
6.14.6 Breaker-and-a-Half scheme

The breaker-and-a-half scheme can be developed from a ring bus arrangement
as the number of circuits increases. In this scheme, each circuit is between two
circuit breakers, and there are two main buses. The failure of a circuit will trip the
two adjacent breakers and not interrupt any other circuit. With the three breaker
arrangement for each bay, a center breaker failure will cause the loss of the two
adjacent circuits. However, a breaker failure of the breaker adjacent to the bus will
only interrupt one circuit.
Maintenance of a breaker on this scheme can be performed without an outage to
any circuit. Further- more, either bus can be taken out of service with no interruption
to the service.
This is one of the most reliable arrangements, and it can continue to be expanded
as required. Relaying is more involved than some schemes previously discussed.
This scheme will require more area and is costly due to the additional components.
Advantages
1. Flexible operation
2. High reliability.
3. Can isolate either main bus for maintenance without disrupting service.
4. Can isolate any circuit breaker for maintenance without disrupting service.
5. Double feed to each circuit6.Bus fault does not interrupt service to any circuits. 6.
All switching done with circuit breakers.
Disadvantages
1. One-and-a-half breakers are required per circuit.
2. Relaying is involved, since the center breaker has to respond to faults of either of
its associated circuits.
3. Each circuit should have its own potential source for relaying.
Breaker-and-a-half.
109
6.14.7 Comparison of Configurations

In planning an electrical substation or switchyard facility, one should consider
major parameters as discussed above: reliability, cost, and available area. Table
has been developed to provide specific items for consideration. In order to provide a
complete evaluation of the configurations described, other circuit-related factors
should also be considered. The arrangement of circuits entering the facility should
be incorporated in the total scheme. This is especially true with the ring bus and
breaker-and-a-half schemes, since reliability in these schemes can be improved by
not locating source circuits or load circuits adjacent to each other.
Arrangement of the incoming circuits can add greatly to the cost and area required.
Also, the profile of the facility can add significant cost and area to the overall project.
A high-profile facility can incorporate multiple components on fewer structures. Each
component in a low-profile layout requires a single area, thus necessitating more
area for an arrangement similar to a high-profile facility. Therefore, a four circuit,
high-profile ring bus may require less area and be less expensive than a four-circuit,
low-profile main and transfer bus arrangement.
Configuration Reliability Cost Available Area
Single bus Least reliable single Least cost (1.0) Least area fewer
failure can cause fewer components
complete outage components
Double bus Highly reliable High cost Greater area twice as
duplicated many components
duplicated
components; single
components
failure normally
isolates single
Main bus and Least reliable same as Moderate cost Low area
transfer Single bus, but requirement
flexibility in operating fewer
components fewer
and maintenance
components
Double bus, single Moderately reliable Moderate cost Moderate area
breaker depends on more
arrangement of more
components
components and bus components
Ring bus High reliability Moderate cost Moderate area

more components
single failure increases with
isolates single number of circuits
component
Breaker-and-a-Half Highly reliable Moderate cost Greater area
scheme
110
Power Factor
Correction
In this Chapter:
 Introduction.
 Causes of low Power factor.
 Disadvantage of low P.F.
Chapter 7
 Why Improve Low Power Factor.
 Benefits of Power Factor
Correction.
 Capacitor selection.
 Power factor correction
capacitors.
 Employ improvement the power
factor in the project
Power factor correction Chapter 7
7.1 Introduction
Power factor is the ratio between the KW (Kilo-Watts) and the KVA (Kilo-Volt
Amperes) drawn by an electrical load where the KW is the actual load power and the
KVA is the apparent load power.
k
P W
i.e. P.F. = k
VA
It is a measure of how effectively the current is being converted into useful

work output and more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current
on the efficiency of the supply system. All current flow will cause losses in the supply
and distribution system. A load with a power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient
loading of the supply and a load with a power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher
losses in the supply system. A poor power factor can be the result of either
a significant phase difference between the voltage and current at the load terminals,
or it can be due to a high harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous current
waveform.
Poor load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such
as an induction motor, power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction
furnace.
A distorted current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed

drive, switched mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load.
A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition
of power factor correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current
waveform requires a change in equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to
gain an appreciable improvement.
Many inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than 0.95 when
in reality, the true power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is based
on the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current but does not take into
account that the current waveform is discontinuous and therefore contributes to
increased losses on the supply.
112
7.2 Causes of low Power factor:

1) All a.c motors (except over excited synchronous motors and certain
types of commutate motors) and transformers operate at lagging
power factor.
2) Arc lamps operate at low power factor (lagging) due to typical
characteristic of are.
3) Due to increase supply main voltage, which occurs during low load periods
such as lunch hours, night hours the magnetizing current of inductive
reactance increase and power factor of the electric plant as a whole
comes down.
4) Industrial heating furnaces such as arc and induction furnaces
operate on very lagging power factor.
7.3 Disadvantage of low power

factor:
1) Rating of generators and transformers are proportional to their output
current hence inversely proportional to power factor, therefore large
generators and transformers are required to deliver same load but at low
power factor.
2) For the same power to be transmitted but at low power factor, the
transmission line or distributor or cable have to carry more current The
size of the conductors will have to be increased. Thus more copper is
required for transmission line, distributors and cables to deliver the same
load but at low power factor.
3) Copper losses are proportional to the square of the current hence inversely
proportional to the square of the power factor so more copper losses incur at
low power factor, which results in poor P.F.
4) Low lagging power factor results in low voltage drop in generators, transmission
lines and distributors, which results in poor regulation. Hence extra regulating
equipment is required to keep the voltage drop with permissible limits.
113
7.4 Why Improve Low Power Factor?

Low power factor means poor electrical efficiency. The lower the power factor
the higher the apparent power drawn from the distribution network. When low power
factor is not corrected, the utility must provide the non-working reactive power IN
ADDITION to the working active power. This results in the use of larger generators,
transformers, bus bars, cables, and other distribution system devices, that otherwise
would not be necessary. As the utility’s capital expenditures and operating costs are
going to be higher, they are going to pass these higher expenses down the line
to industrial users in the form of power factor penalties.
7.5 Benefits of Power Factor

Correction
1. Power Consumption Reduced
2. Electricity Bills Reduced
3. Electrical energy efficiency improved
4. Extra KVA availability from the existing supply
5. Transformer and distribution equipment losses reduced
6. Voltage drop reductions in long cables
 Power Factor Correction
Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits which include

induction motors as a means of reducing the inductive component of the current and
thereby reduce the losses in the supply. There should be no effect on the operation
of the motor itself.
An induction motor draws current from the supply that is made up of resistive
components and inductive components.
The resistive components are:

1) Load current.
2) Loss current.
The inductive components are:

3) Leakage reactance.
4) Magnetizing current.
114
7.6 Capacitor selection

Static Power factor correction must neutralize no more than 80% of the
magnetizing current of the motor. If the correction is too high, there is a high
probability of over correction which can result in equipment failure with severe
damage to the motor and capacitors. Unfortunately, the magnetizing current of
induction motors varies considerably between different motor designs. The
magnetizing current is almost always higher than 20% of the rated full load current of
the motor, but can be as high as 60% of the rated current of the motor. Most power
factor correction is too light due to the selection based on tables which have been
published by a number of sources. These tables assume the lowest magnetizing
current and quote capacitors for this current. In practice, this can mean that the
correction is often less than half the value that it should be, and the consumer is
unnecessarily penalized.
Power factor correction must be correctly selected based on the actual motor
being corrected. The Bus bar software provides two methods of calculating the
correct value of KVAR correction to apply to a motor. The first method requires the
magnetizing current of the motor. Where this figure is available, then this is the
preferred method. Where the magnetizing current is not available, the second
method is employed and is based on the half load power factor and efficiency of that
motor. These figures are available from the motor data sheets.
115
7.7 Power factor correction capacitors
Delta cap Capacitor Elements
Delta cap 31 Low Voltage Metalized Film Capacitors
116
Delta cap 130 Low Voltage Automatic Range
Amber Power Factor Correction Capacitors
117
7.8 Employ improvement the power

factor in the project:
Improve the power factor is through the addition of a capacitor near the loads
that pulls reactive power of large value, It was determined by knowing the value of
the previous power factor and the value of the power factor, which would like to get
it. Must to know power of loads that are connected by the value capacitor and
through Law Qc= P (tan x1 - tanx2), Where X1 The old power factor and X2 the
new power factor.
It is best to use tables to know the value of capacitors to be used to the circuit
in order to get a high coefficient of 0.99
118
Electrical
Protection
in this Chapter:
 Introduction
 The function of Protective
relaying include the following
Chapter 8
 Basic requirements of
protection
 Types Of Protection
 Circuit breakers
 Protection used in our project
 Transformer Protection
 Feeders protection
 Motor Protection 7
Electrical Protection Chapter 8
8.1 Introduction
every electrical component need protection. The house wiring is protected by
fuse. Modern generators are protected by complex protective schemes. Protective
relays are necessary with every electrical plant and not part of power system is left
unprotected. The choice of protection is depending upon Some aspect such as type
and rating of protected equipment, its importance, location, probable abnormal
condition, cost, etc… The need of protective relaying protects the concerned
equipment From abnormal operating condition and faults. When an abnormal
condition develops in the protected equipment or machine, the protective relaying for
the protected equipment or machine sense the abnormal condition and initiates an
alarm or closes the tripping circuit of the circuit breaker (C.B) so as to open the C.B
and isolate the equipment or machine from the supply.
In Other words, protective relaying senses the abnormal condition in a part of the
power system and gives an alarm or isolates that faulty system from healthy system.
This can be achieved by Essential component that are C.B. And relays. It should be
note that protection relay does not prevent the appearance of faults. It can take action
only after fault has occurred. Relay distinguish between normal and abnormal
condition. Whenever an abnormal condition develops, the relay close its contacts,
there by the trip circuit of the C.B. is closed. Current from supply flow in the Trip coil
of the C.B. And C.B. Opens and faulty part is disconnected from supply. Removal
of faulty part from the system is automatic and fast. Besides the relays and C.B s,
there are several other important components in protective relay scheme, these
include protective current transformers, voltage transformer, auxiliaries, etc...
Each component is important. Protective relaying is a team-work of these
components.
8.2 The function of Protective relaying

includes the following
1. To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of C.B. so as to disconnect a
component during an abnormal condition in the component, which include over-load,
under-voltage, temperature rise, short circuits, reverse power, etc...
2. To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to prevent the subsequent faults.
3. To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part.
4. To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve the system stability, service
continuity and system performance.
120
8.3 Basic requirements of protection

In order to carry out the above duties, protection must have the following
qualities:
Selectivity: To detect and isolate the faulty item only.
Stability: To leave all healthy circuits intact to ensure continuity or supply.
Sensitivity: To detect even the smallest fault, current or system abnormalities

and operate correctly at its setting before the fault causes irreparable damage.
Speed: To operate speedily when it is called upon to do so, thereby minimizing

damage to the surroundings and ensuring safety to personnel. To meet all of the
above requirements, protection must be reliable which means it must be:
Dependable: It must trip when called upon to do so.
Secure: It must not trip when it is not supposed to.
8.4 Types of Protection

8.4.1. Fuses
It can be used in low Voltage (LV) system, distribution feeders and transformers,
auxiliary supplies.
8.4.2. OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT

Its widely used in all power systems.
Types:
Non - Directional
Voltage dependent
Directional
121
8.4.3. DIFFERENTIAL
It can be used for protection of feeders, Bus bars, transformers, generators, etc.
Types:
High impedance
Pilot wire
Digital
8.4.4. DISTANCE
It can be used for distributions feeders, transmission and sub - transmission circuits.
Also used as back-up protection for transformers and generators
8.4.5. PHASE COMPARISION

It can be used for protection of transmission lines.
8.4.6. DIRECTIONAL COMPARISION

It can be used for protection for transmission lines.
8.5 Circuit breakers

8.5.1 Construction of circuit breakers
1. Circuit breaker compartment.

2. Bus bar compartment.
3. Cable compartment.
4. Low voltage compartment.
5. Arc channel.
6. Current transformers.
7. Voltage transformers.
8. Earthling switch
122
8.5.2 Medium voltage circuit breaker

The type of the circuit breaker is usually identified according to the medium
of arc extinction. The classification of the circuit breakers based on the medium of
arc extinction is as follows:
1. Oil circuit breaker (tank type of bulk oil).

2. Minimum oil circuit breaker.
3. Air blast circuit breaker.
- They are used in secondary distribution substations for supplying lines, power
transformers and ring networks.
4. Vacuum Circuit Breaker.

It can be used in many applications
Medium voltage motor starting applications
Capacitor switching
Mining applications where high reliability and resistance to dust and humidity are
critical
5. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breaker .
123
8.5.2.1 SF6 Circuit Breaker

The type of CB we Used in medium voltage is Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit
breaker.
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is an inert, heavy gas having good dielectric and arc
extinguish properties.SF6 is now widely used in electrical equipment like high voltage
metal enclosed cables, capacitors, C. Bs, current transformers, etc....This gas is
commercially manufactured in many countries. It has good physical properties such
as it is colorless, odorless, state gas at Normal temperature and density-heavy gas as
its density is 5 times that of air at 20ºC and atmospheric temperature. It is stable up to
500ºC. The chemical inertness of gas is an advantageous in switchgear. The life of
metallic part, contact is longer in SF6 gas. Its component does not get oxidized or
deteriorated. Hence maintenance requirements are reduced. The breaker may need
maintenance once in four to ten year
8.5.2.1.1The merits of SF6 Circuit Breaker are:
1. Excellent insulating, arc extinguishing, physical and chemical properties

of SF6 gas is greatest advantage of Sf6 breaker.
2. The maintenance require is minimum. The breaker may need maintenance
once is four to ten years.
3. The Sf6 breaker does not make sound like air blast C.B during operation.
4. Contact corrosion is very small due to inertness of gas. Hence contact
does not suffer oxidation.
5. Non over current problem
124
8.5.3 Low voltage circuit breakers

There are many different technologies used in circuit breakers and they do not always
fall into distinct categories. Types that are common in domestic, commercial and light
industrial applications at low voltage (less than 1000 V) include:
1. MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker: Its rated current not more than 100 A.
2. MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker): Its rated current up to 1000A
8.5.3.1 Miniature circuit breaker(MCB):

M.C.B. could operate automatically at rated current of 125A (single or three phase).To
provide with thermal elements for protect against short circuit .The disconnecting
capacity must be less than 6KA at 220v at P.F. between (0.5 - 0.6) lag with taken in
consideration location of circuit breaker or choosing suitable rated for disconnection
capacity. This range of miniature circuit is suitable for all applications in residential,
commercial and industrial installations. The figures (101) and (102) shows the rear
and the front sides of the miniature circuit breaker respectively
8.5.3.2 Molded case circuit breaker (MCCB)
Its entire range covers the current ratings between 15 A to 2500 A and interrupting
ratings, at 480 V AC, which can reach150kA. Figure (103) shows the molded case
circuit breaker it can be classified According to the
mechanism into:
1. Motorized.
2. Hydraulic. 3. Pneumatic
125
8.6. Protection used in our project

1- Over current relay.
2- Earth fault relay.
3- Short circuit current.
4- Thermal protection
8.6.1. Over current relay
8.6.1.1. Function of over current relay

An "Over current Relay" is a type of protective relay which operates when the
load current exceeds a preset value. In a typical application the over current relay is
used for over current protection, connected to a current transformer and calibrated to
operate at or above a specific current level. When the relay operates, one or more
contacts will operate and energize a trip coil in a Circuit Breaker and trip (open) the
Circuit Breaker.
8.6.1.2. Theory of Operation

The over current relay works on the induction principle. The moving system
consists of an aluminum disc fixed on a vertical shaft and rotating on two jeweled
bearings between the poles of an electromagnet and a damping magnet. The
winding of the electromagnet is provided with seven taps, which are brought on the
front panel, and the required tap is selected by a push-in type plug. The pick-up current
setting can be varied by the use of such plug multiplier setting.
8.6.1.3 Types of over current relay

i. Definite time: The operating time is independent of the magnitude of the
fault current, and it can be used as:
Backup protection of distance relay of transmission line with time delay equal to
fourth stage of distance relay which is 2.5 second in 220 KV lines, and 1.5 second in
66 KV lines.
Backup protection of differential relay of power transformer with time delay equal
to 2.0 second in 220/66 KV transformers, and 1.1 second in the 66/11 KV
transformers.
Main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with adjustable time
delay setting.
126
ii. Inverse time: In this type of relays, operating time is inversely changed with
current. So high currents will operate over current relay faster than lower ones.
Different currents of inverse time type are defined as standard inverse, very inverse,
extremely inverse all these types are shown in figure below.
iii. Inverse definite
127
8.6.1.4 Applications of over current relay

over current protection has a wide range of applications. It can be applied where
there is an abrupt difference between fault current within the protected section and
that outside the protected section and these magnitudes are almost constant.
The over current protection is provided for motor protection, transformer

protection.
8.6.2. Short circuit current protection:

Short circuit occurs in power systems when equipment insulation fails, due to system
over voltages caused by lightning or switching surges, to insulation contamination, or
to other mechanical causes. The resulting short circuit or “fault” current is determined
by the internal voltages of the synchronous machines and by the system impedances
between the machine voltages and the fault. The peak short circuit current (Is) results
from 3Φ – type fault is the most severe one where circuit breakers are based on.
8.6.2.1Types of Short Circuit

Short circuit occurs in three-phase power system as follows, in order of frequency of
occurrence:
1- Single line-to-ground.
2- Line-to-line.
3- Double line-to-ground.
4- Balanced three-phase faults.
8.6.2.2 Effects of Short-Circuit Currents

1- Short circuit may be several orders of magnitude larger than normal
operating currents and, if allowed to persist, may cause equipment thermal damage.
2- Windings and bus bars may also suffer mechanical damage due to high
magnetic forces during faults.
3- Short circuit may be cause electrical arcing and fire in the fault location.
4- Short circuit may be cause strident drop in the power system during th fault
128
8.7 Transformer Protection

8.7.1. Types of Transformer Faults
Any number of conditions have been the reason for an electrical transformer failure.
Statistics show that winding failures most frequently cause transformer faults.
Insulation deterioration, often the result of moisture, overheating, vibration, voltage
surges, and mechanical stress created during transformer through faults, is the
major reason for winding failure. Voltage regulating load tap changers, when
supplied, rank as the second most likely cause of a transformer fault. Tap changer
failures can be caused by a malfunction of the mechanical switching mechanism, high
resistance load contacts, insulation tracking, overheating, or contamination of the
insulating oil. Transformer bushings are the third most likely cause of failure. General
aging, contamination, cracking, internal moisture, and loss of oil can all cause
a bushing to fail. Two other possible reasons are vandalism and animals that
externally flash over the bushing. Transformer core problems have been attributed
to core insulation failure, an open ground strap, or shorted laminations. Other
miscellaneous failures have been caused by current transformers, oil leakage due to
inadequate tank welds, oil contamination from metal particles, overloads, and
overvoltage.
8.7.2. Types of Transformer Protection

Electrical
i. Fuse: Power fuses have been used for many years to provide transformer fault
protection. Generally, it is recommended that transformers sized larger than 10 MVA
devices. It has many types as shown in figures below.
ii. Overcurrent Protection: Higher sensitivity and fault clearing times than Fuse
iii. Differential: The most widely accepted device for transformer protection is
called a restrained differential relay. This relay compares current values flowing into
and out of the transformer windings.
129
Mechanical
There are two generally accepted methods used to detect transformer faults
using mechanical methods. These detection methods provide sensitive fault
detection and compliment protection provided by differential or overcurrent relays
i. Accumulated Gases: The first method accumulates gases created as a byproduct
of insulating oil decomposition created from excessive heating within the transformer.
The source of heat comes from either the electrical arcing or a hot area in the core
steel. This relay is designed for conservator tank transformers and will capture gas
as it rises in
the oil. The relay, sometimes referred to as a Buchholz relay, is sensitive enough to
detect very small faults.
ii. Pressure Relays: The second method relies on the transformer internal pressure
rise that results from a fault. One design is applicable to gas-cushioned transformers
and is located in the gas space above the oil. The other design is mounted well below
minimum liquid level and responds to changes in oil pressure. Both designs employ
an equalizing system that compensates for pressure changes due to temperature
Thermal
i. Hot Spot-Temperature: In any transformer design, there is a location in the winding

that the designer believes to be the hottest spot within that transformer. The sign
finance of the ‘‘hot- spot temperature’’ measured at this location is an assumed
relationship between the temperature level and the rate-of-degradation of the cellulose
insulation. An instantaneous alarm or trip
130
8.8 Feeders protection

The lines (feeders) can be protected by:
Instantaneous over-current relays.

Inverse time over-current relays.
Directional over-current relay.
8.9 Motor Protection

The motor can be protected by:
Differential protection relay.

Earth fault relay.
Overload protection.
131
Earthing
In this Chapter:
 Introduction
 Advantages & disadvantages
of earthing
 Combining neutral with earth
 Typing of earthing
Chapter 9
 IEC terminology
 In household wiring
 Theory vs. practice
 Soil resistivity
 Earthing calculation for the
hotel building in our village
Earthing Chapter 9
9.1 Introduction:
Ground or earth in a main (AC power) electrical wiring system is
a conductor that exists primarily to provide a low impedance path to the earth to
prevent transient hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment; normally
a grounding conductor does not carry current. Neutral is a circuit conductor that may
carry current in normal operation, and which is usually connected to earth.
In shortly the grounding or eating is done for safety purposes to protect

people from the effects of faulty insulation on electrically powered equipment.
A connection to ground helps limit the voltage built up between power circuits and
the earth, protecting circuit insulation from damage due to excessive voltage.
Connections to ground may be used to limit the build-up of static electricity when
handling flammable products or when repairing electronic devices. In some types of
telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one
conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate run of wire as
a return conductor. For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a (reasonably)
constant potential reference against which other potentials can be measured.
An electrical ground system should have an appropriate current-carrying capability in
order to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level. In electronic circuit
theory, a ground is usually idealized as an infinite source or sinks for charge, which
can absorb an unlimited amount of current without changing its potential.
133
Earthing Chapter 9
9.2 Advantages & disadvantages of

earthing:
9.2.1 Advantages:
The practice of earthing is widespread, but not all countries in the world use it.
There is certainly a high cost involved, so there must be some advantages. In fact,
there are two.
They are:
1- The whole electrical system is tied to the potential of the general mass of
earth and cannot float at another potential. For example, we can fairly certain
that the neutral of our supply is at, or near, zero volts (earth potential) and
that the phase conductors of our standard supply differ from earth by 240
volts.
2- By connecting earth to metalwork not intended to carry current (an
extraneous conductive part or an exposed conductive part) by using
a protective conductor, a path is provided for fault current which can be
detected and, if necessary, broken. The path for this fault current is shown in
(Fig 9-1).
Fig 9-1 path for earth fault current (shown by arrows)
134
Earthing Chapter 9
9.2.2 Disadvantages:
1. Cost: the provision of a complete system of protective conductors,

earth electrodes, etc. is very expensive.
2. possible safety hazard: It has been argued that complete isolation from earth
will prevent shock due to indirect contact because there is no path for the
shock current to return to the circuit if the supply earth connection is not made
(see Fig 9-2(a)). This approach, however, ignores the presence of earth
leakage resistance (due to imperfect insulation) and phase -to- earth
capacitance (the insulation behaves as a dielectric). In many situations the
combined impedance due to insulation resistance and earth capacitive
reactance is low enough to allow a significant shock current (see Fig 9-2(b)).
Fig 9.2 Danger in an unearthed system
A. Apparent safety: no obvious path for shock current.

b. Actual danger: shock current via stray resistance and capacitance.
9.3 Combining neutral with earth:

Connecting the neutral to the equipment case provides some protection
against faults / shorts, but may produce a dangerous voltage on the case if the
neutral connection is broken.
Combined neutral and ground conductors are commonly used in electricity

supply companies wiring and occasionally for fixed wiring in buildings and for some
135
Earthing Chapter 9
specialist applications where there is little choice like railways and trams. Since
normal circuit currents in the neutral conductor can lead to objectionable or
dangerous differences between local earth potential and the neutral and to protect
against neutral breakages, special precautions such as frequent rodding down to
earth, use of cables where the combined neutral and earth completely surrounds the
phase conductor(s), and thicker than normal equipotential bonding must be
considered to ensure the system is safe.
9.4 Types of earthing:

There are five basic types of earthing arrangements embodied in the
systems identified by
 TN-C,
 TN-S,
 TN-C-S,
 TT
 IT
The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply
equipment (generator or transformer):
T: direct connection of a point with earth.

I: no point is connected with earth (isolation).
The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical
device being supplied:
T: direct connection with earth, independent of any other earth

connection in the supply system.
N: connection to earth via the supply network.
The third and fourth letters indicate the arrangement of the earthed supply
conductor system.
S: neutral and earth conductor systems are quite separate.

C: neutral and earth are combined into a single conductor.
136
Earthing Chapter 9
9.4.1 TN-C earthing system:
Combined PE and N conductor all the way from the transformer to the
consuming device as shown in fig.
TN-C earthing system
9.4.2 TN-S earthing system:

Separate protective earth (PE) and neutral (N) conductors from transformer to
consuming device, which are not connected together at any point after the building
distribution point as shown in fig.
TN-S earthing system
137
Earthing Chapter 9
9.4.3 TN-C-S earthing system:

Combined PEN conductor from transformer to building distribution point, but
separate PE and N conductors in fixed indoor wiring and flexible power cords as
shown in fig.
TN-C-S earthing system
9.4.4 TT earthing system:

The protective earth connection of the consumer is provided by a local
connection to earth, independent of any earth connection at the generator as shown
in fig.
TT earthing system
138
Earthing Chapter 9
9.4.5 IT earthing system:
The distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it has only

a high impedance connection. In such systems, an insulation monitoring device is
used to monitor the impedance as shown in fig.
IT earthing system
9.5 IEC terminology:

International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthing
arrangements, using the two - letter codes TN, TT, and IT.
 The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power - supply
equipment (generator or transformer):
T: direct connection of a point with earth (French: Terre);
I: no point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high

impedance.
 The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical
device being supplied:
T: direct connection with earth, independent of any other earth connection
the supply system.
N: connection to earth via the supply network.
139
Earthing Chapter 9
 The third and fourth letters indicate the arrangement of the earthed supply
conductor system.
S: neutral and earth conductor systems are quite separate.
C: neutral and earth are combined into a single conductor.
9.6 In household wiring:

There are two main approaches to the problem of how to disconnect power
when a live wire comes into contact with metalwork attached to the earthing system:
One way is to get the resistance through the fault path and back to the supply very
low by having a metallic connection from the earth back to the supply transformer
(a TN system). Then when a fault happens a very high current will flow rapidly
blowing a fuse (or tripping a circuit breaker).
The second approach, where such a direct connection is not used (a TT

system), the resistance of the fault path back to the supply is too high for the branch
circuit over current protection to operate (blow a fuse or trip a circuit breaker) In such
case a residual current detector is installed to detect the current leaking to ground
and interrupt the circuit.
9.7 Theory vs. practice:

Theoretically, the resistance to remote earth of an earth electrode can be
calculated. This calculation is based on the general resistance formula:
R = (r × L)/ A
where:
R: resistance to remote earth (Ω)
r: soil resistivity (Ω-cm)
L: length of conducting path (cm)
A: cross-sectional area of path (cm)
This general formula is a simplified version of some complex formulas

(derived by Professor H. B. Dwight of Massachusetts Institute of Technology) used
to calculate the resistance to remote earth for a grounding system. The assumption
in the general formula is that the resistivity of the soil is constant throughout
the considered area, or averaged for the local soil. In the practical (real) world, soil
140
Earthing Chapter 9
resistivity is not constant, properties of electrodes and their connections vary (except
with CADWELDTM), and complex equations just don't cut it. Therefore, an actual
measuring technique is necessary.
This technique is done with an earth resistance tester.
One example of the earth tester is the ERICO EST301 Universal Earth
System Tester, seen in figure 9-3, (please refer to the ERICO EST301 Operating
Instructions manual for detailed instructions on its use.) This type of instrument can
be used at various stages in the life of a grounding system, once during installation
to see if it meets all specifications, and anytime thereafter to observe any possible
changes.
Figure 9.3: ERICO EST301 Universal Earth system Tester
9.8 Soil resistivity:

The second major factor in determining how well a grounding system
performs is the resistivity of the local soil.
Soil resistivity is the resistance measured between two opposing surfaces of

a1 𝑚3 cube of homogeneous soil material (figure 9-4) usually measured in Ω-m,or
Ω-cm. Soil resistivity has a direct effect on the resistance of the grounding system .
The evaluation of the resistivity of the local soil can determine the best location,
depth, and size of the electrodes in a grounding system, and can also be used for
many other applications.
A geological survey uses the soil resistivity to locate ore, clay, gravel, etc. . . .
Beneath the earth's surface. Depth and thickness of bedrock can also be
determined. The degree of corrosion of the local soil also can be obtained from its
resistivity value. Due to these many reasons, it is necessary to measure the
resistivity of the local soil.
141
Earthing Chapter 9
Figure 9-4: Soil Resistivity Definition Cube
Many different factors have a direct effect on the resistivity of the local soil.
A large factor is the type of soil. The resistivity range can go from 1 W-cm to the
upwards of over 1,000,000 W -cm (see figure 9-5) Moisture content can be a large
factor in determining the resistivity of the local soil.
The drier the soil, the higher the resistivity. remains relatively low
(and constant ) if the moisture content of the soil is greater than 15 % ( by weight ,)
and skyrockets for lower values of moisture content .
Another large factor in the determination of soil resistivity is the content of

minerals, such as salts or other chemicals. For values of 1 % (by weight) salt
content, the soil resistivity remains low (and constant,) and skyrockets for lower
values of salt content. Finally, compactness and temperature can set the resistivity
of the local soil. With temperature, the colder the soil is, the higher the resistivity.
Due to seasonal changes where the local soil can also change drastically
(see figure 9-6) Many of these factors (moisture content, mineral content,
compactness, and temperature,) of the local soil can change during the life of the
grounding system, and therefore change the resistance to remote earth of that
grounding system.
Figure 9.5:
Resistivity range for different types
of soil
142
Earthing Chapter 9
Figure 9.6:
Typical electrode resistance
to remote earth in a year
Like the resistance to remote earth of an electrode, measuring the resistivity of the
local soil can be done with a specific metering device.
The process is sometimes referred to as the four pole (or four - terminal) method
(see figures 9-7 and 9-8)
Figure 9.7: Soil Resistivity -Four Pole Method
Figure 9.8: Soil Resistivity - Four Pole Setup
143
Earthing Chapter 9
Four small electrodes (auxiliary probes) are placed in a straight line

at intervals of a, to a depth of b. A current is passed through the outer two
probes, and the potential voltage is then measured between the two inner
probes. A simple Ohm's Law equation determines the resistance.
From this information, it is now possible to calculate the resistivity of the local soil by
using the Equally Spaced (or Wenner Arrangement) method.
2×𝑎 𝑎
𝑟 = (4𝜋 × 𝑎 × 𝑅)/(1 + − )
√a2 + 4b2 √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Where:
r = resistivity of the local soil (Ω-cm)

a = distance between probes (cm)
b = depth of probes into the ground (cm)
R = resistance determined by the testing device (Ω)
For most practical circumstances, a is twenty times larger than b, where we

can then make the assumption that b=0,
and the formula becomes simply: (r = 2 × 𝜋 × a × R)
these values give an average resistivity of the soil to a depth of the value of a.
It is recommended that a series of readings be taken at different values of a, as well
as in a 90° turned axis, so that the measuring results are not distorted by any
underground pieces of metal (pipes, ground cables, etc.) These final values should
be plotted, so that a consistent value is determined. So in our project “Smart City
project “we used the TT network to earthing all the building and other constructer
and to design our earthing system network we must have some requirements:
Soil resistivity
Off-frequency Injection Determination of Step & Touch Potential.
Soil resistivity be determine by making tests in soil and after that we use the
result in Grounding Design Assistant program to find the dimension of the electrode
and the dimension cables In our project we estimate the result to design the earth
electrode and network of earthing.
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Earthing Chapter 9
9.9 Earthing calculation for the hotel

building in our village:
The aim of the calculations is to design an earthing mat for the hotel, the total
resistance should not exceed 5Ω.
First step we will calculate the cross section area of the main earthing cable:
From the empirical equation:
𝐴 = √𝑡 ∗ 9 ∗ 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = √. 5 ∗ 9 ∗ 28.1 = 178.8 ⩳ 185 𝑚𝑚2

Where:
A : cross section area of the main earthing rod .
t : tripping time
Isc : the short circuit current .
Second step check earth mat resistance:
The dimensions of the hotel are indicated in the figure below
We will assume that the distance between rods S is 15 m and length of each rod is
L = 5m and number of rods N is 30 Rods ,then we will check the resistance of the
earth mat .
The resistivity of the village earth according to Egyptian national code is p =300 Ω.m
The screening coefficient µ Is equal to .8 from standard tables for rods that are
buried vertically.
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Earthing Chapter 9
Hence we can calculate the resistance of each vertical rod RV and total resistance of
the buried rods RVt .
𝒑 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑹𝑽 𝟔𝟎
𝑹𝑽 = = = 𝟔𝟎Ω & 𝑹𝑽𝒕 = = = 𝟐. 𝟓 Ω
𝑳 𝟓 µ×𝑵 .𝟖×𝟑𝟎
All the Rods is connected via horizontal strips of copper, to calculate the resistance
of this copper strips RHt
𝟐𝒑
𝑹𝑯𝒕 =
𝑳 × 𝝁𝑯
Where:
L: the total length of the hotel.
𝑳 = 𝟐(𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒉 × 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉) = 𝟐(𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟔𝟎) = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝝁𝑯 : coefficient related to type of copper tape, and from the Egyptian code is equal to
0.7
Hence the resistance of this copper tape RHt can be calculated ,
𝟐𝒑 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝑯𝒕 = = = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒 Ω
𝑳 × 𝝁𝑯 𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟕
And total earth mat resistance of the hotel,

𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒕 = 𝑹𝑽𝒕 // 𝑹𝑯𝒕
𝟐. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟐. 𝟓
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒕 = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔 Ω
𝟐. 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟐. 𝟓
Which is within the acceptable limits,
Then the earthing mat rods around the hotel will be as the figure below
Green circles represent the rods that are directly buried in the earth.
Blue circles represent the rods that are buried in the earth through earthing room.
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Light Load
In this Chapter:
 Firing System
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Closed Circuit Television
System (CCTV)
 Audio System
Chapter 10
 Satellite System
Light Load Chapter 10
10.1 Firing system
10.1.1 Introduction
The choice of fire alarm system depends on the building structure, the purpose
and use of the building and current legislation.
10.1.2 Types of Fire Alarm Systems

All Fire Alarm Systems essentially operate on the same principle. If a detector
detects smoke or heat or someone operates a break glass unit (manual break point),
then alarm sounders operate to warn others in the building that there may be a fire
and to evacuate. It may also incorporate remote signaling equipment which would
alert the fire brigade via a central station.
Fire Alarm Systems have four categories: -
10.1.2.1. Conventional,
10.1.2.2. Addressable,
10.1.2.3. Analogue Addressable,
10.1.2.4. Wireless systems
10.1.2.1 Conventional fire alarm system: -
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In a Conventional Fire Alarm System, a number of call points and detectors are
wired to the Fire Alarm Control Panel in Zones. A Zone is a circuit and typically one
would wire a circuit per floor or fire compartment. The Fire Alarm Control Panel has a
number of Zone Lamps. The reason for having Zones is to give a rough idea as to
where a fire has occurred. a Control Panel has and the number of circuits that have
been wired within the building. The Control Panel is wired to a minimum of two sounder
circus its which could contain bells, electronic sounders or other audible devices. Each
circuit has an end of line device which is used for monitoring purposes.
10.1.2.2 Addressable Systems: -

It is similar to a Conventional System except that the Control Panel can
determine exactly which detector or call point has initiated the alarm. The detection
circuit is wired as a loop and up to 99 devices may be connected to each loop. The
detectors are essentially Conventional Detectors, with an address built in. The
address in each detector is set by dill switches and the Control Panel is programmed
to display the information required when that particular detector is operated. Additional
Field Devices are available which may be wired to the loop for detection only.
Sounders are wired in a minimum of two sounder circuits exactly as a Conventional
System.
10.1.2.3 Analogue Addressable Fire Alarm Systems: -

It is known as Intelligent Fire Alarm Systems. With a true Intelligent Analogue
System each detector incorporates its own computer which evaluates the environment
around it, and communicates to the Control Panel whether there is a fire, fault or the
detector head needs cleaning. Essentially Analogue Systems are more complex and
incorporate more facilities than Conventional or Addressable Systems. Their primary
purpose is to help prevent the occurrence of false alarms. With the Analogue
Addressable System, up to 127 input devices such Smoke Detectors, Call Points,
Heat Detectors, Contact Monitors.
10.1.2.4 Wireless Fire Alarm System: -

Wireless fire alarm systems are an effective alternative to traditional wired fire
alarm systems for all applications. They utilize secure, license-free radio
communications to interconnect the sensors and devices (smoke detectors, call-
points, etc.) with the controllers. It is a simple concept, which provides many unique
benefits and is a full analogue addressable fire detection system without the need for
cable.
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10.1.3 Points to consider during design

alarm system:
the type of system required.
the action to be taken in the event of fire.
A Method of calling.
Attendance time.
10.1.4 Main component of fire alarm

system:
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10.1.4.1 Sensors.
There are four main types: - Heat detectors, Smoke detectors, Carbon
Monoxide detectors and Multi sensors detectors.
Theory of Carbon Monoxide detector: -
CO fire detectors more sensitive and respond more than smoke and heat type
as it can put in areas which have large amount of co2 such garages and some
industrial places. As it can be set on ascertain percentage of co2 if it became higher
because of fire or some reasoned else the detector will operate.
Beam detector: -
It provides an effective method of covering wide open areas.
10.1.4.2 Alarms.
Alarm devices fall into two types, audible and visual. Many types of alarm
sounders are available and include:
1. Dome bells – operating mechanism contained within the bell.
2. Bells with operating mechanism external to the bell.
3. Small sirens operating in the range of 1,200 – 1,700 Hz.
4. Horns operating in the range of 300 – 400 Hz and either
Motor or pneumatic operations.
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10.1.4.3 Control panel.

Control and indicating equipment performs three principal functions,
Automatic monitoring and control of circuits external to the equipment, such as fire
detection and fire alarm device circuits and supply of power to these circuits
Indication of fire signals, fault signals and their location
Manual control to facilitate actions such as testing, disablement of devices,

triggering of fire signals, silencing of audible fire warnings and resetting the system
after a fire signal.
All control panels including most repeaters, require two power supplies. The
backup supply is built into the panel. Fire alarm repeater panel locate in floors to detect
fault but not action.
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10.1.5 Position of detectors: -

All smoke detectors have similar spacing distance; all heat detectors also have
similar spacing distance yet these are different to smoke detectors. for general areas
the spacing between any point in a protected area and the detector nearest to that
point should not exceed 7.5m for a smoke detector and 5.3m for a heat detector.
To ensure complete coverage for square layouts, spacing’s between detectors

and walls should be reduced to 5m for a smoke detector and 3.5m for a heat detector.
To ensure complete coverage, spacing’s between detectors should be reduced

to 10.0m between smoke detectors and 7.0m between heat detectors.
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For corridors less than 2m wide only the center line need be considered as it is
not necessary to reduce detector spacing’s in order to provide complete coverage.
Then for smoke detectors spacing becomes 7.5m from a wall and 15.0m between
detectors. For heat detectors the spacing becomes 5.3m to a wall and 10.6m between
detectors.
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10.2 Local Area Network (LAN)
10.2.1 Introduction
A LAN is a related group of networked computers situated in close physical
proximity to each other. LANs can be found in many homes, schools, and businesses.
Networks (either wired or wireless) increase the usefulness of home computers in the
following ways:
 File sharing - Network file sharing between computers gives you more
flexibility than using floppy drives or Zip drives. Not only can you share photos, music
files, and documents, you can also use a home network to save copies of all of your
important data on a different computer.
 Printer sharing - Once a home network is in place, it's easy to then set up
all of the computers to share a single printer. No longer will you need to bounce from
one system or another just to print out an email message!
 Internet connection sharing - Using a home network, multiple family

members can access the Internet simultaneously without having to pay an ISP for
multiple
 Multiplayer gaming - Many popular home computer games support "LAN

mode" where friends and family can play together, if they have their computers
networked.
10.2.2 ADSL connections

ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscribers Line) connections are becoming more and
more widely available and can provide an excellent internet connection.
The connections work by splitting your phone line into two separate channels, one for
data (internet) and one for voice (phone calls) which means you can talk on the phone
and be connected to the internet at the same time.
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You will often see ADSL connection services advertised as having different speed
specifications, below are some common configurations:
 256Kbps/128Kbps
 512Kbps/128Kbps
 1Mbps/256Kbps
Notice there are two values to each configuration, the first figure states the download
speed and the second figure is the maximum upload speed.
As an example let's take the second configuration 512Kbps/128Kbps, this means

that you can potentially download data at a speed of 512Kbps and upload data at
128Kbps.
10.2.3 Types of LANs
10.2.3.1 Wired LANs

Wired LANs use Ethernet cables and network adapters. Although two
computers can be directly wired to each other using an Ethernet crossover cable,
wired LANs generally also require central devices like hubs, switches, or routers to
accommodate more computers. Broadband routers allow easier sharing of cable
modem or DSL Internet connections, plus they often include built-in firewall support.
Installation
Ethernet cables must be run from each computer to another computer or to
the central device. It can be time-consuming and difficult to run cables under the
floor or through walls, especially when computers sit in different rooms. Some newer
homes are pre-wired with CAT5 cable, greatly simplifying the cabling process and
minimizing unsightly cable runs. The correct cabling configuration for a wired LAN
varies depending on the mix of devices, the type of Internet connection, and whether
internal or external modems are used.
After hardware installation, the remaining steps in configuring either wired or

wireless LANs do not differ much. Both rely on standard Internet Protocol and network
operating system configuration options. Laptops and other portable devices often
enjoy greater mobility in wireless home network installations.
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Cost
Ethernet cables, hubs and switches are very inexpensive. Some connection
sharing software packages, like ICS, are free; some cost a nominal fee. Broadband
routers cost more, but these are optional components of a wired LAN.
Reliability
Ethernet cables, hubs and switches are extremely reliable, mainly because
manufacturers have been continually improving Ethernet technology over several
decades. Loose cables likely remain the single most common and annoying source
of failure in a wired network. When installing a wired LAN or moving any of the
components later, be sure to carefully check the cable connections.
Broadband routers have also suffered from some reliability problems in the
past. Unlike other Ethernet gear, these products are relatively new, multi-function
devices. Broadband routers have matured over the past several years and their
reliability has improved greatly.
Performance
Wired LANs offer superior performance. Traditional Ethernet connections
offer only 10 Mbps bandwidth, but 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet technologies costs little
more and is readily available.
Fast Ethernet should be sufficient for home file sharing, gaming, and high-
speed Internet access for many years into the future.
Wired LANs utilizing hubs can suffer performance slowdown if computers

heavily utilize the network simultaneously. Use Ethernet switches instead of hubs
to avoid this problem; a switch costs little more than a hub.
Security
For any wired LAN connected to the Internet, firewalls are the primary
security consideration. Wired Ethernet hubs and switches do not support firewalls.
However, firewall software products like Zone Alarm can be installed on the computers
themselves. Broadband routers offer equivalent firewall capability built into the
device, configurable through software.
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10.2.3.2 Wireless LANs

Installation
Wi-Fi networks can be configured in two different ways:
 "Ad hoc" mode allows wireless devices to communicate in peer-to-peer

mode with each other.
 "Infrastructure" mode allows wireless devices to communicate with a

central node that in turn can communicate with wired nodes on that LAN.
Most LANs require infrastructure mode to access the Internet, a local printer, or other
wired services, whereas ad hoc mode supports only basic file sharing between
wireless devices.
Cost
Wireless gear costs somewhat more than the equivalent wired Ethernet
products. At full retail prices, wireless adapters and access points may cost three or
four times as much as Ethernet cable adapters and hubs/switches, respectively.
802.11b products have dropped in price considerably with the release of 802.11g, and
obviously, bargain sales is found if shoppers are persistent.
Reliability
Wireless LANs suffer a few more reliability problems than wired LANs, though
perhaps not enough to be a significant concern. 802.11b and 802.11g wireless signals
are subject to interference from other home appliances including microwave ovens,
cordless telephones, and garage door openers. With careful installation, the likelihood
of interference can be minimized.
Wireless networking products, particularly those that implement 802.11g, are

comparatively new. As with any new technology, expect it will take time for these
products to mature.
Performance
Wi-Fi performance is distance sensitive, meaning that maximum performance
will degrade on computers farther away from the access point or other communication
endpoint. As more wireless devices utilize the WLAN more heavily, performance
degrades even further. Overall, the performance of 802.11a and 802.11g is sufficient
for home Internet connection sharing and file sharing, but generally not sufficient for
home LAN gaming.
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The greater mobility of wireless LANs helps offset the performance disadvantage.
Mobile computers do not need to be tied to an Ethernet cable and can roam freely
within the WLAN range. However, many home computers are larger desktop models,
and even mobile computers must sometimes be tied to an electrical cord and outlet
for power
Security
In theory, wireless LANs are less secure than wired LANs, because wireless
communication signals travel through the air and can easily be intercepted. On
balance, though, the weaknesses of wireless security are more theoretical than
practical. WLANs protect their data through the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
encryption standard that makes wireless communications reasonably as safe as wired
ones in homes.
10.2.4 Which is better-wired or wireless?

The table below summarizes the main criteria we've considered in this article.
If you are very cost-conscious, need maximum performance of your home system,
and don't care much about mobility, then a wired Ethernet LAN is probably right for
you.
If on the other hand, cost is less of an issue, you like being an early adopter of
leading-edge technologies, and you are really concerned about the task of wiring your
home or small business with Ethernet cable, then you should certainly consider a
wireless LAN.
Wired VS. Wireless
Wireless Wired
Installation easier, but beware interference moderate difficulty
Cost More Less
Reliability reasonably high High
Performance Good very good
Security reasonably good reasonably good
Mobility Outstanding Limited
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10.2.5 Components of LAN:
10.2.5.1. Routers
A router allows connectivity to one or more computers,
helping create a network. For home users, these are particularly
useful for taking a single broadband internet account, and spreading it to at least two
or more computers. Standard routers require the internet connection from a
standalone modem, but modem-routers are increasing in popularity, which can be
plugged into any broadband-enabled phone line, reducing cable clutter, and only
taking up one power socket.
In the telecoms industry, the backbone of the internet is formed by industrial
routers. They work rather like telephone exchanges, passing data between network
segments to form a connection. Each router has a configuration table, or routing table,
containing information on which connections lead to certain groups of addresses,
which connections have priority for usage, and rules for handling different kinds of
traffic. A typical home/office router has a very small routing table, but the big routers
that handle the main internet traffic can have huge complicated routing tables. Each
time a router receives a packer of data it will attempt to send it along the best possible
route to its destination, based on its routing table. If that connection is not currently
available, it will send it along the next best route. In this way, the routers that form the
internet can reconfigure the paths packages take to work around any problems with
the network.
The rules for handling traffic are an important part of internet security. A
home/office router may have rules limiting how computers outside the network can
connect to computers inside the network, as well as preventing private network traffic
from spilling into the outside world. Many home routers include additional security
features - they scan and filter all traffic that passes through them, usually through an
integrated firewall in the hardware. Some may carry out other useful roles such as
acting as a print server.
Wireless routers have become more common. A wireless router does exactly
the same job in the home as a regular wired (Ethernet) router, with the difference that
a computer can be connected to it without needing to run Ethernet cable between the
computer and the router. All you need is a wireless network adapter in each PC you
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want to connect, usually in the form of a card in your PCI

slot (or a laptop's PCMCIA card slot) or an adapter for USB.
Wireless routers generally have four ports to connect
Ethernet cable as well, so computers can be connected by
whatever means is most convenient - you might want to use
a cable for your desktop PC which sits right next to the router,
but use the wireless adapter in your laptop.
10.2.5.2. Switches
A switch is sometimes called an 'intelligent hub', and now that they are no
longer significantly more expensive than hubs they have almost replaced them
entirely. A switch does the same as a hub, in that it connects devices to allow them to
act as a single segment. However, it does not automatically send traffic to every other
port. Each time a frame of data comes into the switch, it saves the physical address
(MAC address) and the port it came from in its MAC address table.
It then checks the destination MAC address in the table, and if it
recognizes it is ends the frame to the appropriate port. If it is not in
the table, or the address is a broadcast address (intended for every
machine on the local network), then it does the same as a hub and
sends the frame through every port except the originating port.
Hubs and switches are commonly used in businesses to
divide up the local network into a number of subnets. For example,
if the creative team are frequently exchanging large files across the
network, their traffic will slow down the network for other users. Two switches can be
used, with the creative team's computers being connected to form one network while
everyone else's computers are connected to form another. The two switches can then
be connected to the router which sits between the internal network and the internet.
The creative team's traffic is only seen by the computers on that network, but if they
need to connect to a computer on the other network the data is sent through the router
in the middle.
10.2.5.3. Hubs
A hub is a device for connector multiple Ethernet devices (usually PCs) to form
a single segment - a portion of a network that is separated from other parts of the
network. It has multiple ports through which devices are connected, and when it
receives data it sends it out again through every port except the one it came in through.
Originally Ethernet networks used coaxial cables. Each computer was fitted with a
transceiver, which connected directly into a long piece of coaxial cable - a bus. This
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meant that traffic on the network was visible to every other computer. A hub replaces
this cable, making sure that traffic is seen by every computer on the network, and
enables the network to be connected in the form of a star rather than a bus using the
familiar twisted pair Ethernet cable.
Line diagram of LAN connections
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10.3 Closed Circuit Television

System (CCTV)
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.1.1 What are CCTV systems?

Televisions systems are now one of the most indispensable information and
communications means in our daily life. They can be broadly classified as shown in
Figure 1-1, and are used in aide range of applications, including standard television
broadcasts.
An open-circuit system refers to a system that is targeted at an indefinite

number of people, as in television broadcasts. Closed-circuit systems, on the other
hand, are designed to provide video to specified viewers. One closed-circuit system
that is primarily designed for surveillance purposes is generally called a closed-circuit
television or CCTV system. CCTV is used in a wide variety of applications which
include security, disaster prevention, energy and manpower saving, sales promotion
and information services, production management, industrial measurement, medical
care, education and military fields.
10.3.1.2 How television works?

Camera is analogous to the human eye and light passing through its lens is
changed into an electric signal by means of a charge-coupled device (CCD) or other
image sensors that correspond to the eye’s retina. The electric signal is output to a
monitor via electrical circuitry.
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10.3.2 Aims of a surveillance camera

system
The aim of the CCTV system is broadly classified into the following
categories:
1) Security (Crime Prevention)

2) Safety (Disaster Prevention)
3) Manpower Savings
4) Customer Service
5) Other Applications
10.3.3 System design elements:

The range of areas or rooms tube monitored can to a certain extent be imagined
without actually visiting them, depending on the types of buildings or facilities the
system is installed in. Let us give you some concrete examples:
1) Convenience Stores
2) Financial Institutions
3) Office Buildings
4) Senior Citizen Centers and related facilities
5) Hospitals and Other Medical Facilities
6) Department Stores and Supermarkets
7) Hotels
8) Factories
9) Transportation
10) Other Applications
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10.3.4 Types of cameras used in CCTV

systems:
10.3.4.1 Color and Monochrome Cameras
Color cameras can send images in color to the monitor screen. They are
relatively more expensive than monochrome cameras, but recently have come to be
used in most CCTV applications.
For surveillance applications in particular, it may be important to be able to

recognize clothing or vehicle color. Some color cameras come with an increased
sensitivity function that use image accumulation to deliver images of subjects in
conditions with low illumination.
Monochrome cameras (also called “B&W” or black-and-white” cameras) are

less expensive than color cameras. Generally, they have lower minimum illumination
requirements compared to color cameras and therefore can produce clearer images
of dark objects. They also usually use single-plate type CCD’s, meaning they can
produce images with higher resolution than color cameras.
10.3.4.2 Camera Shapes
CCTV cameras are available in various shapes including cylindrical, box, dome
and combination dome types, each appropriate for specific applications and purposes.
(a) Cylindrical and Box Types
Either a cylindrical or a rectangular outperform can be selected depending on

the size and design of the installation space.
(b) Dome Type
The camera is covered with a dome that conceals it from casual view. Both the
horizontal (pan) and vertical (tilt) orientation of the camera can be adjusted. Most
models come equipped with a built-in 2X manual zoom lens.
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(c) Combination Dome Types
Camera, motorized pan/tilt head and motorized zoom lens are integrated into
a single unit, operated by using a remote control. The camera case is sealed to provide
excellent protection against dust and moisture and helps to reduce noise (including
the noise generated by camera rotation).
10.3.5 Power supply systems
10.3.5.1 AC-Mains System

Power is supplied to the camera via the AC mains. Since the AC mains is also
used to power many other pieces of equipment besides the camera, it may be a lower-
cost option (depending on the conditions)
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10.3.5.2 24V AC System

Power is supplied to the camera via a 24V AC power supply, typically a 24V
adapter or are lay box. This system reduces the total cost when the camera is used in
combination with housing and pan/tilt head.
10.3.5.3 12V DC System

Power is supplied to the camera via a 12V DC power supply. Since 12V DC
power supplies are usually used for sensor systems as well, cameras can be
integrated with the set achieve relatively inexpensive systems. One drawback of such
power supplies is that their direct-current power source does not allow them to be
used for video signal synchronization and because of the voltage drop in long cable.
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10.3.6 Camera functions

TO Color cameras incorporate various advanced functions that allow them to
operate properly amidst various surrounding conditions. Models equipped with a DSP
(digital signal processing) circuitry ensure wide dynamic range and offer stable color
and clear image reproduction. The various camera functions offered are described
below.
1) Backlight Compensation (BLC)

2) Wide Dynamic Range
3) Image Enhancer
4) White Balance
5) Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
6) Automatic Sensitivity Adjustment (AES)
7) Flicker Reduction
8) Privacy Masking Function
9) High-Sensitivity Accumulation Function
10) Day& Night Function
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10.4 Audio System
10.4.1 Introduction
Noise and sound often mean the same thing; when they differ, a noise is an
unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable component that
obscures a signal. What is noise and what is signal depends on your point of view.
Humans perceive sound by the sense of hearing. By sound, we commonly mean the
vibrations that travel through air and can be heard by humans. However, scientists
and engineers use a wider definition of sound that includes low and high frequency
vibrations in air that cannot be heard, and vibrations that travel through all forms of
matter, gases, liquids and solids. The matter that supports the sound is called the
medium. Sound propagates as waves of alternating pressure, causing local regions
of compression and rarefaction. Particles in the medium are displaced by the wave
and oscillate. The scientific study of sound is called acoustics.
Distributed audio systems can be as small or large as you need them to be.
Larger scale systems often require more involved wiring schemes and heavy-
duty construction. Professional contractors are sometimes required for those types of
installations.
Distributed audio systems must be designed to suit individual needs. In order

to determine what equipment will be necessary to create a system, you must first
determine the requirements of the installation.
10.4.2 Basic types of distributed audio

systems:
1. Background
2. Foreground
3. A combination of the two
Quiet office buildings and recreation centers generally require soft background
music, with the ability to page. This is an example of a background system. Nightclubs,
performance venues, and loud restaurants need the ability to turn up the volume, and
thus require a foreground system. Basically, a background system is restricted to only
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providing low volume levels. A foreground system has the ability to provide louder
volumes.
Health clubs commonly require loud background music in the treadmill area,
and quiet ambient music in the yoga room, and perhaps even promotional material
looping in the reception area. They also need the ability to page members and trainers
throughout the gym. This is an example of having the need for a combination of the
two types of systems.
10.4.3 The factors of distributed audio

systems:
 Frequency response The range of human hearing is about 20-20,000 Hz. A
frequency response specification tells you what portion of that range a speaker
can play. A speaker with a frequency response of 50-20,000 Hz handles a
wider range and offers deeper bass than a speaker with a frequency response
of 65-20,000 Hz.
 Power handling A speaker's recommended power specification usually tells
you at least the maximum amplifier power the speaker can handle — often
minimum power handling info is included as well. A speaker with recommended
power of 20-100 watts is well-suited to a 100-watt RMS receiver, for example.
 Efficiency A speaker's efficiency, or sensitivity, rating indicates how effectively

it uses the power sent to it by your amplifier. A speaker with a rating of 87 dB
needs a lot more power to play as loudly as a speaker with a rating of 91 db.
10.4.4 Types of Speakers:

We have two types of speakers which are (Indoor & Out door).
10.4.4.1 Indoor Speakers

We Have two types of Indoor Speakers In-Wall and In-Ceiling where
they are finding their way into thousands of hotels, and it's easy to see why.
They're finally good enough for people who want really enjoyable audio,
and discreet enough for folks who want to enjoy music without having to
see their speakers.
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1. An in-wall speaker works essentially the same way as a regular speaker.

However, instead of being inside a cabinet, it is mounted in a frame and set into
the wall. It actually uses the wall cavity as a large cabinet, giving you more bass
than you might get from a stand-alone speaker of the same size.
2. An in-ceiling speaker works essentially the same way, except that —

you guessed it — it's placed in a ceiling. (In-ceiling speakers tend to be
round).
Almost all in-wall and in-ceiling speakers have pain table grilles, so you can
really camouflage them in your walls or ceiling!
Appropriate Placing of Speakers for Multi-Room Audio

With a carefully designed multi-room audio system, you can turn on your tunes
throughout your home. Whether you're entertaining guests, doing work around the
house, or just relaxing, multi-room audio is a great way to enjoy music wherever and
whenever you please.
Which rooms do you want music in?

The first step in designing your own multi-room audio system is to take a close
look at how you live in each room of your home. Make a list of the rooms where you
spend the most time. Then try to classify the type of listening you'll do in each room.
1- Critical Listening
In which rooms will you (at least occasionally) sit in one spot, facing the
speakers, and really concentrate on the music? The family room? The home theater
room? In critical listening rooms, you orient the speakers toward the prime listening
seats.
2-Entertainment Listening
Think of all the rooms in which you and your family or guests gather to read,
talk, work, cook or play. In most of these situations, you play music at low volumes,
but you may want to turn it up occasionally. You don't sit in one spot, nor do your
guests. The speakers go where they can best spread the stereo sound throughout the
room.
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3-Background Listening
Classify rooms you just pass through or spend small amounts of time in such
as hallways, bathrooms and the laundry room as background listening.
Speaker placement for critical listening

Place the left and right speakers an equal distance from your prime listening
seat, so that the tweeters are at ear level while seated. If you're installing speakers in
a wall that's 10 feet from your chair, place them no more than 10 feet apart from each
other and no less than 5 feet apart. If the speakers are placed too close together or
too far apart from one another, you will not hear a proper stereo effect. Floor-standing
and bookshelf speakers obviously give you more flexibility in this area than in-wall
speakers, since you can adjust their positioning to test where they sound best.
Sometimes the layout of a room makes it impossible to place in-wall, on-wall or

floor-standing speakers for critical listening. In such cases, a good option is to choose
a high-grade set of in-ceiling speakers. Ideally, these speakers should have pivoting
tweeters, which allow you to direct the relatively unidirectional high frequencies toward
your prime listening seats for optimal sound.
Another consideration: When a speaker is placed in a corner, its bass output is

reinforced by your room acoustics. You hear more bass, but not necessarily good,
tight bass. This so-called "boundary effect" can make the bass sound "loose" or
"boomy." Always place your speakers at least one foot away from a corner or a
wall/ceiling boundary.
Speaker placement for entertainment listening

In rooms you move around in or frequently entertain in, speaker placement
designed for critical listening won't work well. The music will be too loud in one area
and too soft in another. By employing three or four speakers in a room, or by
judiciously using a combination of direct and reflected sound, you create a sound field
that is relatively even. You'll hear some degree of stereo effect regardless of wher e
you are in the room.
Ceiling speakers are a great choice for entertainment listening, because they
provide the most even dispersion of sound throughout a room. However, should the
wall offer an easier installation or a better match with your décor, place the speakers
at least 6 feet off the floor.
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Both in-wall and in-ceiling speakers should also be placed at least 2 feet away
from corners to keep the reflected sound in balance with the direct sound.
When a room is long and narrow, L-shaped, or larger than 300 square feet,
consider using more than two speakers. They should be wired in alternating channels,
to provide a decent stereo effect in as many areas as possible.
Ceiling speaker placement:

A. Diagonal placement, gives good coverage in a typical rectangular room of 300
square feet or less.
B. Use of three or more speakers in a large or L-shaped room.
C. In a narrow room, place the speakers in the middle at either end. In this
example, stereo-input speakers would be a good choice.
10.4.4.2 Outdoor Speakers

The great outdoors presents a different listening
environment than your typical room. Inside your home,
there are walls to reinforce low-frequency response and
reflect and contain sound. Outside, of course, it's wide
open, and there's usually much more background noise
— wind, traffic, barking dogs, and even crickets. Below,
we'll discuss a few things to take into consideration when
shopping for outdoor speakers.
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Placement tips
Here are a few placement tips that should increase the performance of any
outdoor speaker you buy:
 The higher you mount your speakers, the greater the sound projection, and the
farther away you will get good sound.
 Placing your speakers near a wall or other solid surface improves bass output.
 If it is necessary to mount one or both speakers in an exposed location, make

sure you choose speakers that are rated for extreme conditions. Also, when
mounting the speakers, tilt the speakers so the cones face slightly down for
drainage.
Experiment with placement before permanently mounting the speakers. Place

the speakers in a likely location, and walk around to determine how well the sound
travels throughout the listening area. Once you are satisfied, it's time to mount the
speakers.
Mounting your outdoor speakers

After determining the ideal spot for your speakers, it's time to mount them. Most
of the outdoor speakers we carry include mounting brackets, and you'll want to follow
the included instructions to make sure they are properly secured.
We've found that it is best to mount your speakers to a solid wood or masonry
surface. We do not recommend attaching your speakers directly to aluminum or cedar
sidings; they may not be strong enough to support the weight of your speakers.
Powering your speakers

After choosing the suitable speaker in the suitable placing you must then choose
the amplifier and mixer to supply power to these speakers, depending on the number
of speakers in use, and the overall power requirements of those speakers, multiple
amplifiers or a multi-channel amplifier may be necessary. If you want to have different
audio playing in different zones, like the fitness club described earlier, you’re going to
need an amplifier with multiple zone controls.
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Sound distribution in The Project
1- For Sound distribution in a narrow placed way e.g.

corridors and store rooms (Indoors) with ceiling height
less than 3 meters, it is advisable to use 3 watts
powered speakers at a 5m interval to reproduce good
quantity audible sound signal serving the adequate
distribution pattern. (In-ceiling 3 w speakers used).
2- For distribution in an open Space (Outdoors) e.g. "Pool

deck, Parking & Reception", it is advisable to use 10
watts powered Horns and distribute it in the open place
you have to reproduce good quantity audible sound
signal serving the adequate distribution pattern. (10w
Horns used).
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10.5 Satellite System
10.5.1 Introduction
Satellite signals are microwaves which travel
in a straight path along the line of sight and all
geostationary satellites are located in an arc which
goes across the sky. If we want to receive these
satellites, we need to have an unobstructed view of
this arc. You can conduct a preliminary survey at the
site by facing south for locations north of the equator
or north for locations in the southern hemisphere.
Here we have a relatively clear and unobstructed
view of the sky from the Southeast to the Southwest.
Even at this site, however, there are limitations: the
mountain blocks our view of the south-western
horizon and trees block the south-eastern horizon. To determine which satellites may
be blocked from any given location we will need to learn about the two basic co-
ordinates for finding any satellite: the azimuth and the elevation.
10.5.2 Satellite system components
1) Low noise block down converter (LNB)

It is the device on the front of a satellite dish that receives the very low level
microwave signal from the satellite, amplifies it, changes the signals to a lower
frequency band and sends them down the cable to the indoor receiver.
The expression low noise refers the quality of the first stage input amplifier
transistor. The quality is measured in units called Noise Temperature, Noise Figure
or Noise Factor. Both Noise Figure and Noise Factor may be converted into Noise
Temperature. The lower the Noise Temperature the better. So an LNB with Noise
Temperature = 100K is twice as good as one with 200K.
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Universal Single Dual band LNB

O/P LNB Dual O/P
2) Concave reflector dish

A satellite dish is a type of parabolic antenna designed with the specific
purpose of transmitting signals to and/or receiving from satellites.
A satellite dish is a particular type of microwave antenna. Satellite dishes come

in varying sizes and designs, and are most commonly used to receive satellite
television. Many of the offset type of satellite dishes are sections of a larger parabolic
dish.
The parabolic shape of a dish reflects the signal to the dish’s focal point.
Mounted on brackets at the dish's focal point is a device called a feed horn. This feed
horn is essentially the front-end of a waveguide that gathers the signals at or near the
focal point and 'conducts' them to a low-noise block downconverter or LNB. The LNB
converts the signals from electromagnetic or radio waves to electrical signals and
shifts the signals from the downlinked C-band and/or K u-band to the L-band range.
Direct broadcast satellite dishes use an LNBF, which integrates the feed horn with the
LNB
3) Amplifier
Amplifiers are used to increase the strength of received signals to a level
greater than the losses in the distribution system. This provides an acceptable level
to all sets in the system.
Though the gain of an amplifier (amount of signal increase) is important. the

output capability is just as important. The amplifier's specifications should be checked
carefully to make sure that the output level is sufficient to feed the system and that the
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strength of the input signal plus the gain of the amplifier does exceed its rated output
capability. Exceeding the output capability will result in overloading (cross modulation
in broadband amplifiers) and overall signal deterioration.
There are two types of amplifiers: broadband and single channel. Broadband
amplifiers. The more common type, provide a closely uniform gain across the entire
band. Single channel amplifiers allow complete control of both gain and output level
of individual channels. This is accomplished by using Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
circuitry.
For the most economical installation, the amplifier should be centrally located
in relation to the distribution lines. The longer the distribution lines, the more loss in
the system and the costlier the system will be to install.
4) Distributor
It’s a passive device used for splitting the received signal to many cables for
distributing the signal over wide area such like hotels.
Types of distributors
1) Low noise type (LN)
2) Ultra-low noise type (ULN(
5) Digital Satellite Decoder

It’s the device the receives the incoming satellite signal & decode it in the
form of TV picture.
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6) Coaxial Cable and Connectors

Three cables are needed to connect the dish to the indoor receiver. The first
cable supplies a dc voltage and a pulse count to the receiver so that it knows how far
to travel from satellite to satellite. The second cable provides the five volts dc pulse
and ground required by the feed horn’s servo motor. All of these wires are contained
in a single high quality direct burnable cable. Make sure that you purchase enough to
complete the run all the way from the feed horn, down the pole, into the ground and
from the pole to the house, up the wall, through the attic, and down an interior wall
while leaving enough left over to easily reach to the back of the receiver. If at all
possible, avoid splices in your cable run as they are potential trouble spots which can
allow permit moisture to enter the system.
The third essential connection is a shielded wire cable called coax that is used
to connect the LNB to the receiver. Coax is made up of an inner wire covered with a
plastic or foam sheath, and an outer mesh that is in turn surrounded by an outer plastic
covering. An 'F' connector is attached to each end of the coaxial cable. Make sure that
the center conductor does not short out to the outer ground sheath as this will blow
the receiver's fuse and possibly damage its internal power supply.
or
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Air
Conditioning
In this Chapter:
 Introduction
 Fan coil unit
 Water cooled chillers
Chapter 11
 Heat exchange process
 Air conditioning process
 Cooling Capacity and unit
efficiency
 Improving the efficiency of
chiller
 Types of air conditioners
 Air conditioning calculation
Air conditioning Chapter 11
11.1 Introduction:
Air conditioning is defined as a process, which heat, cools, cleans and
circulates air and controls its moisture content.
The conditioner consists of three main units: -

1. Indoor unit (fan coil unit), for closed areas such that
(shops, hotel rooms, offices, gym. ...Etc.)
2. Indoor unit (air handling unit), for open areas such as
(reception, halls, coffee shops, restaurants…etc.).
3. Outdoor unit (chiller unit).
11.2 Fan coil unit:

It is a small indoor cooling unit and is usually placed under the fall ceiling. It
circulates the cold air taken from the chiller. The numbers of fan coil unit for a room
depends on the area of the room.
11.3 Water cooled chillers:

The chiller is a device for cooling the water system for the whole system of air
conditioning. Chiller may be installed in parallel. Units should be of equal size to
ensure balanced fluid flows.
THE CHILLER PROCESS:

1. At the condenser, the refrigerant condenses back into a liquid, releasing heat
to the surrounding space or medium. As the liquid refrigerant leaves the
condenser, it flows through a flow control device (such as a valve), and then
returns to the evaporator where it repeats the cycle.
2. The compressor draws in the refrigerant vapor as it is being formed,

maintaining an even pressure at the evaporator. The compressor transforms
the refrigerant from a low-pressure, low-temperature vapor into a high-
pressure, high-temperature vapor that can be efficiently condensed.
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3. At the evaporator, refrigerant boils (evaporates) and turns into a gas. As the
refrigerant evaporates, it absorbs heat from the surrounding space or medium.
It chills the water that circulates between the chiller and the air handling system.
And here we have a scheme which can show us how the chiller operates.
FIG. (1) FIG. (2)
FIG. (1): shows us the system of air conditioning using chiller and air handling unit.
And the connection between them.
FIG. (2): is a zoom in -on the chiller part- from the whole system, to explain on it the
process of the chiller.
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11.4 Heat exchange process:
The constant removal of body heat takes place through three natural processes
which usually occur simultaneously.
 Convection
 Radiation
 Evaporation
11.4.1 Convection
The convection process of removing heat is based on two phenomena:

a) Heat flows from a hot to a cold surface. EX. (heat flowing from the
body to the surrounding air).
b) Heat rise. This is evident by observing the smoke from a burning
cigarette.
c) when these phenomena are applied to the body process of removing
heat , the following occurs :
1) The body gives off heat to the cool surrounding air
2) The surrounding air become warm and moves upward
3) As the warm air moves upward, more cool air takes its place, and
the convection cycle completed.
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11.4.2 Radiation
Radiation is the process by which heat moves from a heat source (sun, fire,
etc….) to object by means of heat rays. This principle is based on the previously noted
phenomena that heat moves from a hot to a cold surface. It does not require air
movement to complete the heat transfer, nor is it affected by air temperature, also if
is affected by the temperature of surrounding surfaces.
11.4.3 Evaporation
Evaporation is the process in which moisture is evaporated. As moisture

evaporates from a warm surface, it removes heat and thus cools the surface. This
process takes place constantly on the body surface.
Moisture is given off of through the pores of the skin and as the moisture
evaporates it removes heat from the body. Perspiration that appears as drops of
moisture of the body, indicates that the body is producing more heat than can be
removed by convection, radiation and normal evaporation.
11.5 Air conditioning process:
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Simply stated, an air-conditioning unit works by removing heat from the air inside
the home, and releasing this collected heat into the air outdoors. This process is
accomplished by a refrigerant which absorbs excess heat from inside air through an
evaporating coil. The refrigerant is then pumped by a compressor to a coil in the
condenser. A fan blows outside air over the hot condensing coil and heat is transferred
from the refrigerant to the outside air.
11.6 Cooling capacity and unit

efficiency:
When selecting a central air conditioner the cooling capacity and efficiency of
the system are important points to consider.
Cooling capacity of air conditioners is measured in terms of British thermal units

per hour (Btu) and equates to the amount of heat that can be removed from a building
in one hour. When purchasing a central cooling system, we must make sure that it is
correctly sized for the place. A system that is too small may not produce enough
cooled air to make the place comfortable. An over-sized unit will perform inefficiently,
often causing a cool and clammy feeling.
In addition to adequate cooling capacity, our unit should be efficient.
Although the initial cost will probably be higher, a more efficient unit uses less
energy and thus costs less to operate over the life of the unit than a less efficient one.
For example, a new central air conditioner's annual operating costs may be half of
what an older model costs to run.
To evaluate unit efficiency, we must know a few terms. The energy efficiency for
an air conditioner and the cooling side of a heat pump are shown by the Seasonal
Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER). The SEER indicates how much cooling (expressed
in Btu) we get for each watt of electricity we use on a seasonal basis.
The higher the SEER of a unit, the more efficient it is. Using the SEER, you may
compare the efficiency of different units. For example, if unit A's SEER is 10 and unit
B's SEER is 5, unit A is twice as efficient as unit B and will cost approximately half as
much to operate. Because a heat pump warms as well as cools the place.
185
11.7 Improving the efficiency of the

chiller:
The chiller plant represents a significant percentage of the total building
electrical consumption and maximizing the efficiency of the chiller plant is a crucial
part of managing the facility's mechanical system. Most building operators are unable
to achieve maximum system efficiency because they do not have the data necessary
to evaluate the success of measures implemented to improve efficiency.
Many factors contribute to decreased chiller efficiency, the four most common
ones include: poor operating practices, ignored or deferred maintenance,
ignored cooling tower maintenance and over sizing chillers.
While each of these factors poses a real and significant threat to chiller efficiency, all
can be easily controlled or eliminated by maintenance managers.
1. Poor operating practices
Poor operating practices not only can decrease chiller efficiency, but also chiller
life. Most such practices are the result of one of two situations: trying to get a chiller
to do something that it was not designed to do or not understanding the consequences
of a particular action.
2. Ignored maintenance
Although good maintenance practices are important to the efficient operation of

all building equipment, there are few areas where this is more evident than in the
maintenance of building chillers. For example, consider the impact that good
maintenance can have on chiller efficiency.
3. Ignoring cooling towers
Cooling towers are critical components in the efficient operation of chiller

systems. In most cases, the operation of the cooling tower determines the operating
efficiency of the chiller, to a great extent. Towers that are in good condition, operated
properly and well maintained allow chillers to operate at peak efficiency.
186
4. Over sizing
properly sizing a chiller also is important to its efficient operation because chiller
efficiency drops off rapidly with decreasing load. Chances are when the facility was
new, the chiller was slightly oversized in order to allow some growth in cooling loads
within the facility without having to replace the chiller.
11.8 Types of air conditioners:

1. Room air conditioners
2. Central air conditioning systems
3. Heat pumps
4. Evaporative coolers
11.8.1 Room air conditioner
 Room air conditioners cool rooms rather than the entire home.
 Less expensive to operate than central units
 Their efficiency is generally lower than that of central air conditioners .
 Can be plugged into any 15- or 20-amp, 115-volt household circuit that is not
shared with any other major appliances
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11.8.2 Central Air conditioning
 Circulate cool air through a system of supply and return ducts. Supply ducts
and registers
(i.e., openings in the walls, floors, or ceilings covered by grills) carry cooled air
from the air conditioner to the home.
 This cooled air becomes warmer as it circulates through the home; then it flows
back to the central air conditioner through return ducts and registers.
 Types of Central AC
split-system
o an outdoor metal cabinet contains the condenser and compressor, and
an indoor cabinet contains the evaporator
Packaged
o the evaporator, condenser, and compressor are all located in one
cabinet
11.9 Air conditioning calculation
There are some steps to calculate the size of air conditioner you need.
 calculate the volume of selected room

volume = length x width x height (per 𝑚 3 )
 then product the volume and )300(
as 300 Btu per 1 𝑚 3
 Divide the result by (12000)
as 12000 Btu = 1 ton
so we can get the total no of tons for the selected area.

as 1 KW = 3.51 TON REG.
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Emergency
in this Chapter:
 Introduction
 Emergency Lighting
 Emergency Loads
 Diesel Generators
 Electronic Device Protection
Chapter 12
 Structure and Operation in
Utility Station
Emergency Chapter 12
12.1 Introduction
For safety design of electrical networks in various constructions requires taking
into consideration emergency periods, which result due to total or partial cut off in main
supply. Adequate operation for the electric network is considered the main aim for an
engineer or an expert in the first design stages of such a network. So, the need for
stand-by electrical sources is recommended. When there are important loads. This
stand-by Supply will feed the essential or emergency loads in case of Power failure.
12.2 Emergency Lighting

During normal operation, these luminaries are powered from the general
lighting mains with 220V, in the event of power failure a combined electronic switch
over system with inverter connected to the batteries assigned to each luminaire switch
over to emergency operation. Depending on the applicable specification the
accumulator’s capacity must be such that the required illuminances is maintained 3
hours max, depending on the power output of the lamp, the emergency luminous flux
ratio may lie between 15-85%, when the main voltage returns the system switches
over automatically to mains and thus operation.
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12.3 Emergency loads

Emergency loads are the loads, which need local feeding in case of main
network disconnection. Here’s a menu of the most common emergency loads:
12.3.1. Lightning loads

The magnitude, quantity, quality of emergency loads should be determined, in
addition to determining the instant and maximum interval of operation. This type of
loads is classified to the following:
12.3.1.1. Safety lightning
It’s the lighting required to help persons to exit in case of electricity

disconnection Safety lighting contains exit lighting, caution signals and ladders. It
works for 90 minutes.
12.3.1.2. Security lightning
Lightning must be inserted around the circumference of working location to

avoid accidents danger.
This lighting isn’t illuminated directly as the previous type; it works after certain
minutes from the instant of disconnection. It should continue for more than 12 hours;
so using batteries and UPS is not suitable. We always depend on the local generator
in this type.
12.3.1.3. Repair and maintenance lighting

Lightning level must be sufficient in repair process; also the time must be
sufficient (for hours). Distribution board locations and rooms need this type of
lightning.
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12.3.2. Transport loads

Transport loads are that ones used to transport people and goods using electric
energy as:
12.3.2.1 LIFTS
Good design to emergency system implies using a different supply (than the
production machines supply) for the lifts. As the number of lifts and floors increase the
need for a separate supply increases. In some situations, all the lifts must be fed for
15 seconds after fault, and then only half the number of lifts works if this suits the
number of population. In other situations, it is preferable to transport the alternative
power using automatic transfer switch provided that the position of the switch is under
sight.
12.3.2.2 Mechanical devices

Mechanical devices depend greatly on electric energy. For instant,
compressed air, cooling water, water pumps, hydraulic systems, and natural gas
systems.
12.3.3. Fire fighter load

The most important point in designing and building firefighting systems is
being sure that there is reserve supply capable of operating all firefighting machines
and devices for a long time (hours). This importance arises because in many cases
the fire arises due to the main supply disconnection or the reverse occurs (i.e. supply
disconnection arises due to firs). So we can't depend absolutely on the main supply
to operate the fire fighter system.
12.3.4. Communication loads

As telephones, fax, radio and TV. These loads read reverse source
consisting of batteries or batteries with rectifiers. Also, we can use small generator
(1-5KW), which uses benzene or kerosene.
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12.4 Diesel Generators

If you decide to use diesel generators it is important to study the following
factors:
12.4.1 Rating and speed

Diesel generators have the advantage of wide range of output power, it
begins from 2.5 KW and reaches several MWs. Generators with output smaller than
10 KW are single phase generators, while generators with more than this value are
three phase generators. The common voltage of generation is common low medium
voltage, also, there exists large units, which generate energy are medium voltage
11 KV. The very large generation (more than 1MW) you can use 2 units in parallel.
It is worth to be mentioned that using small units connected in parallel minimizes
capital costs and makes operation and maintenance process simpler. You can
design the motor to work on high speeds to minimize capital costs. These units
usually have 4 poles at speed of 1500 r.p.m at 50 HZ frequencies. For small units
using two poles (300 r.p.m) is preferable, while in large units continuity of operation
although they have the disadvantages of large weight and high cost. The allowable
output on diesel flywheel determines the generator output. Be always specifying the
diesel machine rating on the continuous operation at specified pressure,
temperature. And relative humidity. It's in specifications as follows:
Pressure: 1000 KN / m2.
Relative Humidity: 60%.
Temperature: 27-degree C.
Most diesel machines are designed to withstand 10% overload at most for 1
hours of continuous operation at full load. You can utilize this property to provide
requirement overloading due to slight variations in load at peak time.
You can make a special contactor to raise the percentage of overloading

more than 10%. Rating of generator is determined according to the required loads
in emergency intervals. It may be better to determine number of circuit is required
to be connected to important loads, so only these circuits are fed from the diesel
engine.
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 we should take care about the following:
1- Most generators generate pure sinusoidal voltage, but some loads as

thyristor, computers and electronic devices draw large quantities of
harmonic current, which leads to the distortion of generator voltage
waveform in normal operation conditions. This distortion affects the
performance of other loads, which are sensitive to voltage harmonics. As
a thumb of rule the permissible non-linear loads connected to generator
equals 1/3 rd. generator rating.
2- sometimes, another problem appears in system having automatic voltage
regulator, and feeding loads having their special control devices.
 Installation Conditions:
We will state the required conditions for generator installation:
1- You must treat the generator unit room as a dangerous place, which must
suites the installation, connection and working in these sites.
2- The room should be great enough to contain the machine with its
accessories with the existing of spaces, which allow safe, right
maintenance and the ability of removing any part outside the room if any
external maintenance is needed.
3- Good ventilation for this room is a must due to the large radiated heat
from the generating unit, in addition to the large quantities of air needed
in machine radiators.
4- This preferable to locate the machine such that the radiators are nearest
as possible to external wall openings, if conditions aren't suitable for this
procedure, we must provide the room with a suitable air tunnel. We can
also use additional drawing devices to sustain the machine room cold as
possible. This procedure may be necessary in case of existence of
neighboring heat exchangers.
5- If the room location is in the ground floor, and then we must prepare a
suitable base so it can be afforded, it is preferable to yes concrete support
to raise the generating unit above ground level, and so you can work
under the unit if needed. If the room is in the upper room we must make
an accurate study about loads, vibrations and the construction
endurance.
194
6- the location of fuel tank and the feeding type are affected by the room
height, usually large tanks are located in the ground level, a pump is
needed to feed the machine with fuel.
7- we should care about exhaust path; it must be as short as possible. Also
we must increase the cross section area of exhaust pipe, which may
damage it.
8- the connection between the machine and exhaust pipe must be flexible
to prevent the vibration transfer to exhaust pipe, which may damage it.
9- In case of using tow-generating units, we must design the exhaust system
of each generator separate than the other. It's prohibited to use one
exhaust system for more than one generator.
10- It's worth to be noted that the temperature of exhaust pipe reaches 500-
degree C beside the machine. We should take care of this to prevent heat
reradiating from exhaust pipe to machine room.
11- Sound conceal of normal type can be used in industrial buildings while in
residential and commercial sites as hospitals and hotels, we should use
a special sound conceal with higher efficiency than the first.
12- We must follow safety code precisely during installation and operation to
prevent fires, explosions and electrical shocks. We should hint the
workers that the machine may work by itself, in case of self-operation, we
may use warning signs. In some cases, we are obligated to use guards.
13- The cables exiting from the generator terminal box must be flexible and
capable of enduring mechanical and thermal stresses; it's preferable to
use a distribution board lying in ground near to the machine.
 Control, transfer and protection:

Diesel generator unit has many control, transfer and protection devices.
The most important functions of these devices are as follows:
- Distinguishing any fault in the system and determining its source and
type.
- Starting of diesel engine and generator. Transfer of loads from main
supply to the generator.
- Adjustments of loads feeding and their control during operation.
- Knowing that the main supply returns again.
- Re-transfer of loads from reserve unit to the main supply.
- Stopping of the generator unit and returning back to the first mode.
Some or all functions are executed automatically according to the plane of
work.
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 Advantages of operation are:
1-Simplicity
2-Low cost
3-Good performance, especially if there is a person observing the equipment.
4-Sufficient, if fast transfer is not needed.
Automatic operation depends on logic operation depends on logic operation

circuit and electronic adjustments systems. It's important to use this type if:
1-Speed of transfer is needed to be fast.
2-Un-existence of persons who can observe the equipment
continuously
It is worth to be mentioned that the success of starting the generator depends

on the state of the batteries used to operate the driving motor of the diesel engine,
so we take care of:
- Their charging process
- Good maintenance
It is advisable to use independent batteries in addition to batteries charger

generation, as the charging occurs when the generator is off. In large generators it
is common to use pneumatic or hydraulic systems to complete starting process. It
is preferable to supply a diesel unit and the generator with indicators and measuring
devices to monitor the operation level.
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12.5 Electronic Device Protection

Computers, communication networks, and other modern electronic devices
need not only power, but also a steady flow of it to continue to operate. If the source
voltage drops significantly or drops out completely, these devices will fail, even if the
power loss is only for a fraction of a second. Because of this, even a generator back-
up does not provide protection because of the start-up time involved.
To achieve more comprehensive loss protection, extra equipment such

as surge protectors, inverters, or sometimes a complete uninterruptible power supply
(UPS) is used. UPS systems can be local (to one device or one power outlet) or may
extend building-wide. A local UPS is a small box that fits under a desk or a telecom
rack and powers a small number of devices. A building-wide UPS may take any of
several different forms, depending on the application. It directly feeds a system of
outlets designated as UPS feed and can power a large number of devices.
Since telephone exchanges use DC, the building's battery room is generally
wired directly to the consuming equipment and floats continuously on the output of the
rectifiers that normally supply DC rectified from utility power. When utility power fails,
the battery carries the load without needing to switch. With this simple though
somewhat expensive system, some exchanges have never lost power for a moment
since the 1920s.
12.6 Structure and Operation in Utility

Stations
In recent years, large units of a utility power station are usually designed on a
unit system basis in which the required devices, including the boiler, the turbine
generator unit, and its power (step up) and unit (auxiliary) transformer are solidly
connected as one unit. A less common set-up consists of two units grouped together
with one common station auxiliary. As each turbine generator unit has its own attached
unit auxiliary transformer, it is connected to the circuit automatically. For starting the
unit, the auxiliaries are supplied with power by another unit (auxiliary) transformer or
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station auxiliary transformer. The period of switching from the first unit transformer to
the next unit is designed for automatic, instantaneous operation in times when the
emergency power system needs to kick in. It is imperative that the power to unit
auxiliaries not fail during a station shutdown (an occurrence known as black-out when
all regular units temporarily fail). Instead, during shutdowns the grid is expected to
remain operational. When problems occur, it is usually due to reverse power relays
and frequency-operated relays on grid lines due to severe grid disturbances. Under
these circumstances, the emergency station supply must kick in to avoid damage to
any equipment and to prevent hazardous situations such as the release
of hydrogen gas from generators to the local environment.
Diagram of a redundant power supply system.
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Emergency system transfers switch
A backup generator for a large apartment building
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A backup power fuel cell for telecom applications
A portable emergency power generator in a shipping container
200
Emergency power electric generator in a drinking water

pumping station. Brons engine with Heemaf generator
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UPS
In this Chapter:
 Introduction
 Common Power Problems
 UPS Designs
 Choosing a UPS
 Features to Look For
Chapter 13
 Replacing Batteries
 Disposing of UPS Batteries
 Outdoor UPS
 Typical Applications
 Internal UPS
 UPS Sizing & Estimating from
Available Data
 Maintenance On the Equipment
UPS Chapter 13
13.1 Introduction
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS), uninterruptible power source or
sometimes called a battery backup is a device which maintains a continuous supply
of electric power to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source
when utility power is not available.
A UPS is inserted between the source of power (typically commercial utility

power) and the load it is protecting. When a power failure or abnormality occurs, the
UPS will effectively switch from utility power to its own power source almost
instantaneously.
While not limited to safeguarding any particular type of equipment, a UPS is

typically used to protect computers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical
equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities,
serious business disruption or data loss. UPS units come in sizes ranging from units
which will back up a single computer without monitor (around 200 VA) to units which
will power entire data centers or buildings (several megawatts). Larger UPS units
typically work in conjunction with generators.
Historically, UPSs were very expensive and were most likely to be used on
expensive computer systems and in areas where the power supply is interrupted
frequently. However, as prices have fallen, UPS units have become an essential piece
of equipment for data centers and business computers, but are also used for personal
computers, entertainment systems and more.
In certain countries, where the electrical grid is under strain, providers struggle
to ensure supply during times of peak demand (such as summer, during which air-
conditioning usage increases). In order to prevent unplanned blackouts, electrical
utilities will sometimes use a process called rolling blackouts or load shedding, which
involves cutting the power to large groups of customers for short periods of time.
Several major blackouts occurred in 2003, most notably the 2003 North America
blackout in the north-eastern US and eastern Canada and the 2003 Italy blackout,
both of which affected over 50 million people, and brought attention to the need for
UPS power backup units.
A UPS should not be confused with a standby generator, which does not
provide protection from a momentary power interruption and may result in an
interruption when it is switched into service, whether manually or automatically.
However, such generators are typically placed before the UPS to provide cover for
lengthy outages.
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13.2 Common power problems

There are various common power problems that UPS units are used to correct.
They are as follows (with a typical example of damage that might be caused):
 Power failure - Total loss of utility power: Causes electrical equipment to stop
working.
 Voltage sag - Transient (short term) under-voltage: Causes flickering of lights.
 Voltage spike - Transient (short term) over-voltage i.e. spike or peak: Causes
wear or acute damage to electronic equipment.
 Under-voltage (brownout) - Low line voltage for an extended period of time:
Causes overheating in motors.
 Over-voltage - Increased voltage for an extended period of time: Causes light
bulbs to fail.
 Line noise - Distortions superimposed on the power waveform: Causes
electromagnetic interference.
 Frequency variation - Deviation from the nominal frequency (50 or 60 Hz):
Causes motors to increase or decrease speed.
 Switching transient - Instantaneous under voltage (notch) in the range of
nanoseconds: May cause erratic behavior in some equipment, memory loss, data
error, data loss and component stress.
 Harmonic distortion - Multiples of power frequency superimposed on the power
waveform: Causes excess heating in wiring and fuses.
UPS units are divided into categories based on which of the above
problems their UPS units’ address. Some manufacturers categorize their UPS's as
a level 3, 5, or 9, if it addresses the first 3, 5, or 9 power problems respectively
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13.3 UPS designs

 Rotary
 Standby (offline)
 Line-interactive
 Delta conversion online
 Dual conversion online
 Ferro-resonant
 DC systems
 Outdoor UPS
13.4 Choosing a UPS

The first question to ask when choosing a UPS system should be: is it the unit
going to be placed inside a controlled environment? If the answer to this question is
yes, choose an indoor UPS. If the answer is no, choose an outdoor UPS. It doesn’t
matter that you choose the right topology, power, backup time, etc. If you place an
outdoor UPS in a controlled environment, you might be wasting money (exceptions to
this could be found when powering small loads during an extended period of time,
where outdoor UPS systems are sometimes the only available option). If you place an
indoor UPS in a non-controlled environment, the useful life of this system will be
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considerably shortened, threatening the integrity and backup of the equipment you
are protecting with the UPS.
Besides choosing a UPS design, there are 2 key ratings to be aware of when
choosing a UPS unit. The first is the load rating, expressed as both volt amps (VA)
and watts (W). Both the ratings represent the maximum amount of load that the UPS
can support and the connected load typically should not exceed 80% of either. Special
considerations must be made when connecting certain equipment such as printers or
any type of motorized load.
The second factor in deciding which unit to purchase is the amount of runtime
the unit will be able to provide when the power fails. This number will vary with the
load amount that is plugged into the UPS. For example, a unit may run a single
computer for 30 minutes, but with 2 computers it will generally last less than half that
time. Larger units typically can provide more runtime for the same load than smaller
units, however that is not always the case. Some UPS units are designed to provide
extended runtime or have the ability to have external battery packs connected.
Another consideration is the anticipated usage. If the UPS is only intended to

provide enough power to gracefully shut down the computers, serial or USB ports on
the UPS and support software are essential. If the purpose of the UPS is to provide
power until a standby generator kicks in (typically under a minute), the UPS input
capabilities should be matched to the generator outputs. Specifically, most standby
generators made for home use (15 kW or less) and most portable generators lack
microprocessor voltage-and-frequency control and may not create a smooth sine
wave. This can result in voltage and frequency fluctuating by 5% or more. While most
UPS systems handle voltage fluctuations gracefully, most do not handle frequency
fluctuations well. A UPS with a wide "frequency window" is essential in such cases.
However, this can double the cost of the unit. Only a double conversion UPS can
deliver a stable output frequency when powered by an unstable input frequency.
If the UPS needs to be quiet when running from battery, or will power AC motors
(as found in air conditioners and fans) or other equipment requiring a clean sine wave
(such as high-end computer power supplies), a UPS that outputs a smooth sine wave
is needed. For some other uses, a block or quasi-sine wave waveform is acceptable.
UPS systems with square wave, or "simulated", "approximated" or "stepped" sine
wave output do not give smooth sine waves. In fact, their output voltage contains a lot
of harmonic distortion. This is why this type of output exists only in small power ratings
standby UPS, where electrical noise and excess heat in wiring is generally not an
issue.
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Another consideration should be based on the type of load or connected

equipment the UPS will support. If the UPS is connected to "mission critical"
equipment or sensitive electronics (like lasers), a rotary solution will be more suitable
with 100% line to load isolation. This would not only protect the equipment from a
power outage, but will also protect the connected equipment from any anomaly that
comes from the utility feed.
13.5 Features to Look for:

1. Output frequency regulation within 0.5% (prevents connected equipment from
overheating)
2. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) AC noise suppression (noise filtering).
3. Reasonable cost for replacement batteries.
4. If energy efficiency is important avoid "Standby On-Line Hybrid", "Standby-
Ferro", and "Double Conversion On-Line" UPS systems.
5. If the UPS outputs a sine wave, a high quality unit will feature a voltage
regulating transformer.
6. If the UPS outputs a square wave, a high quality unit will use Pulse-width
modulation (PWM)
13.6 Replacing batteries

In order to provide the desired protection, UPS units must be properly maintained.
Sealed lead/acid batteries have a useful lifetime of 3–5 years. In determining when to
replace batteries, it is important to remember that the batteries can be completely bad
after 3–5 years and lose their ability to hold a charge gradually over that time. If a UPS
started with 1 hour of runtime for the connected load, after 1 year, it may only provide
45 minutes and to replace the batteries. Battery failure can also be caused by
temperatures exceeding 25 °C.
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13.7 Disposing of UPS batteries

UPS units contain sealed lead-acid batteries and electronics which can be detrimental
to the environment. In the United States, it is illegal to dispose of lead-acid batteries
in a landfill, and they must be properly recycled. Sealed lead-acid batteries are
recycled in the same manner as car batteries, so any auto shop that accepts used car
batteries for recycling will also accept sealed lead acid batteries.
13.8 Outdoor UPS

When a UPS system is going to be placed outdoors, it should have some specific
features that guarantee that is going to be able to support the weather conditions that
it is going to encounter with a 'minimal to none' effect in its performance. Factors such
as temperature, humidity, rain, and snow among others should have been considered
by the manufacturer when designing an outdoor UPS system. Operating temperature
ranges for outdoor UPS systems could be around -40ºC to +55ºC.
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An outdoor UPS system is normally made of several components designed for this
particular task:
- Outdoor enclosure: it should provide protection against the elements to all the
components that are going to be placed inside it. Good quality outdoor enclosures are
powder coat finished to provide superior corrosion resistance and long service life.
Outdoor enclosures are normally NEMA 3R compliant.
- Power Module: It is the UPS itself. The boards of this power module should be
conformal coated to avoid damage to the components due to humidity. This UPS unit
is normally based on Line Interactive or Double Conversion topology. Some
manufacturers prefer Line Interactive because it provides a better Mean Time
Between Failures (MTBF), and that is a critical part of an outdoor UPS system.
- Batteries: The batteries used in outdoor UPS systems must provide a wide
temperature range, usually from -40°C to +60°C. Batteries normally used in outdoor
UPS systems are Gel Cell Batteries. The outdoor UPS's Power Module should provide
a temperature compensated battery charging mechanism to optimize the life of the
batteries.
A proper outdoor UPS system requires that all its components are designed for this
kind of environment. As seen from the features of the components above, an outdoor
UPS system is not an indoor UPS inside an outdoor enclosure.
Outdoor UPS systems can be pole, ground (pedestal), or host mounted. Outdoor
environment could mean extreme cold, in which case the outdoor UPS system should
include a battery heater mat, or extreme heat, in which case the outdoor UPS system
should include a fan system or an air conditioned system inside the unit.
13.9 Typical applications

Outdoor UPS systems are ideal for protection of Wi-Fi/GSM/CDMA/satellite
base stations, wireless communications/perimeter surveillance and security/gate
control systems, LED traffic light/roadway display systems and remote terminal units
(RTUs).
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13.10 Internal UPS

Internal UPS are a group of uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) designed to
be placed inside computer chassis. There are two types of Internal UPS. First type is
miniaturized regular UPS that are made small enough to fit into a 5.25” CD-ROM slot
bay of a regular computer chassis. The other type is re-engineered switching power
supplies that utilize dual power sources of AC and/or DC as power inputs and have
an AC-DC built-in switching management control units.
The first type often requires extra connection wires between the internal UPS
and computer's power supply. Some internal UPS of this group output high voltage
(110 V - 220 V) direct current (DC) and some output nine-step table wave AC. Neither
design is safe or energy efficient. As of 2006, there are only couple companies still
selling this type of internal UPS in Asia and some part of Europe.
The second group of internal UPS replaces the regular switching power
supplies. There are three main design mechanisms:
1. Optic-coupling that imitates AC during AC outages. This mechanism was

first introduced by American Advanced Power of USA and Magnum Power of
UK in 1997, as well as Apollo Power of Taiwan in 1998. This design provides
a low-cost solution but its efficiency is low and it has a very low overall wattage
limit (<300 W).
2. An analog-circuitry-controlled AC-DC switching mechanism.

This design also provides a low-cost solution. However, because of the bulky
component circuit board, little space is available for increasing wattage output.
Plus, the final products are very sensitive to factors such as local heat and
causing frequent operational errors. Nevertheless, because of its low cost, it is
still popular in China. Most Asian internal UPS manufacturers belong to this
category.
3. A CPU controlled AC-DC switching mechanism. This design was

first introduced by American Advanced Power Inc. of USA and Amsdell of
Canada. It provides error-free switching control and a complicated
communication protocol between the power supply and computer.
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13.11 UPS Sizing & Estimating from

Available Data
It may be necessary, for quotation purposes, to estimate the size of a UPS
required for a particular installation where time does not permit a detailed Load Study.
1. With all equipment operating, one method would be to use a
clamp-on ammeter.
For a single phase, two-wire system, measure the hot leg. The kVA rating is
calculated by multiplying the measured current times the line voltage, divided by one
thousand:
kVA = amps x voltage / 1000
For a single phase, three-wire system (240/120), measure each hot leg. The
kVA rating is the highest current reading multiplied times the line-to-neutral voltage,
multiplied times two, divided by one thousand:
kVA = (amps (highest) x voltage (line-to-neutral) x 2) / 1000
For three phase systems, measure all three hot legs. The kVA rating is
calculated by multiplying the highest current reading times the line-to-neutral

voltage, times three, divided by one thousand:
kVA = (amps (highest) x voltage (line-to-neutral) x 3) / 1000
If it is not possible to measure the actual current, it may be

necessary to use one of the following:
1. Obtain load profile from manufacturer for the individual loads.

This will probably be necessary for new installations. Add to this
any lighting, alarms and security loads which are required.
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2. In existing installations, check the capacity of the step-down

isolation transformer supplying the critical load or check the
size of the distribution panel feeding those loads.
3. It may be necessary to contact the electrical contractor who
installed the loads for load data.
In these last three cases, be sure to determine if there are any three phase
loads. Even though there is a three phase distribution panel or isolation transformer,
there need not necessarily by any three phase loads .
13.12 Maintenance On the Equipment

Security
Security of the UPS room or location is as important as security of your
computer room or other limited access area. There is a potential for damage to the
equipment as a result of ignorance, carelessness, or vandalism. In addition, an
inexperienced operator could cause a loss of power to your critical load by improperly
manipulating the various controls on the UPS. Consequently, one may wish to limit
access to the UPS area and monitor entry through your comprehensive alarm system.
Storage of Supplies
SCI recommends that the customer purchase and keep on hand replacement
spare parts for the electrical equipment. These parts should be stored in a clean, dry
location which is subject to the same temperature variations as allowed for the Inverter
& Rectifier.
13.12.1 Battery Selection
1. Lead Calcium & Stationary Batteries

This type offers the best cost versus service reliability for
stationary batteries available for UPS installations
2. Lead Antimony & Stationary Batteries
These batteries generally are equal in size and capacity to the
lead calcium batteries. Usually they are warranted for 15-20 years, with
a life expectancy of 15-22 years
3. Nickel Cadmium & Stationary Batteries
4. Sealed (Maintenance Free) Batteries
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13.12.2 Battery Room Physical and Environmental

Consideration
1) Battery Room Temperature
2) Physical Considerations
3) Electrical Consideration
4) Battery Safety Precautions
13.12.3 Start-Up Supervision

All UPS Systems which are not plug-in compatible, should be able to be
installed by a qualified electrician. Further, SCI recommends that the customer
purchase start-up supervision to be sure that the equipment is installed and operating
properly. Severe damage could result if the equipment is installed improperly and
start-up initiated. Also, even though the equipment was tested and operating properly
at the factory, damage could have been sustained during shipment. Our thoroughly
trained Field Service Technicians utilize procedures to detect damage or other
possible malfunctions due to shipping mishandling, thus avoiding time consuming
delays.
Start-up supervision will include, but not necessarily be

limited to the following:
1. Inspect incoming cable to assure that they are of adequate size. Inspect the cable
terminations in the unit to assure that they are properly made and are secure.
2. Inspect the inter-connections between bays to be sure that they have all been
connected properly and securely.
3. Perform voltage checks on all incoming services to assure all are within
specification.
4. Inspect the DC connections to assure that proper polarity has been observed.
5. Inspect bypass source input and system output on three phase units to assure that
proper phase rotation has been observed.
6. Inspect battery installation, checking for cell damage, electrolyte level, inter-cell and
inter-tier or step connections and proper polarity of each cell.
7. Turn on the inverter and perform system output voltage, current and frequency
checks. Make any necessary adjustments to the equipment.
8. Acquaint the customer's personnel with the equipment and system operation.
Explain routine maintenance of the equipment, including batteries.
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ATS
Design
In this Chapter:
 Introduction
 What is the Interruption?
Chapter
 Solution the problem of
Chapter 14
electric outages
 Automatic transfer switch
6
(ATS)
 ATS for three source
 ATS for Two Source
 Automatic circuit (using PLC)
 Automatic circuit (using
Timer)
 Manual circuit
 Operating panel
ATS Design Chapter 14
14.1 Introduction
As new manufacturing technologies become available and since existing
manufacturing technologies become more integrated, industrial engineering
departments must continuously have developed their laboratory resources in order
to provide their students with effective instructions. Automatic transfer switch (ATS)
is an important component in many electrical power systems. High voltage ATS
ratings and selectively features are discussed in. Currently, many manufacturing
functions are automated through the use of computers (PC), micro-controllers (μC)
and programmable logic controllers (PLC). PLCs have become at the forefront of
manufacturing automation due to their simple, robust and reliable hardware
connections and software programming techniques. PLCs have been effectively
used in process control and electrical power systems, such as tap-changer,
substation control and protection and etc.
14.2 What is the Interruption ?

An interruption is the complete loss of supply voltage or load current One
common example of an interruption is when all electronic devices and lights go out
in a house for a short period of time. While inconvenient in a home, a similar power
loss in a business setting can be costly, as data can become corrupt or be lost
entirely during the interruption.
Cause of Power Interruptions :
Loss of Supply
Interruptions due to problems in the bulk electricity system on the transmission
circuit.
Tree Contacts
Interruptions caused by faults resulting from tree contact with energized
circuits.
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Lightning
Interruptions due to lightning striking the distribution system, resulting in an
insulation breakdown and or flashovers. Lightning may even occur outside our
community, but could affect our Town.
Adverse Weather
Interruptions resulting from rain, ice storms, winds, extreme temperatures,
freezing fog, frost or other extreme weather conditions. Sometimes adverse
weather can weaken our system unknowingly to us causing a power outage
days/weeks later.
Foreign Interference
Intermissions beyond the control of the utility such as animals, vehicles,
dig-ins, vandalism, sabotage and foreign objects .
14.3 Solve the problem of electric

outages either by using emergency
generators, or using UPS:
14.3.1 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply):
The UPS is an alternative power source to supply power to the load during
interruption or outage of the main power source
It includes a rectifier circuit to convert AC input power into direct current

(DC) power. The DC power charges a set of batteries to store energy and an
inverter to convert the DC stored energy back onto AC power for the load
mode of operation:
During normal operation, the utility supplies power to both the load directly
bypassing the UPS unit and to the UPS to charge its batteries via the rectifier
circuit. In an emergency operation, for instance an outage of utility power source,
the UPS supplies power to the load fast enough (few milliseconds) to avoid any
damage resulting from load interruption. This necessitates using an electronic
transfer switch to change the power source to load.
The design of UPSs and, generally, ESS depends on the required mode of
operation. Three modes of operation are considered: standby (off - line), on -line,
and line interactive.
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The standby mode of operation means that the ESS operates only during
the interruption time, while it operates full time in the case of on - line mode of
operation. Line - interactive mode of operation includes both of these two modes.
14.3.2 BCKGs (backup generator):

In large industries and for long - duration interruptions, backup generation
is essential to supply at least the critical loads. It is common to use diesel -
generator set with rating sufficient for feeding these critical loads such as
emergency lighting system, electric lifts, industrial processes that cannot withstand
long interruption, and hospitals.
Usually, the backup generator is used as a standby unit and connected to

the distribution system of the industry at the main LV entrance. An automatic
transfer switch (ATS) can be used to automatically transfer the power source from
the utility incoming feeder to the backup generator in emergency cases.
An electric interlock is provided between both sources to avoid parallel

operation. Some of the outgoing feeders of uncritical loads may be disconnected
to keep the power demand within generator rating that is mostly less than the rating
of the utility source.
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construction of diesel generator
NO NAME
1 CONTROL PANEL
2 BUSBAR PANEL
3 LIFTING LUG
4 BASEFRAME FUEL TANK
5 ENGINE
6 BATTERY
7 RADIATOR
8 ALTERNATOR
9 FUEL DRAIN OUTLET
10 FUEL LEVEL SENSOR\
11 ABSORBER
14.4 Automatic transfer switch (ATS)

Is an electric control panel fallow be part of it has two entrances separate
from Exporters feed different one called the main source of local power company
And the other reserve called the electric generator where this key runs at the loss
of the main power source to turn to the reserve power source or vice This system
is used in high places to have a continuous source mainstream, where the
electrical generator provides electrical energy alternative in case the main source
of electric power outages. And the idea of this cutter is when they cut off the power
supply from the main grid is converted electrical loads tethered on this cutter to the
reserve source, who is represented by the electrical generator and this cutter works
manually or automatically after to have it power outages from the public network or
even lower voltage reducing non-permitted.
 There are two types one works on three sources and other
works on two sources.
14.5 ATS for three source

This panel controls the three sources of two electricity transformer T1 &T2
and another source electric generator G, where there are two types of loads, a
critical loads (CL) such as elevators, hospitals and emergency lighting ... and the
other type Non Critical loads or normal loads such as industrial load …… etc
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at normal operating state the transformer T1 is feeding all loads including

critical loads (cl & ncl) by P1 is closed and P2, P3, P4 is open .
When an error in transformer T1, the occurrence of one alternative to him is
transformer T2 by P2 is closed and P1.P3,P4 is open . and when a problem
occurs in the public feeding line of municipal electricity or medium voltage line in
this case runs generator G works to feed the critical loads only by P3 is closed
and P1, P2, P4 is open
This is panel a special case because of the high price, where it's used four
keys, while the most common and widely used is the panel that control sources are
used only two keys as we shall Following) ATS for Two Source (
14.6 ATS for Two Source

14.6.1 General Concept:
Feeding different loads in the low voltage distribution systems, such as
residential, commercial and industrial areas, depends on the requirements and
importance of each load. Some loads may only be fed from the main source while
others could be fed from different backup sources. Figure 1 illustrates a distribution
system having different supply sources. The designer may categorize loads
according to their importance as follows: -
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a- Normal loads: such as lighting and outlets. Such loads are fed from only one
source (the main), hence if the main is off, these loads will be off.
b- Emergency loads: such as emergency lighting and lifts. These loads are
normally fed from the main source and in case of main power failure; the
emergency generator will feed such loads as a backup source through the ATS
system till the main source is on again.
c- Important loads: such as hospital operation and intensive care rooms. These
loads could be fed from three different backup sources, the main source, the
emergency generator and the uninterrupted power supply (UPS). In case of fault
in the main source and the emergency generator, these important loads can be fed
from the UPS through the transfer switch (TS). Such important loads are off-line
fed from the UPS through the TS, hence should accept the small shut down period
due to the transition of the TS. This transfer switch (TS) may also be automatic,
and in this case static switches are recommended for their fast switching response
d- Critical loads: such as electronic, control and protection equipment. Such

critical loads do not accept any interruption in the electrical power; hence they are
on-line fed from the UPS. The UPS converts the AC voltage, coming from the main
or from the backup generator, to DC voltage (using AC to DC power electronics
converter) for charging the batteries bank and feeding the critical loads through the
DC to ac inverter. In case of main and emergency power failure, the batteries bank
will instantaneously feed the critical
loads through the DC to AC inverter
without any power interruption. A
manual transfer switch (TS) may be
utilized in case of maintenance of the
UPS unit.
It should be noted that all loads

are categorized according to the
customer requires and load priorities,
hence determining equipment sizes
and the overall cost. Transformer size
is determined by the sum of all loads
while generator size is chosen
depending on the sum of emergency,
important and critical loads. The UPS
capacity should cover both important
and critical loads.
220
14.6.2 Practical Considerations

Automatic transfer switches are used to serve a continuous power for the
load by automatic transferring between two or more sources when the main source
are down or decreased below a certain limit. The ATS automatically disconnects
the faulty source and connects the load to the other healthy source. Some practical
consideration should be taken into account when ATS systems are utilized, such
as:
a- Voltage: The voltage regulation of the backup source should be between the
permissible ranges. This could be fulfilled using an automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) unit to automatically control the excitation of the generator, hence the output
voltage. In the UPS, the DC to AC inverter is controlled to match voltage
requirements.
b- Frequency: The generator frequency is determined by the speed of the driving

engine, which is provided by a closed loop speed control system to supply the
electrical loads with the standard frequency. The UPS normally operated at a fixed
output frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz according to the country standards).
c- Synchronization: In case of the utilization of more than one backup sources,

such as two emergency generators or the main itself consists of main transformer
and main generator, synchronization conditions (same voltage, frequency, phase
sequence and phase shift) should be considered before transferring the power
through the ATS.
14.6.3 Implementation
Steps of the design and implementation of a digitally controlled industrial
system could be summarized as: -
1- Specify system general requirements.
2- Verify the suitable controller, sensors and actuators.
3- Connect the power and control circuits.
4- Write down the software algorithm.
5- Test practically the whole system.
Such design steps for the proposed ATS using PLC will be discussed
through the following sections
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14.6.3.1 System Requirements

The basic function of the proposed ATS is to transfer the loads to the
generator in case of main failure then back to the main in healthy condition. The
sequence of operation can be summarized as:
1. In case of main source failure detection, disconnect the loads from the main.
2. Start the generator engine unit.
3. If the generator output voltage is stable and reach the required value, then
connect the loads to the generator.
4. If the main is back and stable, disconnect the loads from the generator then
connect them back to the main.
5. Stop the generator unit.
14.6.3.2 Sensors and Actuator

Sensor: The main and emergency voltage signals should be monitored by
the PLC. Simple relays are proposed to detect these voltages as their coils are
connected to the line voltages while their contacts are connected to the control
circuit (the 24 v dc inputs of the PLC). R1 is for main voltage Vm and R2, is for
generator voltage Vg.
Actuators: Two contactors, mechanically and electrically interlocked, are

proposed (KM and KG). The coils of these power contactors are tripped through
the two control circuit:
by the outputs of the PLC. (Automatic circuit)
by the NO from relays (R3 and R4) (manual circuit)
SELECTOR It used to determine mode, who are working on the panel either
Automatic, Manual, or stop
and using NC from phase sequence to start the engine and build up
voltage from the generator. Two circuit breakers (CB1and CB2) should be provided
for protection of the power circuits.
14.6.3.3 Hardware connections

Power circuit: Connections of the power circuit are shown in figure 2,
where the 3-ph loads can be fed either from the main or the emergency generator
through the contactors (KM and KG) and circuit breakers (CB1 and CB2)
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Control circuit: It is divided into two circuits
- Automatic circuit (using plc)

- Manual circuit
1- Automatic circuit (using PLC)

A PLC is utilized to control the system to achieve the requirements.
Connections between the PLC and all sensors and actuators are shown in figure
223
2- Manual circuit:
consists of two Push button and help points from Contactors as shown in Figure
Selector 3p bush button
ATS MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC USING PLC
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Case Load Main Generator
Normal Operation from OFF to ON ON OFF
Main from ON to OFF from ON to OFF OFF

Failure
Generator Starting OFF OFF from OFF
to ON
Emergency from OFF to ON OFF ON
Operation
Back to Normal ON ON from ON

to OFF
List of experimental tests
ATS MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC USING TIMER
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14.7 Operating panel
1- Automatic Mode:
Software programming
The sequence of operation for the proposed setup can be summarized as:
Fault condition:
If any phase of the main source is out (R1 is OFF) and input PLC. X0=0
1- instantaneously, disconnect the main source through its contactor(Km=off) by
output of PLC (Y0=0).
2- after time delay (T), start the generator by (phase sequence NC).
3- if output voltage from generator is stable (R2 is ON) and input PLC., X1=24v
DC
4- after time delay (T2), connect the generator through its contactor (Kg is ON) by
output of PLC (Y2=220v Ac).
Normal condition:
If none of the main source phases is out (R1 is ON) and input PLC X0=24v DC
1- if yes and stable main voltage disconnect the generator through its contactor
(Kg is OFF) by output of PLC.(Y2=0)
2- after time delay (T1), connect the main through its contactor (Km is ON).
(Y0=220v Ac)
3- after time delay (T), shutdown the generator unit.
2- Manual Mode:
Mode OFF:
In this case it is opened main Contactor (Km Is off) and the opening of
the generator Contactor (Kg is off).
Mode main contactor (Km is on)

The main contactor Km is ON and generator contactor Kg is off.
Mode generator (Kg is on)

The main contactor Km is off and generator contactor Kg is ON.
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Software using WinProladder program
227
The experimental setup
228
Smart
parking
in this Chapter:
 Introduction
 Problems
 Goals and Objectives
Chapter 15
 Project Overview
 Proto type
 Hardware
 Software
 Interface between PLC and Arduino
15
Smart parking Chapter 15
15.1 introduction
due to the increasing
number of vehicles nowadays
there are many problems in
parking in markets, malls places
where many people be for
shopping, entertaining, spending
summer vacation. So we have to
find a solution for this parking
problem we have to make it easy
for people to find a good and safe
place to keep their car without
suffering from spending much
time searching for a place for just parking.
we now offer a handy, simple no need for many workers solution which makes both
consumer or client and barking owner feel better and achieve their goals
15.2 Problems
1- much time are spent searching for
nearly safe place for parking cars
2- many workers are needed to help
people for parking and servicing and
checking if client is valid to park or not
3- monitoring and controlling the whole
system
4- making remote controlling on the
system and taking automatic decisions
if some problems occurs
5- making the owner of the parking achieves profit as renting his place for car
parking
6- need of daily reports of parking status
7- need of periodically reports for safety status and automatic dealing with fire
accidents or other pressure and poorly ventilation situations
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15.3 Goals and objectives

1- decreasing the time spent
searching for place for just
parking a car which confuses
people and bothering their
vacation
2- decreasing number of workers
which will directly decreases the
cost for owner of the parking and
also the people parking their
cars
3- making an easy and simple
graphics SCADA system design
for user for helping finding the
best place for parking his car and man in charge for controlling and monitoring
his project
4- making a mobile application for the client which gives some information about
best and near places to park and gives information about his car status at
moment and how much time spent parking and the total cost for serving place
in the parking
5- The men in charge have more control on this application as will be discussed
latter
6- making automatic selectivity for the gates of the parking controlling the parking
system if the parking has empty places or not
7- printing daily reports of the parking status how many cars? how much time?
When car park? and when it left
8- making parking owner achieving some income for renting his property for
people parking their cars in addition to decreasing cost due to automatic system
and no need for many workers
9- providing automatic detection, alarming and protection of firing or accidents
15.4 Project overview

When the car driver gets into parking gate he receives an id card or tag this tag
will let gate open and car has permission to enter the parking. the car driver will use
this card again later when he leaves the parking to pay for his parking time.
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there would be wide screen in each floor of the parking showing how many places are
empty and available and where they are in this specific floor.
there would be light signs leads the car driver where he can park his car this could
save time for client and decreases the crowding.
the application on mobile phone will remind the client where he is parking his car and
the name of the slot or place where his car parks. It also will provide information how
much time he spent and cost at this moment
all the previous advantages were for clients “car owners “there also some advantages
for the parking owners and administrators, the could control and monitor all the system
with computer and smartphones, they could print reports about system status every
time they need, the system works automatically without need for many workers to
operate the system
15.5 Proto type
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15.5.1 hardware
15.5.1.1 gate identification system
1- Arduino Microcontroller (ATmega328P)
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board,

which has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can
be used as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) outputs),
6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a
Universal Serial Bus (USB) connection, a power jack,
and a reset button. It contains everything needed to
support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a
computer with a USB cable or power it with an AC to
DC adapter or battery to get started.
2- RFID Reader(RC522)
Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)

is the wireless non-contact use of radio-
frequency electromagnetic fields, for the
purposes of identifying and tracking tags
attached to objects.
The MFRC522 is a highly integrated

reader/writer IC for contactless communication
at 13.56 MHz
The module is connected to the Arduino board and When placing a 13.56 kHz card
near the module we get a serial string output containing the unique ID of the RFID Tag
so we can use it to check if the user is a registered one or not and the Arduino board
send a signal to open the garage entry barrier.
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Features:
 Module Name:MF522-ED
 Working current：13 - 26mA / DC 3.3V
 Standby current：10 - 13mA / DC 3.3V
 Peak current：<30mA
 Working frequency：13.56MHz
 Card reading distance ：0～60mm （Mifare1 card）
 Data communication speed：10Mbit/s Max.
Connection to Arduino:
3- RFID Tags
RFID tag is a microchip combined with an

antenna in a compact package; the packaging is
structured to allow the RFID tag to be attached to an
object to be tracked.
The tag's antenna picks up signals from an RFID
reader and then returns the signal, usually with
some additional data (like a unique serial number or
other custodies information)
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3.1 Types of tags:
There are two differentiating factors between Tags:

1. According to the on board Power Source
2. According to the Memory type
According to the on Board Power Source

There are three types of tags:
1- Active Tags
2- Passive Tags
3- Semi-Passive Tags
1. Active Tags
contain on board power source such as battery, and it uses this power
to transmit the information to the Interrogator (Reader) and this means that this
tags can communicate with less powerful Interrogator, can transmit information
over a larger range up to hundreds of feet and have larger memories up to 128
K bytes, beside that it has larger size, more complicated structure and more
expensive than the Passive one.
The advantages of an active tag:
 It can be read at distances of one hundred feet or more, greatly improving the
utility of the device.
 It may have other sensors that can use electricity for power.
The disadvantages of an active tag:
 The tag cannot function without battery power; it limits the lifetime of the tag.
 The tag is more expensive.
 The tag is physically larger, which may limit applications.
 The long-term maintenance costs for an active RFID tag can be greater than
those of a passive tag if the batteries are replaced.
 Battery outages in an active tag can result in expensive misreads.
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2. Passive Tags
have no power source on board but drive its power to transmit data from
signal sent by the Interrogator, this made Passive tags smaller and less
expensive than the active tags, and however the effective range of the passive
tag is shorter than the active one.
The advantages of a passive tag:
• The tag functions without a battery; and have a useful life of twenty years or
more.
• The tag is typically much less expensive to manufacture.
• The tag is much smaller (some tags are the size of a grain of rice).
The disadvantages of a passive tag:
• The tag can be read only at very short distances, typically a few feet at most.
This greatly limits the device for certain applications.
• It may not be possible to include sensors that can use electricity for power.
• The tag remains readable for a very long time, even after the product to which
the tag is attached has been sold and is no longer being tracked.
3. Semi-Passive tags:
are very similar to passive tags except for the addition of a small battery.
This battery allows the tag IC to be constantly powered. This removes the need
for the aerial to be designed to collect power from the incoming signal. Aerials
can therefore be optimized for the backscattering signal. Semi-passive RFID
tags are faster in response and therefore stronger in reading ratio compared to
passive tags.
According to the Memory type

There are two main types:
1. Read-Only(R-O)
is just that; memory that can be read only. R-O tags are similar to bar
codes in that they are programmed once, by a product manufacturer for
instance, and from there on cannot be altered, much the way a Compact Disc
Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) cannot be altered after it’s burned at the factory.
These types of tags are usually programmed with a very limited amount of data
that is intended to be static, such as serial and part numbers, and are easily
integrated into existing.
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2. Read/Write or “Smart” Tags (RW)

present the user with much more flexibility than R-O tags. They can store
large amounts of data and have an addressable memory that is easily changed.
Data on an RW tag can be erased and re-written thousands of times, much the
same way a floppy disk can be erased and re-written at will.
Because of this, the tag can act as a “traveling” database of sorts, in which
important dynamic information is carried by the tag, rather than centralized at
the controller. The application possibilities for smart tags are seemingly
endless. This, in addition to recent advances in smart tag technology that have
driven production costs down to under $1 per tag.
In our project we used 13.56 MHz passive and read only tag.
We used two Tags with ID:
16182F00, 19223H00
4- Servo motor
A Servo is a small device that has an

output shaft. This shaft can be positioned to
specific angular positions by sending the
servo a coded signal. As long as the coded
signal exists on the input line, the servo will
maintain the angular position of the shaft.
As the coded signal changes, the angular
position of the shaft changes. In practice,
servos are used in radio controlled
airplanes to position control surfaces like the elevators and rudders. They are also
used in radio controlled cars, puppets, and of course, robots.
Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small, as you can see
by the picture, have built in control circuitry, and are extremely powerful for their size.
It draws power proportional to the mechanical load. A lightly loaded servo, therefore,
doesn't consume much energy. The wires of a servo motor are shown in the above
picture. You can see the control circuitry, the motor, a set of gears, and the case. You
can also see the 3 wires that connect to the outside world. One is for power (+5volts),
ground, and the orange wire is the control wire.
237
How is the servo controlled?
Servos are controlled by sending an electrical pulse of variable width, or pulse

width modulation (PWM), through the control wire. There is a minimum pulse, a
maximum pulse, and a repetition rate. A servo motor can usually only turn 90 degrees
in either direction for a total of 180-degree movement. The motor's neutral position is
defined as the position where the servo has the same amount of potential rotation in
the both the clockwise or counter-clockwise direction. The PWM sent to
the motor determines position of the shaft, and based on the duration of the pulse sent
via the control wire; the rotor will turn to the desired position. The servo motor expects
to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (ms) and the length of the pulse will determine
how far the motor turns. For example, a 1.5ms pulse will make the motor turn to the
90-degree position. Shorter than 1.5ms moves it to 0 degrees, and any longer than
1.5ms will turn the servo to 180 degrees.
When these servos are commanded to move, they will move to the position and hold
that position. If an external force pushes against the servo while the servo is holding
a position, the servo will resist from moving out of that position. The maximum amount
of force the servo can exert is called the torque rating of the servo. Servos will not hold
their position forever though; the position pulse must be repeated to instruct the servo
to stay in position.
In our project we used SG90 9 g Micro Servo for the garage barrier.
238
5- Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a

photo resistor is a device whose resistivity is a
function of the incident electromagnetic radiation.
Hence, they are light sensitive devices.
They are also called as photo conductors,
photo conductive cells or simply photocells. They
are made up of semiconductor materials having high resistance. There are many
different symbols used to indicate a LDR, one of the most commonly used symbol is
shown in the figure below. The arrow indicates light falling on it.
239
Working Principle of LDR
A light dependent resistor works on the

principle of photo conductivity.
Photo conductivity is an optical
phenomenon in which the materials conductivity is
increased when light is absorbed by the material.
When light falls i.e. when the photons fall on the
device, the electrons in the valence band of the
semiconductor material are excited to the
conduction band. These photons in the incident
light should have energy greater than the band gap of the semiconductor material to
make the electrons jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Hence when
light having enough energy strikes on the device, more and more electrons are excited
to the conduction band which results in large number of charge carriers. The result of
this process is more and more current starts flowing through the device when the
circuit is closed and hence it is said that the resistance of the device has been
decreased.
240
We connected the yellow wire to Analog input pin to give an analogue value of
the voltage across the fixed resistance
this analogue value is varied according to the value of the LDR resistance which is
varied according to the amount of incident light.
We used the LDR at the exit gate to check if there is a car or not at the exit
gate then the barrier is opened.
6- power supply
This is a device or system that supplies

electrical or other types of energy to an output load or
group of loads is called Power Supply Unit (PSU) as
shown in Fig
The term is most commonly applied to electrical

energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.
A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or
secondary sources of energy.
Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage,
typically involving a converting Alternating Current AC line voltage to a well-regulated
lower-voltage DC for electronics device. Low power DC power supply units are
commonly integrated with the device they supply, such as computers and house hold
electron.
A regulated power supply or stabilized power supply is one that includes circuitry to
tightly control the output voltage and/or current to a specific value. The specific value
is closely maintained despite variations in the load presented to the power supply's
output, or any reasonable voltage variations at the power supply input.
In our project we used three values of voltages 5V DC for all component of

project, and for interfacing between Arduino and plc “this will be discussed in
Arduino plc interface part” and 3.3V DC for the RFID Module,12V is used for tripping
the relays for the LEDs in the parking places.
241
5- indication panel (Buzzer, LEDs)
We used 5V Buzzer to indicate that the RFID Module read the ID Tag and the
ID number is successfully detected by the Arduino.
Also we used indicating LEDs to display if the tag is already in the database of
the program or not,
The green led indicates that the user tag is right (in our database),
The Red led indicates that the user tag is false (not in our database).
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15.5.1.2 parking system
1- Plc
Plc is abbreviation for programming logic
controller unit, it is used to control something and
do specific tasks automatically, PLCs are
designed for multiple arrangements of digital and
analog inputs and outputs, extended
temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise,
and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs
to control machine operation are typically stored
in battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. A
PLC is an example of a "hard" real-time system
since output results must be produced in
response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will
result.
Plcs have many types depending on processor power and number of inputs
and outputs it also classified by its communication method
for our project proto type we used small plc with few number of inputs and outputs and
fairly processor to just explain our idea.
Plcs also have many manufactures like Siemens, LG, Toshiba, Fatik and many
other manufactures
- we used plc has the order number (6es7 212-1be40-0xb0)

this device family is CPU 1212C (letter c means compact, processor,
inputs and outputs in one device)
- Product description
SIMATIC S7-1200, CPU 1212C, COMPACT CPU, AC/DC/RLY,
ONBOARD I/O: 8 DI 24V DC; 6 DO RELAY 2A; 2 AI 0 - 10V DC, POWER
SUPPLY: AC 85 - 264 V AC AT 47 - 63 HZ, PROGRAM/DATA MEMORY: 75
KB
- So our plc operates on 220 v ac, it has 8 digital inputs 24-volt DC, 6 digital
outputs relay type and 75 KB program memory
- It is programmed using PROFINET “Ethernet” cable for programming and
communication
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2- Sensors
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture,
pressure, or any one of a great number of other environmental phenomena. The
output is generally a signal that is converted to human-readable display at the sensor
location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further processing.
Here are a few examples of the many different types of sensors:
- Proximity sensors
- Optical sensors
Through beam
 Retro reflective
 Diffuse
- Inductive sensors
- Reed switched
- Liquid level sensors
- Temperature sensors
244
1- optical sensors
1- optical sensors (through-beam)
- It is used in applications with long sensing distance up to 30 meters

- It will detect objects passing through it but transparent materials must be
accurately aligned
245
2- optical sensors (retro-reflective)
- It is used in applications with sensing distance 1/2 to 1/3 of through-beam

type
- Not suitable for reflective or transparent objects
- Object should be larger than the reflector
3- optical sensors (diffuse)
- It is used in applications with sensing distance much less than reflective type,
actual distance depends on color and reflective nature of the surface
- Larger objects result in longer sensing distance
- Not suitable for dirty environments
246
2- inductive sensors
- It will detect any conductive material

- Quoted distances are for mild steel
- Sensor performance can be affected by:
 Temperature
 Target material
 Target dimensions
3- reed switch
- Interference from other magnetic fields must be avoided

- Maximum current must be limited to avoid burning of the reed contacts
247
4- capacitive sensor
- Sensor is looking
for change in
capacitance in
the active field
- Detects any
object material
- Can be adjusted
for sensitivity
- Can be affected
by dusty
environments
5- position sensors
1- potentiometers (pots)
248
2- optical rotary encoders
disadvantages
- This type of sensors is relatively expensive because it requires that many
photocells be mounted and aligned very precisely
249
6- liquid level sensors

1- discrete-level detectors
2- continuous-level detectors
250
7- temperature sensors
251
 Sensor symbols
 Sensors connection
- PNP type
252
- NPN type
- In our project we have used inductive proximity sensor installed in the ground
in each slot to detect if there is a car parking in this slot or not.
- The inductive proximity sensor is of type PNP
- The sensors are 24-volt dc sensors, they are connected to the input of the
PLC
- We used proximity sensor because sensing distance is not long but in field
we have to use photo sensor
253
3- Indication lamps
There are two indicating lamps installed in each area of

the parking indicating that if the parking area is empty or
not
If the place is empty, the green lamp turns on
If the place is occupied the red lamp turns on
In the proto type we used LEDs with relays instead of

indicating lamps
Single Line Diagram for LEDs Connection with PLC.
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15.5.2 software
15.5.2.1 gate identification system
1.Proteus 8 Professional:
1.1 servo motor test for input and output gates
We used Proteus 8 Professional to test the servo motor for the control of the
garage input and output barriers, we connected a pushbutton switch as a signal from
the RFID Module for the input gate and as a signal from the LDR for the output gate.
255
1.2 LDR test for the output gate
We used Proteus 8 Professional to test the LDR for the control of the output
gate we connected the midpoint between the LDR and fixed resistor R1 to the
analogue input of the Arduino A0 so we can read the analogue value of the voltage
across the fixed resistor.
This value is varied according to the incident light which is changed when there
is a car over the LDR sensor.
Then we used the analog value through our Arduino program to operate the
servo motor for the output gate.
Proteus 8 Professional represents the incident light as a bulb as shown in the
figure above.
256
1.3 indication panel Test:
We connected the green and red LEDs, and buzzer to the Arduino board, and
we represented the signal from the RFID as pushbuttons because it is not possible in
any simulation program to simulate the RFID module.
2.arduino program
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We made the main control for the input and output gates by using Arduino Uno
board and we built the program to achieve our needs (the Arduino Code is attached
at the end of the chapter).
In the program we get the signals from the RFID module at the input gate and
from the LDR at the output gate, according to this signals the servo motors for the
gates are operated.
We programmed RFID module to accurately detect the IDs of the Tags and
determine if the Tag pre-registered in our database or not, thus the input gate is
opened or remain close, and at every tag the buzzer is operated for milliseconds to
create a sound , also The green led indicates that the user tag is right (in our
database),and The Red led indicates that the user tag is false (not in our database),
also there is a link between PLC and Arduino ( is discussed later) to provide effective
control for the garage.
15.5.2.2 parking system

We used plc to control the parking system automatically, and monitoring and
controlling the whole system with SCADA system
The design of the control system takes some steps:

1- Simulation of the system using “logixpro” program
2- After simulation success, we made the project on “Totally Integrated
Automation (TIA)” program and upload the program on plc
3- Interfacing between Arduino and plc
4- Designing the SCADA system
5- Making the remote access on the system
The programs we used in this mission
1- Logixpro
2- Totally Integrated Automation (TIA) version 13
3- Indusoft Web studio v7.1
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1- LogixPro
We used this program to test and simulate some ladder programming codes
before uploading it to the plc
This program has two man windows the right window is where the ladder
program is written, the left window is the simulation window, it contains some switches
as input, and some indicating lamps as output, this provides an easy and simple way
to test some codes by changing the state of the input and see what happens to the
output
This program was very useful for us because it saves time, effort and money
because we test many programs first without burning any components and
encourages us to add more tasks weren’t on mind
259
2- Totally Integrated Automation (TIA)
Tia is a program developed by Siemens company for writing, simulating

programs and uploading it on Siemens plc
We made our project using ladder programming language, this program has
the ability to program using many different languages but we’ve chosen ladder
programing language because it’s simple and most used language
260
The whole programming code take 32 networks.
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Programing strategy
- There are four sensors as input of the plc, the four sensors are inductive
proximity sensors used to detect if there is a car in the place or not
- We made timers using timers and counters to count the time the car stays in
the place
- We’ve made function blocks and assumes a value for cost per time period to
calculate the money will the car driver pay for the service
- Making some markers parallel with the main program to control the system with
SCADA system
- Sending signal to the Arduino not to open the entrance gate while the parking
is fully occupied
2- Indusoft Web studio
Indusoft is the software used for designing the SCADA system
262
SCADA software can be divided into two types, proprietary or open. Companies
develop proprietary software to communicate to their hardware. These systems are
sold as ‘turnkey’ solutions. The main problem with this system is the overwhelming
reliance on the supplier of the system. Open software systems have gained popularity
because of the interoperability they bring to the system. Interoperability is the ability
to mix different manufacturers’ equipment on the same system.
Citect and WonderWare are just two of the open software packages available
in the market for SCADA systems. Some packages are now including asset
management integrated within the SCADA system. The typical components of a
SCADA system are indicated in the next diagram.
263
Key features of SCADA software are:

• User interface
• Graphics displays
• Alarms
• Trends
• RTU (and PLC) interface
• Scalability
Our SCADA system consists of four screens

• Main screen
• Parking screen
• Alarm online and history screen
• Event screen
264
• Main Screen
the main screen contains:

- The name of the project
- Logo of the project
- Current time, date and the IP of the device
- Introduction video
- Log on label, there are many persons who can access the system so every
person should have a user name and a password, each one has level of
control, one has the validity to deal with alarm screen only, and one has the
validity to access parking only, and the manger or the administrator has the
validity to access the whole system
- Log off label to make the user log off from the system
- Exit label to exit the system
265
• Parking screen
Parking screen is the simulation screen of the parking.

It could be displayed on HMI screens or other screen to show the car driver how
many empty places are in this floor of the parking and the way to this empty place.
Also this will be displayed on the parking workers but with more functions, they
also have the validity for controlling the whole system not only displaying parking
status
The part which will appear for car driver

- Number of empty places
- Graphical simulation of occupied places
- The light signs lead to empty places
The part which will appear for parking workers

- Number of empty places
- Graphical simulation of occupied places
- The light signs lead to empty places
- Indicating lamps status for each place
- The time which car spent parking
266
- The total cost for occupying the parking starting from the time the car parks
until it leaves
- Status of car barriers
- Alarm screen
- History screen
- Event screen
- Printing report when it is needed about the status of the parking at specific time
- Remote control of the whole system
• Alarm online and History screen
There is a button for switching between alarm online and alarm history tables
Alarm online table

Displays the alarms at the moment when event occurs and disappears when
event disappears
We display alarms for this situations car parking, car leaving, user log on and
user log off
Alarm history table

Displays the alarms of the same previous situations without deleting alarms
when alarm event disappears
267
• Event screen
In this screen the whole change in system displayed like

- User log in
- User log out
- User entered wrong password
- Time when user accessed system
- Time when user closed system
- Changes that user makes
- When user know the occurrence of error and how he deals with it
268
15.5.3 interface between plc and Arduino

First exporting signals from Arduino to plc
Arduino is the main controller of the gates and plc is the controller of inner
parking system and SCADA show system
To show and simulate gate status to be shown to parking workers and
administrator we had to send signals from Arduino to plc to be displayed on SCADA
system so if an error occurs on gate system it will be displayed on SCADA system
Arduino sends 5 volt signal to activate 5-volt relay when the gate changes its
state. When the relay activated 24 volt transmits to plc because the input of plc
operates with 24-volt dc
second exporting signals from plc to Arduino receiving

plc sends signal to Arduino to control the gate. When the parking is fully
occupied the plc sends signal to Arduino which controls the servo motor of the gate
not to open the gate for new cars
269
Design of Electrical
Distribution System
for the Village
In this Chapter:
 Calculation Steps of sub-
main panel boards
 Calculation Steps of main
Chapter 16
panel boards
 Calculation Steps of street
lighting
 Total Power of the Village
 Short Circuit Calculations
 Voltage Drop calculations
Design of Electrical Distribution System for the Village Chapter 16
16.1 Calculation steps of sub-main

panel boards:
we selected Chalet model (B'') from the residential buildings as our case study
Chalet consists of three floors each floor has one unit, and all floors are identical.
So we will calculate for one floor and we will sum all the floors later.
For lighting:
We used Dialux software (as we discussed in Chapter 3) to determine the optimal
distribution of lighting across each floor, then we get it to AutoCAD in order to
connect the lineas of lighting as below :
We connected the luminaires in two Lineas first linea (Red) contain 7 luminaires, has
name (LPB/G/B--/L1) and the second linea (Green) contain 5 luminaires, has name
(LPB/G/B--/L2) .
271
•Maximum power for one lighting linea is 1500 VA according to NEC, and
maximum luminaire power rating for home use is 100 VA, thus number of luminaires
per linea should not exceed 10:12 luminaires.
Each luminaire can draw current
100
𝐼(𝑙𝑢𝑚) = = 0.5 𝐴
220
And in each linea we have maximum number of 10:12 luminaires ,thus total current
in each linea
𝐼(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 0.5 × 12 = 6𝐴
Thus, we selected Circuit breaker of rating 10A
And we selected cross section of each linea (3*3 mm2), 3 wire cable for phase,
neutral and earth to achieve effective protection.
For power sockets:

We use two different three types of sockets in each floor normal sockets, power
sockets, and water proof sockets to achieve the global standards ( as discussed in
Chapter 4 )
We used AutoCAD to distribute the sockets in each floor according to the purpose of
each place
Then we connected the normal sockets in lineas and each power sockets in only
one linea for each socket, as indicated in figure below from the AutoCAD program.
272
273
We connected two lineas of normal sockets , first one has 6 normal sockets and has
name ( S1/PPB/GF ) , the second linea has 6 normal sockets ,
has name( S2/PPB/GF ) , including two water proof sockets for outdoor used for
balcone.
In this floor we have to use three power sockets for the kitchen and bathroom, and
each one is connected to a separated linea has names PS1/PPB/GF, PS2/PPB/GF
and PS3/PPB/GF.
• Maximum power for one linea of normal sockets is 2000 VA according to NEC,
and maximum normal socket power rating is 250 VA, thus number of sockets per
linea should not exceed 6:8 sockets.
Each socket can draw current
250
𝐼(𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑘) = = 1.14 𝐴
220
And in each linea we have maximum number of 6:8 sockets, thus total current in
each linea
𝐼(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 1.14 × 8 = 9.3𝐴
Thus we selected Circuit breaker of rating 16 A
Maximum power for one linea of power sockets is 2000 VA according to NEC,
and maximum power socket rating is between 500 to 2000 VA according to
connected load, thus we connected each power socket through a separated linea.
And by the same previous steps we selected Circuit breaker of rating 20 A
For isolating switches:

we have to use five air conditioners each of them is connected to a separated linea ,
and for the control of each one we used five isolating switches, has names
IS1/PPB/GF to IS5/PPB/GF ,as indicated in AutoCAD drawing in the previous
figure.
in each floor of this chalet model according to the area of each room we selected
two ACs each of them with rating 1.5 hp ≅ 1500 𝑉𝐴
and three ACs each of them with rating 1 hp ≅ 1000 𝑉𝐴
274
and by the same previous steps of calculations and take in account the starting
current of the compressor motor for AC unit 𝐼𝑠𝑡 = 3: 4 𝐼𝑟
therefore, we selected Circuit breaker of rating 25 A for the 1hp AC, and 40 A for
1.5hp
And we selected cross section of each linea (3*10mm2) for the 1hp AC, and (3*16
mm 2) for 1.5hp AC
Three wire cable for phase, neutral and earth to achieve effective protection.
After we calculated the total power for each linea , we multiplied each load by the
demand factor of 0.8 for lighting, 0.5 for normal and power sockets and 1.0 for air
conditioners .
Then we moved the loads across the three phases as indicated in Table below
To achieve the best balance between the three phases.
We used empirical steps to check the balance between the three phases.
First:
Calculate the average value of the load of each of the phase R, Y, B.
3.16 + 3.4 + 3.1

𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 3.22
3
Second:
Determine the maximum value which is 3.4
275
Third:
By Using the empirical law,

𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 3.4−3.22
𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒% = × 100 = × 100 = 5.59 % ( 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 3.22
Which is should be between 1.9% to 10 %
Then we determined the Max Diversity value equal to 3.4 / 1 ph.
Hence the designed current Ib:
Max Diversity value × 1000 3.4 × 1000

𝐼𝑏 = = = 14.78 𝐴
230 230
And protection current In:
𝐼𝑛 = designed current × safety factor
Safety factor equal to 1.25 according to EC
𝐼𝑛 = 14.78 × 1.25 = 18.47 A
Cable current Iz:
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑧 =
𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Derating factor equal to 0.7 (as discussed in chapter 5)

18.47
𝐼𝑧 = = 26.39 𝐴
0.7
From Elsewedy Power Cables Catalogue We selected ( 4×4 mm2)
We inserted all the equations above in MS EXCEL Sheet to make it easy to

calculate the sub-main panel board for all the buildings in the village.
Table below is the MS EXCEL Sheet calculations for the sub-main board for each
floor at chalet model (B'‘) which its calculations are discussed in the previous steps.
276
16.2 Calculation steps of main panel

boards:
We will discuss the calculations for the same previous building Chalet model (B'')
this model consists of three floor each floor has one sub-main board its rating is
calculated in the previous steps.
the Max Diversity value of each sub-main board is multiplied by the diversity factor,
which equal to 1.25 according to EC
(Diversity factor is discussed in detail in chapter 2)
The sub-main boards has name of LPB/G/B--/1, LPB/G/B--/2 and LPB/G/B--/3.
After multiplied by 1.25 the the results will be as in the table below:
277
The phase diversified load is summed 2.72 +2.72 + 2.72 =8.64 KVA/phase
Hence the designed current Ib:
Max Diversity value × 1000 8.64 × 1000

𝐼𝑏 = = = 39.27 𝐴
230 230
And protection current In :
𝐼𝑛 = designed current × safety factor
Safety factor equal to 1.25 according to EC
𝐼𝑛 = 39.27 × 1.25 = 49.09 A

Cable current Iz :
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼𝑧 =
𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Derating factor equal to 0.7 .
49.09
𝐼𝑧 = = 70.12 𝐴
0.7
From Elswedy Power Cables Catalogue We selected the cable for the main board
4×16 mm2
We also inserted all the equations above in MS EXCEL Sheet to make it easy to
calculate the main panel board for all the buildings in the village.
Table below is the MS EXCEL Sheet calculations for the main board at chalet model
(B'‘) which its calculations are discussed in the previous steps.
278
• MS EXCEL Sheets for all the buildings in the village are

attached to the project book.
16.3 Calculation steps of street

lighting:
The total distance of the streets across the village is 2 KM and width of the
street Is 13 m.
Then we will set the distance between posts 40 m according to standards using
single side arrangement.
Hence we used 50 posts, we selected Urban Line luminaire from Philips Catalogue.
Power rating of each luminaire is 18.3 W, then the total power consumption for street
lighting at 0.8 PF.
18.3 × 50
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 1,143 𝑀𝑉𝐴
0.8
16.4 Total power of the village:

The total power of the Services buildings is listed in the table below
Service buildings
Model 1 ph KVA 3ph KVA
Mosque(G) 14.375 43.125
Shopping mall(H) 142.5 427.5
playgrounds 32 96
Housing Workers (I) (3) 27.072 81.216
streets & parking 381 1143
gardens 13.256 39.768
Services (J) (2) 26.512 79.536
Total 636.715 1910.145
The total power of the hotel is listed in the table below
hotel
1 ph KVA 79.49
3ph 238.47
279
Total power of the Village is listed in the table below
total of village
1 ph KVA 2704.553
3 ph KVA 8113.659
3 ph MVA 8.113659
3 ph MVA / 0.8 10.14207375
Then we used 11 transformers for the village and connected them in two MV rings.
First ring consists of six transformers of numbers T.F 1, T.F 2, T.F 4, T.F 9, T.F 8,
T.F 3.
Second ring consists of Five transformers of numbers T.F 10, T.F 7, T.F 6, T.F 11,
T.F 5.
•Single line Diagrams for all the buildings in the village and
MV Ring S.L.D are attached to the project book.
16.5 Short Circuit Calculations:

Purpose of Short Circuit Calculations
1. To make design to C.B to withstand the max value of Short Circuit.

2. To design the Bus Bars to withstand the max value of Short Circuit.
3. To design the riser to withstand the max value of Short Circuit.
Can be Calculations Short Circuit current by program (ETAP & ECODIAL) or manual.
16.5.1 using ETAP 12.6 program:

We calculated the short circuit current over the whole network of the village by using
ETAP 12.6.
Some of the results of calculations for the network of transformer no.1 as shown in the
program window.
280
•Short circuit Report from ETAP 12.6 program attached to

the project book.
Phase fault at bus: Bus5-1 (the bus bar of transformer no1)
281
16.5.2 Short circuit calculations using impedance method.
𝑉
IS.C =
√𝑅𝑡 2 +𝑋𝑡 2
Where:
V: Output phase Voltage of Transformer.
Rt: Sum of Resistance from Transformer to point of Short circuit.
Xt: Sum of Reactance from Transformer to point of Short circuit.
Calculate Xt , Rt
Any Electrical Network Contain
1. Up Stream Network
2. Transformer
3. Cables
4. Bus Bars
1. Upstream Network
MV (KV) MVAS.C R (m) X (m)

6.6 250
11 500
22 750
R =0.001 x 𝜡 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 (m𝛀)

X= 0.001 x 𝜡 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 (m𝛀)
Where: 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 = 0.15 , 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 = 0.98
𝑽𝟐
𝜡=
𝑴𝑽𝑨𝑺.𝑪
𝟏𝟏𝟐
At 11 KV 𝜡= = .242 Ω
𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟐𝟐
At 22 KV 𝜡= = .645 Ω
𝟓𝟎𝟎
2. Transformer
𝑾𝑪 𝑽𝟐
𝑹𝟐 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 (𝐦𝛀)
𝑺𝟐
282
𝑿𝟐 = √𝚭𝟐 − 𝑹𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 (𝐦𝛀)
𝑽𝑺.𝑪 𝑽𝟐
𝜡= 𝒙
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑺
Where:
W C: Copper Losses of Transformer (W).
S: Apparent Power of Transformer (KVA).
VS.C: Short Circuit Voltage of Transformer in %.
Or Use the table from IEC
283
3. Cables
𝝆𝑳
𝑹= , X = 0.076 x L for 3-𝝓
𝑨
X = 0.12 x L for 1-𝝓
Where;
𝝆 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝒊𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 (𝒎𝛀. 𝒎𝒎𝟐/𝐦)
𝝆 = 𝟑𝟑 𝒊𝒇 𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 (𝒎𝛀. 𝒎𝒎𝟐 /𝐦)
L= Cable Length
A = Cross section area of Cable (𝒎𝒎𝟐)
R = Resistance of Cable (𝒎𝛀)
X= Reactance of Cable (𝒎𝛀).
4. BusBar
𝝆𝑳
𝑹= , X = 0.15 x L (𝒎𝛀)
𝑨
Where:
𝝆 = 𝟐𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 (𝒎𝛀. 𝒎𝒎𝟐/𝐦).
𝝆 = 𝟑𝟑 𝒊𝒇 𝑨𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 (𝒎𝛀. 𝒎𝒎𝟐/𝐦).
L= Cable Length.
A = Cross section area of Bus Bar (𝒎𝒎𝟐).
R = Resistance of Bus Bar (𝒎𝛀) .
X= Reactance of Bus Bar (𝒎𝛀)
284
Application of manual impedance method for calculations in our

project:
The Figure below indicates the single line diagram of transformer no 1.

S.L. D start from the 11KV ring network to the loads of transformer no 1. And we
will perform the manual calculations on it.
11 KV
Ring Utility
Utility upstream network:
Un=11KV
Ssc=200MVA
R/X=0.3
1 MVA Transformer
11KV/400 ⊳ n = 27.5
Usc=5%
Link 1:
(3×240+1×120) mm2 copper, four core with
Reduced neutral.
Length:64m
Link2:
(3×35+1×16) mm2 copper, four core with
Reduced neutral.
Length for mosque:27m
Length for services building:16m
Length for green land :94m
285
Element Calculations X(Ω),Ref R(Ω),Ref

Upstream (400)2 7.68 × 10−4 2.4 × 10−4
𝑧= = 8 × 10−4
network 200×106
① ②
𝑥 = .96𝑧
𝑅 = .3𝑥
1 MVA 0.00816③ 0.00203④

Transformer
Link 1 𝑥 = 0.15 × 10−3 × 64 9.6× 10−3 6× 10−3

0.0225 × 64 ⑤ ⑥
𝑅=
240
Link 2 For mosque 4.05 × 10−3 17.35 × 10−3
𝑥 = 0.15 × 10−3 × 27 ⑦ ⑧
0.0225 × 27
𝑅=
35
for services
building . 24 × 10−3 0. 01
𝑥 = 0.15 × 10−3 × 16 ⑨ ⑩
0.0225 × 16
𝑅=
35
for green land 14.1 × 10−3 0.06
𝑥 = 0.15 × 10−3 × 94 ⑪ ⑫
0.0225 × 94
𝑅=
35
Calculating the symmetrical three-phase short-circuit current :
Fault at A on the busbar of the secondary side of MV/LV transformer
XA =① + ③ = 7.68 × 10−4 +0.00816 = 8.928 × 10−3 Ω

RA = ② + ④ = 2.4 × 10−4 + 0.00203 = 2.27 × 10−3 Ω
ZA =√(8.928)2 + (2.27)2 =9.21 × 10−3 Ω

400
𝐼𝑆𝐶,𝐴 = −3
= 25.075 𝑘𝐴
√3×.9.2097×10
To determine the short-circuit current peak value

𝑅𝐴 2.2604
= = 0.253
𝑋𝐴 8.928
Hence:
𝐾𝐴 = √2(1 + 𝑒 −.0.253𝜋 ) = 2.052
286
𝐼^𝑆𝐶,𝐴 = 2.052 × 25.075 = 51.45 𝑘𝐴
Fault at B on the busbar of the Transformer Pillar
𝑋𝐵 = 𝑋𝐴 + ⑤ = 8.928 × 10−3 +9.6× 10 −3 =18.5× 10 −3 Ω
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴 + ⑥ = 2.27 × 10 −3 +6× 10−3 =8.27× 10−3 Ω
ZB =√(18.5 × 10−3 )2 + (8.27 × 10−3 )2 =0.02Ω

400
𝐼𝑆𝐶,𝐵 = = 11.5𝑘𝐴
√3×0.02
𝑅𝐵 8.27 × 10−3
= = 0.45
𝑋𝐵 18.5 × 10−3
Hence:
𝐾𝐵 = √2(1 + 𝑒 −0.45𝜋 ) = 1.76
𝐼^𝑆𝐶,𝐵 = 1.76 × 11.5 = 20.2 𝑘𝐴
Fault at C on the busbar of the mosque panel board
XC =𝑋𝐵 + ⑦ = 18.5× 10−3 + 4.05 × 10−3 = 22.55 × 10−3 Ω
RC =𝑅𝐵 + ⑧ = 8.27 × 10 −3 + 17.35 × 10−3 = 25.62 × 10 −3 Ω
ZC =√(22.55)2 + (25.62)2 =34.13× 10−3 Ω

400
𝐼𝑆𝐶,𝐶 = −3 = 6.766 𝑘𝐴
√3×34.13×10

𝑅𝐶 25.62
= = 1.136
𝑋𝐶 22.55
Hence:
𝐾𝐶 = √2(1 + 𝑒 −.1.136𝜋 ) = 1.454
𝐼^𝑆𝐶,𝐶 = 1.454 × 6.766 = 9.838 𝑘𝐴
287
16.6 voltage drop calculations:

16.6.1 Introduction
Voltage drop that occur during the cable and riser feeds the different
floor must be taken into consideration so that it may hardly affect the instruments
and devices which used. the transformers and the distribution boxes must be
situated in a position such that maximum voltage drop from transformer to the
furthest point doesn’t exceed 5% of the nominal voltage.
To ensure that our distribution is good and the voltage drop is in range, we must
calculate the voltage drop for the longest feeders at each transformer.
16.6.2 voltage drop calculation:

Voltage drop (V.D) at each circuit could be calculated by formula voltage
drop per meter length (v/m) and the current value passing through the cable can be
calculated by the equation:
V.D=mV x L x i
1000
Where:
mV: V.D per meter per ampere. L: cable length.
I: current value.
16.6.2.1 Steps of manual Calculation:

1. Measure the length of the cable.
2. Calculate the current (I).
For (3-phase) Cables:
3. %V.D = (V.D./380) * 100
288
Voltage Drop for Multi L.V Cables
Some results for manual calculations for our project:
for cable (46-1) in the low voltage network of transform 1
Data available:
Length: 17.5m, designed current I =24 A, mv = 5.119 from previous table for 6mm 2
multi core cable
V.D =mV x L x (I/1000) =5.119 *17.5*(24/1000) = 2.1499

%V. D = (V.D./380) * 100 = (2.1499/ 380) * 100 = 0.57%
Which is less than the acceptable limit (2.5%) between panel boards.
289
for cable (66-1) in the low voltage network of transformer 2
Data available:
Length: 34.7 m, designed current I = 64.65 A mv = 0.959 from previous table for
35mm2 multi core cable
V.D=mV x L x (I/1000) = 0.959 *34.7 *(64.65 /1000) = 2.151

%V. D = (V.D./380) * 100 = (2.151/ 380) * 100 = 0.566%
Which is less than the acceptable limit (2.5%) between panel boards.
16.6.2.2 Results from ETAP 12.6 program:

We calculated the voltage drop over the whole network of the village by using ETAP
12.6. (The report of calculations is attached to the project book.)
The table below indicates some of the results of calculations at cables of numbers
4,5,7,9 on the medium voltage network.
•Voltage Drop Report from ETAP 12.6 program attached to the

project book.
290
Conclusion
Load estimation process is achieved for the village at its

construction stage so we can Plan the transformers substations,
and Apply to Power Company for supply.
We performed a Complete Design of Electrical Installations in the

whole Village, then Detailed calculations is presented using
manual and automatic methods.
Quality and Safety for electrical installation in the village meets the
global standards.
The automation work in our project presents an effective solution

for the common Parking problems in Egypt.
We Designed ATS panel as an effective solution with backup

generator for critical loads in the village
291
Future work
1. Adding temperature and pressure sensors in the parking to measure

temperature and pressure and displaying it in SCADA system if problems
occurs system have to alarm and deal with these situations.
2. Making fire system in the parking to protect client properties against fire
accidents.
3. Generating electric power in the parking by using piezo-electric material
installed under parking area making usage of car parking.
4. Replacing proximity sensors installed in the parking area with image
processing system, this is better than sensors because it is very accurate
and less damage.
5. Making website for the village that client can reserve places for their cars
remotely.
6. Smart bump installed in village roads used for generating electrical power
and saving this power for lighting roads at night.
7. Generating electrical power using solar cells and using this power to provide
roads, pools and pergolas with electric power.
8. Installing turbines in village sea to generate electric power.
292
References
‫ الكود المصري ألسس تصميم وشروط تنفيذ التوصيالت الكهربية في المباني‬
)‫د محمود جيالنى‬.‫ المرجع في التركيبات والتصميمات الكهربية ل (أ‬
)‫د محمود جيالنى‬.‫ المرجع في محوالت القوى الكهربية ل (أ‬
 El-Sewedy cables catalogs.

 Philips Catalogue 2014
 circuit breaker Schneider catalogue
 Electric distribution systems (DR. ABDELHAY A. SALLAM).
 Principles of Power Systems V.K Mehta
 Getting Down to Earth, Manual on Earth-Resistance
Web sites:
 www.wikipedia.com
 http://www.sayedsaad.com/
293

Design of Electrical Distribution System

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SUEZ CANAL UNIVERSITY

“Electrical Power and Machines Department”

DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR

Graduation project is submitted to achieve the requirements for the

In this project, constructional features of residential buildings are explained in detail

We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our supervisor

3.7.1 introduction of luminaires……………………….…..…………………...………34

3.7.2 type of luminaires................................................. ..………...........................34

3.9 lighting calculation of any space………………………………...…………..……………51

3.10 lighting calculation using dialux……………………………..…………...………………55

7.1 Introduction............................... ....................................................... ......................112

Chapter 8 Electrical Protection

1.1 Tourism village design:

Model Number of units Total

Element Number of Total area of

1.2 Project objectives:

Generally, the main objective of designing an electrical distribution system for

 Determining the correct size of cables.

 Subdivision and number of circuits needed.

And the main objectives of our project is to:

 Execute an automation system using PLC, Arduino and SCADA system.

Chapter 1: village design, objectives, and thesis outline are described.

2.1 Importance of Load Estimation:

2.2 Definition of Important terms in

“It’s the period over which the load is averaged.

“It is a plot of demand as per unit of the peak load.

Daily demand duration curve

“The maximum demand of an installation or system is the greatest of all demands

Fls = Av Power loss

 Diversified demand (or coincident demand)

FD = Sum Of Individual Maximum Demands

2.3 considerations of load calculations:

the lighting and air condition loads consideration

Type Lighting Air Condition

the power load consideration

Load type KVA

the sockets load consideration

Load type KVA/100m2

In addition, these points are taken into considerations:

the values of the diversity factors used in our project

Type Diversity factor

2.4 Load calculations of buildings:

Total load of hotel =196.2+130.8+392.4+37.6+56+75+392.4=1280.4KVA

Total load of hotel.

2.4.2 residential buildings:

2.4.2.1 Villa Model (A)

Load of A.C = total area of floors* standard of A.C

Total load of Villa =65.96 KVA

2.4.2.2 Villa Model (A')

Load of lighting =area* no. of floors* standard lighting

Load of A.C = total area of floors* standard of A.C

Total load of Villa =86.87KVA

2.4.2.3 Chalet Model (B)

Load of lighting =area* no. of floors* standard lighting

Load of A.C = total area of floors* standard of A.C

Total load of chalet =125.2 KVA

2.4.2.4 Chalet Model (B')

Load of lighting =area* no. of floors* standard lighting