UNIT VI

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, MCCB.

Types of Wires and Cables.
Earthing.
Types of Batteries.
Important Characteristics for Batteries.
Elementary calculations for energy consumption and battery backup.

om
.c
ty
si
v er
ni
gu
r in
ee
in
ng
re
ha
bi
Wire and cable:
The use of Conductors and their insulation is regulated by Indian Electricity (IE) regulation
and Indian Standard (IS) Code Of Practice. Wires and cables are the most common forms of conductors.
They carry electric current through all types of circuits and systems. A conductor is a wire or cable or any
other form of mental, suitable for carrying current from generating station the point where it is used.
Difference Between Wire and Cable:
According to Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), wire and cable can be defined as follows :
Bare Conductors :They have no covering. The best example is overhead transmission and distribution
lines.
Wire: If bare conductors are provided with Insulation, then it is known as a wire. The insulation separates
the conductor electrically from other conductors.
Cable: It consists of two or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a

om
protecting cover. The necessary requirements of a cable are that it should conduct electricity efficiently,
cheaply, and safely. This should neither be so small that it has a large internal voltage drop nor be too large

.c
ty
so that it costs too much. Its insulation should be such that it prevents leakage of current in unwanted

si
direction to minimize risk of fire and shock.
The cable essentially consists of three parts :
v er
ni
(i) Conductor or core- the metal wire, or strand of wires, carrying the current
gu

(II) insulation of dielectric- a covering of insulating material to avoid leakage of current from
r in

the conductor and

ee

(iii) protective covering for protection of insulation from mechanical damage

in

Basically, there is no difference between a cable and a wire. It is a relative term. The term cable is used for
ng

all heavy section insulated conductors, whereas a wire means a thin (i.e., smaller) section insulated
re

conductor used for carrying current from one point to another point.
ha

Classifications of Wire / Cables:

bi

The wires/ cables used for domestic or industrial wiring are classified into different groups as follows :
(i) According to the conductor material used
(a) Copper conductor cables
(b) Aluminium conductor cable
(ii) According to number of cores
(a) Singles core cable (SCC)
(b) Double core or twin core cables (DCC)
(c) Three core cables
 (d) four core cables
(e) Two core with earth continuity conductor cables
(iii) According to type of insulation
(a) Vulcanized Indian rubber (VIR) insulated wires/cables
(b) Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) or cable tyre sheathed (CTS) cables
(c) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables
(b) Lead sheathed cables
(e) Weather proof cables
(f) Flexible cords and cables
(g) XLPE cables
(IV) According to the voltage at which they are manufactured
(a) Low tension (LT) cables up to 1000V

om
(b) High tension (HT) cables up to 11kV
(c) Super tension (ST) cables from 22-33kV

.c
ty
(d) Extra high tension (EHT) cables from 33-66kV

si
(e) Extra super voltage cables beyond 132 kV
Specifications of Cables:
v er
ni
Cables are specified by providing
gu

(i) Size of the cable in metric system (e.g., 19/2.24, 7/1.70, 7/2.24, 7/2.50 etc) giving the
r in

Number of strands used and diameter of each strand, or giving the area of cross
cross- section
ee

of conductor used.
in

(ii) Type of conductor used in cables (copper

(copper or aluminium)
ng

(iii) Number of cores that cable consists of e.g. single core, twin core, three core, four core
re

etc.
ha

(iv) Voltage grade (240/415V or 650/1100V grade)

bi

(v) Type of cable with clear description regarding insulation, shielding, armouring, bedding
etc.
A few specifications of a cable are given below:
(i) 7/20, VIR, aluminium conductor, twin core,650/1100 grade.
in this case, the numerator 7 indicates the number of stands in cable and denominator 20
represents the gauge number of each strand. The cable has two cores made with
Aluminium, With VIR insulation and is used for 650/1100 voltage
(ii) 19/1.12, aluminium conductor,3 ½ core, 1100V, PVC cable, PVC sheathed.
 in this case, the cable consists of 19 strands, each strand has a diameter of 1.12mm. The
conductor is made with aluminium, insulation is made with PVC, is covered with PVC
sheathing, and is used for 1100Vsupply system.
Earthing of Grounding:
The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e., non- current carrying part) of electrical equipment or
some electrical part of the system (e.g., neutral point in a star-connected system, one conductor of the
secondary of a transformer, etc.) to the earth (i.e., soil) is called grounding or Earthing. The potential of the
earth is to be considered zero for all practical purposes. Earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to

electrical energy due to failure of the insulation line coming in contact with the casing, etc. Earthing brings

personnel against electrical shock.

om
The earth resistance is affected by the following factors :
(a) Material properties of the earth, wire and the electrode

.c
ty
(b) Temperature and moisture content of the soil

si
(c) Depth of the pit
(d) Quantity of the charcoal used
v er
ni
Necessity of Earthing:
gu

The requirement for provision of earthing can be listed as follows :

r in

(1) To protect the operating personnel from the danger of shock.

ee

(2) To maintain the line voltage constant, under unbalanced load condition.
in

(3) To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path.
ng

(4) Protection of the equipments.

re

(5) Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines
ha

against lighting.
bi

Methods of Earthing:
The various methods of earthing in common use are
(i) Plate earthing
(ii) Pipe earthing
(iii) Rod earthing
(iv) Strip or wire earthing
(i) Plate earthing:
In this method either a copper plate of 60cm × 60cm ×3.18 or GI plate of 60cm × 60cm × 6.35 is used for
earthing. The plate is buried into the ground not less than 3m from the ground level. The earth plate is
embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15cm as shown in figure (12.4). In addition,
water is poured for keeping the electrode resistance value below a maximum of The earth wire is
securely bolted to the earth plate.
A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance

r
ee
in

(ii) Pipe earthing:

ng

Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized iron) pipe of 38mm in diameter and length of 2m (depending on
re

the current) with 12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75cm in a permanently wet
ha

ground. To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cm ) surrounding the GI
bi

pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal. The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring
water through the funnel periodically. The GI earth wires of sufficient cross-sectional area are run through a
12.7mm diameter pipe (at 60cm below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top as
shown in
figure (12.5).
When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth system can carry larger leakage currents due to

om
larger surface area is in contact with the soil for given electrode size. This system also enables easy
maintenance as the earth wire connection is housed at the ground levels.

.c
ty
(iii) Rod earthing:

si
It is the same method as pipe earthing, A copper rod of 12.5cm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in)
er
diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1 inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are
v
ni
buried upright in the earth manually or with the help
lp of a pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded
gu

electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired value.

in
er
(iv) Strip or wire earthing:
In this method of earthing strip electrodes of cross- section not less than 25mm × 1.6mm (1 in × 0.06in) is
buried in a horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m. If copper with a cross-section of 25mm ×
4mm (1in × 0.15in ) is used and a dimension of 3.0 mm2 if a galvanized iron or steel.
If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small, say less than 6.0
mm2
sufficient earth resistance and this length should not be less than 15m. The electrodes shall be as widely
distributed as possible in a single straight or circular trenches radiating from a point. This type of earthing
is used where the earth bed has a rocky soil and excavation work is difficult.
Selection of Earthing:
The type of earthing to be provided depends on many factors such as type of soil, type of installation, etc..
The following table helps in selecting a type of earthing for a particular application

om
S.No Type of Earthing Application

.c
ty
01 Plate earthing Large installations such as transmission towers, all sub-

si
stations generating stations
02 Pipe earthing
v er
For domestic installations such as heaters, coolers,
ni
refrigerators, geysers, electric iron, etc.
gu

For 11kV/400V distribution transformers

r in

For induction motors rating upto 100HP

ee

For conduit pipe in a wall, all wall brackets

in
ng
re

03 Rod earthing In areas where the soil is loose or sandy

ha

04 Strip of wire earthing In rocky ares

bi

Earth Resistance:
The earth resistance should be kept as low as possible so that the neutral of any electrical system, which is

-
stations is small sub-stations is 2 in all other cases 5
The resistance of the earth depends on the following factors
Condition of soil.
ii. Moisture content of soil.
iii. Temperature of soil.
iv. Depth of electrode at which it is embedded.
v. Size, material and spacing of earth electrode.
vi. Quality and quantity of coal and salt in the earth pit.
Difference Between Earth Wire and Neutral Wire:
Neutral Wire :
(i) In a 3-phase 4-wire system, the fourth wire is a neutral wire.
(ii) IT acts a return path for 3-phase currents when the load is not balanced.
(iii) IN domestic single phase AC circuit, the neutral wire acts as return path for the line
current.
Earth Wire :

om
(i) Earth wire is actually connected to the general mass of the earth and metallic body of the

.c
equipment

ty
(ii) It is provided to transfer any leakage current from the metallic body to the earth.

si
Fuse: v er
The electrical equipment are designed to carry a particular rated value of current under normal conditions.
ni
gu

Under abnormal conditions such as short circuits, overload, or any fault; the current rises above this value,
r in

damaging the equipment and sometimes resulting in fire hazard. Fuses come into operation under fault
conditions.
ee

A fuse is short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive current flows through
in
ng

it and thus breaks the circuits. Under normal operating conditions it designed to carry the full load current.
re

If the current increases beyond this designed value due to any of the reasons mentioned above, the fuse
ha

melts, isolating the power supply from the load.

bi

(a) Desirable characteristics of a Fuse Element:

The material used foe fuse wires must have the following characteristics:
i. Low melting point e.g., tin, lead.
ii. High conductivity e.g., copper.
iii. Free from deterioration due oxidation e.g., silver.
iv. Low cost e.g., tin, copper.
(b) Materials:
Material used are tin lead or silver having low melting points. Use of copper or iron is dangerous, though
tinned copper may be used.
(c) Types of Fuses:
Fuses are classified into following types
(i) Re-wireable or kit-Kat fuse and
(ii) High rupturing capacity (H.R.C) cartridge fuse
Re-wireable or Kit-Kat Fuse:
Re-wireable fuse is used where low values of fault current are to be interrupted. These fuses are simple in
construction, cheap and available up to a current rating of 200A.They are erratic in operation and their
performance deteriorates with time. An image of re-wireable fuse is as shown in figure (12.7)

r in
ee

High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse:

in
ng

Figure (12.8)
(12 shown an image of HRC cartridge fuse and figure (12.9)
shown the essential parts of a typical HRC cartridge fuse. It consists of a heat resisting ceramic body
re
ha

having metal end-caps

caps to which a silver current-carrying
current element is welded. The space within the body
bi

surrounding the elements is completely packed with a filling powder. The filling material my be chalk,
plaster of Paris, quartz or marble dust and acts as an arc quenching and cooling medium. Therefore, it
carries the normal current without overheating
Under normal loading conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point. When a
fault occurs, the current increases and the fuse element melts before the fault current reaches its first peak.
The heat produced in the process vaporizes the melted silver element. The chemical reaction between the
silver vapors and the filling powder results in the formation of a high resistance substance which helps in
quenching the arc.
Circuit Breaker:

g
r in

Electrical circuits breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and automatically for the
ee

controlling and protection of electrical power system, respectively. The modern power system deals with a
in

huge power network and huge numbers of associated electrical equipments. During shirt circuits fault or
ng

any other type of electrical fault, these equipments, as well as the power network, suffer a high stress of
re

fault current, which in turn damage the equipment and networks permanently. For saving these equipment
ha

and the power networks, the fault current sho

should be cleared from the system as quickly as possible. Again
bi

after the cleared, the system must come to its normal working condition as soon is possible for supplying
reliable quality power to the receiving ends. The circuits breaker is the special device all the required
switching operations during current carrying condition.
A circuits breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes. Under normal
operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically until and unless the
system becomes faulty. The contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When
a fault occurs in any part of the system, the trip coils of the breaker get energized and the moving contacts
are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuits.
The main types of circuits breakers are
i. Miniature circuits breakers (MCB)
ii. Earth leakage circuits breakers (ELCB) or Residual Current Breaker (RCCB)
iii. Air blast Circuits Breaker (ACB)
iv. Molded Case Circuits Breakers (MCCB)
v. Vacuum Circuits Breaker (VCB)
vi. SF6 Circuits Breaker

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):

Minimum circuits breakers are electromechanical devices which protect an electrical circuits from over
currents. Over currents in an electrical circuits may results from short circuits overload, or faulty design. An
MCB is better alternative than fuse, since it does not require replacement once an overload is detected. An

om
MCB functions by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuits once a fault is detected.
In simple terms, MCB is a switch which automatically
atically turns off when the current flowing through it passes

.c
ty
the maximum allowable limit. Generally MCB is designed to protect against over current and over

si
temperature faults (over heating).
Working Principle:
v er
ni
There are two contact - one is fixed and the other is moveable. When the current exceeds the predefined
gu

limit, a solenoid forces the moveable contact to open (i.e., disconnect from the fixed contact) and the MCB
r in

turns off, thereby stopping the current from flowing in the circuits.
ee

Operation :
in

An image
ge of MCB is shown in figure (12.10) and internal parts of an MCB are shown in figure (12.11). It
ng

mainly consists of one bi- metallic strip, one trip coil and one hand operated on-off
on lever. Electric current
re

carrying path of a MCB is as follows - first left hand side power terminal-then bimetallic strip - then current
ha

coil - then moving contact - then fixed contact and - lastly

bi

right hand side power terminal, and all are arranged in series.
 om
.c
ty
h
bi

if circuits is overload for a long time, the bi -metallic strip becomes over heated and deformed. This
deformation of bi-metallic strip causes displacement of latch point. The moving contact of the MCB is so
arranged by means of spring, with this latch point, that a little displacement of latch causes releases of
spring and makes the moving contact to move for opening the MCB. The current coil or trip coil placed in
such a manner that during SC faults, the MMF of that coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and
force the latch to be displaced. Hence, the MCB will open in the same manner. Again when operating lever
of the MCB is operated by hand, that means when we make the MCB at off position manually, the same
latch point is displaced as a result moving contact separated from fixed contact in same manner. So,
whatever may be the operating mechanism, i.e., may be due to deformation of bi-metallic strip or may be
due to increased MMF of trip coil or may be due to manual operation - actually the same latch point is
displaced and the deformed spring is released, which is ultimately responsible for movement of the moving
contact. When the moving contacts is separated from fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc. This
are then goes up thorough the arc runner and enters into arc splitters and is finally quenched. When we
switch on the MCB, we actually reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on position and make the
MCB ready for another switch off or trip operation.
These are available in single pole, double pole, triple pole, and four pole versions with neutral poles, if
required. The normal current ratings are available from 0.5-63 A with a sym-metrical short circuits
rupturing capacity of 3-10kA, at a voltage level of 230/440v. MCBs are generally designed to trip within

om
2.5 millisecond when an over current fault arises. In case of temperature rise or over heating it may take 2
seconds to 2 min. For the MCB to trip.

.c
ty
Advantages :

si
i. MCBs are replacing the re-wireable
wireable switch i.e., fuse units for low power domestic and industrial
applications.
v er
ni
ii. The disadvantages of fuses, like low SC interrupting capacity (say 3kA), Etc. Are overcome with high
gu

SC breaking capacity of 10kA.

r in

iii. MCB is combination of all three functions in a wiring system like switching, overload and short circuits
ee

protection. Overload protection can be obtained by using bi

bi-metallic strips where as shorts circuits
in

protection can be obtained by using solenoid

ng

Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (ELCB):

re

None of the protection devices like MCB, MCCB, etc. Can protect the human life against electric shocks or
ha

avoid fire due to leakage current. The human resistance noticeably drops with an increase in voltage. It also
bi

depends upon the duration of impressed voltage and drops with increase in time. As per IS code, a contact
potential of 65V is within tolerable limit of human body for 10 seconds, where as 250V can be withstood
by human body for 100 milliseconds. The actual effect of current thorough human body varies from person

1 second and for 15 min. At 240V, 3 to 3.6 for dry skin and 1-1.2 for wet skin.
An Earth Leakage Circuits Breakers (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents leaking to earth
from an installation and cut the power. There are two types of ELCBs :
(i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB)
(ii) Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB)
(i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB):
Voltage ELCB is a voltage operated circuits breakers. The device will
function when the current passes thorough the ELCB. Voltage-ELCB contains relay coil and one end of the
coil is connected to metallic load body and the other end is connected to ground wire as shown in
figure(12.12). If the voltage of the equipment body rises (by touching phase to metal part or insulation
failure of equipment), which could cause the difference between earth and load body voltage and the danger
of electric shock will occur. This voltage difference will produce an electric current from the load metallic
body and phase through the loop to the Earth. When voltage on the equipment metallic body rises to danger
level i.e., which exceed to 50V, the flowing current through relay loop could move the relay contact by
disconnecting the supply current avoid
void from any danger electric shock. The ELCB detects fault currents

om
from line to the earth (ground) wire within the installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across

.c
ty
sensing ELCB does not sense fault current from line to any other earthed body.

si
v er
ni
gu

(ii) Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB):

Current ELCB is a current operated circuits breaker which is a commonly used ELCB. Current-ELCB
consists of a 3- winding transformer, which has two primary windings and 1 secondary winding as shown in
figure (12.13). Neutral and line wires act as the two primary windings. A wire wound coil is the secondary
winding. The current thorough the secondary winding is zero at the balanced condition. In the balanced
condition, the flux due to current through the phase wire will be neutralized by the current through the
neutral wire, since the current which flows from the phase will be returned back to the neutral. When a fault
occurs, a small current will flow to the ground also. This makes an unbalanced between line and neutral
currents and creates an unbalanced magnetic filed. This induces a current through the secondary winding,
which is connected to the sensing circuits. This will sense the leakage and send a signal to the tripping
system and trips the contact.

v e
ni
Molded Case Circuits Breaker(MCCB):
gu

Molded case circuits breakers are electromechanical devices which protect a circuits from over current and
r in

short circuits. They provide over current and short circuits protection for circuits ranging from 63A up to
ee

3000 A. Their primary function are to provide a means to manually open a circuits and automatically open a
in

circuits under overload or short circuits conditions respectively. The over current, in an electrical circuits,
ng

may result from short circuits, overload of faulty design.

re

MCCB is an alternative to a fuse, since it does not require replacement once an overload is detected. Unlike
ha

a fuse, an MCCB can be easily reset after a fault and offer improved operational safety and convenience
bi

without incurring operating cost.

Molded case circuits breakers generally have a
i. Thermal element for over current and
ii. Magnetic element for short circuits release which has to operate faster.
The MCCBs are comprised of five major components such as molded case or frame operating mechanism,
arc extinguishers, contacts and trip components as shown in figure (12.14)
 MCCB
ri
ee

are manufactured such that the end user will not have access to internal workings of the over
over-current
in

protection device. Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy

heavy-duty electrically insulated plastic, these
ng

halves are riveted together to form the whole. Inside the plastic shell is series of thermal elements and a
re

spring-loaded
loaded trigger. When the thermal element gets too warm, from an over current situation, the spring
ha

trips, which in turn will shut off the electrical circuits.

bi

Operating mechanism :
At its core, the protection mechanism employed by MCCBs is based on the same physical principles used by
all type of thermal magnetic circuits breakers.
Overload protection is accomplished by means of a thermal mechanism. MCCBs have a bimetallic
contact that expands and contacts in response to changes on temperature. Under normal operating
conditions, the contact allows electric current through the MCCB. However as soon as the current exceeds
the adjusted trip value, the contact will start to heat and expend until the circuits the circuit is interrupted.
The thermal protection against overload is designed with a time delay to allow short duration over current,
which is a normal part of operation for many devices. However, any over current conditions that last more
than what is normally expected represent an overload, and the MCCB is tripped to protect the equipment and
personnel.
On the other hand, fault protection is accomplished with electromagnetic induction, and the response is
instant. Fault currents should be interrupted immediately, no matter if their duration is short or long.
Whenever a fault occurs, the extremely high current induces a magnetic field in a solenoid coil located
inside the breaker this magnetic induction trips a contact and current it interrupted. As a complement to the
magnetic protection mechanism, MCCBs have internal arc dissipation measure to facilitate interruption.
As with all types of circuits breakers, the MCCB includes a disconnection switch which is used to trip the
breaker manually. It is used whenever the electric supply must be disconnected to carry out field work such
as maintenance or equipment upgrades.
Applications :

om
Molded case circuits breakers can have very high current ratings, which allows them to be used in heavy
duty applications such as main electric feeder protection, capacitor bank protection, generator protection,

.c
welding applications, low current application that require adjustable trip setting and motor protection.

ty
si
Safety precautions in Handling Electrical Appliance:
er
It is essentially important to take precautions when we are working with electricity and using electrical
v
ni
appliances. Here, some of the basic precautions are mentioned for safe usage of electrical appliance :
gu

(i) Follow the instructions :

r in

Always read the instructions carefully before using a new appliance.

ee

(ii) Replace or repair damaged power cords :

in

Exposed wiring is a danger that cannot be ignored. If you see the protective coating on a wire is stripped
ng

away, be sure to replace it or cover it with electrical tape as soon as possible.

re

(iii) Keep electrical equipment or outlets away from water :

ha

Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or repairing any electrical equipment or
bi

circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electrical current. Keep all electrical appliance away
from water such as sinks, bathtubs, pools or overhead vents that may drip.
(iv) use insulated tools while working :
Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves, goggles, protective clothes and shoes with insulated soles
while working on any branch circuits or any other electrical circuits. Use only tools and equipment with
non-conducting handles when working on electrical devices. Never use metallic pencils or rulers or wear
rings or metal watchbands when working with electrical equipment as they cause a strong electric shock.|
(v) overload your outlets :
Every outlet in your home is designed to deliver a certain amount of electricity; by plugging too many
devices into it at once, you could cause a small explosion or a fire. If you have a lot of things to plug in, use
a power strip that can safely accommodate your needs.
(vi) Shut-off the power supply :
Always make sure that the power source should be shut-off before performing any work related to
electricity. For example; inspecting, installing, maintaining or repairing.
(vii) Avoid extension cords as much as possible :
Running extension cords through the house can trip up residence; this can cause injury and damage to the
wire or outlet if it cause the cord to be ripped out of the wall. If you find yourself using extension cords very
often, consider having an electrician install new outlets throughout your home.
(viii) When to repair :

om
Everyone want to have the safe electrical environment. Equipment producing sound should be
disconnected and reported promptly for repair.

.c
(ix) Avoid the usage of flammable liquids :

ty
si
Never use highly flammable liquids near electrical equipment. Never touch another equipment or
electrical control devices unless instructed to do so.
v er
ni
(x) Use electric tester :
gu

Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de

de-energized first by using a tester. When
r in

an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an electrical
ee

current is flowing through the respective wire. Check all the wires, the outer metallic covering of the service
in

panel any other hanging wires with an electrical tester before proceeding with your work.
ng

(xi) In case of electric shock :

re

If an individual comes in contact with a live electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment, cord person.
ha

Disconnect the power source from the circuits breaker or pull out the plug using a leather belt. By enclosing
bi

all electric conductors and contacts can save people from getting the electric shock. Use three-pin plugs,
which have earth wire connection which prevents electrical shock.
(xii) Display danger board :
Danger board should be displayed at the work place. We should not allow any unauthorized person to enter
in the working place and we should not put any new equipment into the service without necessary testing by
the concern authority.
(xiii) Usage of proper ladder :
Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in your home. An
electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass through your body. Use a bamboo,
wooden or a fibreglass ladder instead.
(xiv) Usage of circuits breaker or fuse :
Always use a circuits breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating. Circuits breakers and fuses are
protection devices that automatically disconnect the live wire a condition of short circuits or over current
occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or circuit breaker is essential. Normally for protection against
short circuits a fuse rated of 150% of the normal circuit current is selected. In the case of a circuit with 10
amperes of current, a 15 ampere fuse will against direct short circuits a 9.5 amperes fuse will blow out.
(xv) Use ceiling on live wire :
Always put a cap on the hot/live wire while working on an electric board or service panel as you could end
up short circuiting the bare ends of the live wire with the neutral. The cap insulates the copper ends of the
cable thus preventing any kind of shock even if touched mistakenly.

om
(xvi) Precaution during soldering :
Always take care while soldering your circuits boards. Wear goggles and keep yourself away from the

.c
ty
fumes. Keep the solder iron in its stand when not in use; it can get extremely hot and can easily cause burns.

si
(xvii) Things to remember :
The circuits is bad, electricity er
ctricity appliances are not working well, and lights are fluctuating. It means you need
v
ni
gu

trying to repair, always remember that your hands are

are well dry, you have essential tools, rubber gloves &
r in

shoe are good, As all these acts as an insulator. Do not wear loose clothing or tied near electrical equipment.
ee

(xviii)Keep
Keep heaters away from bedclothes, clothing and curtains to avoid risk fire. Be extra careful when
in

using electrical appliances attached to power outlets near kitchen or bathroom sinks, tubs, swimming pools,
ng

and other wet areas. cover an electric heater

heat with clothing or other items.
re

Batteries:
ha

A battery is a devices which converts chemical energy into electrical energy and is made up of a number of
bi

cells. Batteries consists of two or more voltaic cell that are connected in series to provide a steady DC
voltage at the output terminals. The voltage is produced by a chemical reaction inside the cell.
Electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte, which forces the electric charge to separate in the from of ions

electrodes, the size of the electrodes, and the type of electrolyte used. Whether a battery may be recharged or
not depends on the cells used to make up the battery.
Batteries are classified into two types such as primary batteries and secondary batteries.
(i) Primary Batteries
As the name indicates, these batteries are meats for single usage. Once these batteries are used they cannot
be recharged as the devices are not easily reversible and active material may not return to their original
forms. Other name for these batteries is disposable batteries. Some of the example for the disposable
batteries are the normal AA, AAA batteries which we use in wall clocks, television remote, etc.
(ii) Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteries are also known as rechargeable batteries. These batteries can be used and charged
simultaneously. A secondary battery or storage battery can be recharged because its chemical reaction is
reversible. Rechargeable batteries are (re) charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during discharge/use. Some of the examples for rechargeable batteries are the batteries
used in mobile phones MP3 players, etc.
Types of primary Cells/Batteries:

om
There are several types of primary cells in use today, such as
(i) Carbon- zinc dry cell

.c
ty
(ii) Alkaline cell

si
(iii) Zinc chloride cell
(iv) Mercury cell
v er
ni
(v) Silver oxide cell
gu

(vi) Lithium cell

r in

(i) Carbon- zinc dry cell

ee

(a) This is one the most popular primary cells (often used for type AAA, AA, D)
in

(b) The negative electrode is made of zinc

ng

(c) The positive electrode is made of carbon.

re

(d) The output voltage of a single cell is about 1.5 V.

ha

(e) Performance of the cell is better with intermittent operation.

bi

(ii) Alkaline cell

(i) The alkaline cell is another popular type also used for type AA, C, D, etc.
(ii) It has the same 1.5V output as carbon- zinc cells, but they are longer -lasting.
(iii) It consists of a zinc anode and manganese dioxide cathode in an alkaline electrolyte (potassium
hydroxide )
(iv) It works with high efficiency even with continuous use, due to low internal resistance.
(iii) Zinc chloride cell
(i) This cell is also referred to as a - type battery.
(ii) It is modified zinc-carbon cell.
(iii) It has little chance of liquid leakage because the cell consumes water along with the chemically active
materials. The cell is usually dry at the end of its useful life.
(iv) Mercury cell
(i) This cell consists of a zinc anode, mercury compound cathode, and potassium or sodium hydroxide
electrolyte.
(ii) It is becoming obsolete due to the hazards associated with proper disposal of mercury.
(v) Silver oxide cell
(i) This cell consists of a zinc anode, silver oxide cathode, and potassium of sodium hydroxide electrolyte.
(ii)It is typically available as 1.5V, miniature button form.
(iii) Applications include hearing aids, cameras, and watches
(vi) Lithium cell

om
(i) This cell offers high output voltage, long shelf life, low weight, and small volume.
(ii) It comes in two forms of 3V output in widespread use:

.c
ty
(a) Lithium-sulfur dioxide(LiSO2 ).

si
(b) Lithium- thionyl chloride.
er
(iii) LiSO2 type batteries contain methyl cyanide liquid solvent; if its container is punctured
v
ni
(iv) Safe disposal of these cells is critical.
gu

Types of Secondary Cells/Batteries:

r in

There are several types of secondary cells in use today, such as

ee

(i) Lead-acid cell

in

(ii) Nickel cadmium (NiCd) cell

ng

(iii) Lithium-ion battery

re

(iv) Nickel-metal- hydride (NiMH) cell

ha

(v) Nickel-iron (Edison) cell

bi

(vi) Fuel cell

(vii) Solar cell
(i) Lead-acid cell:
(a) This cell is a widely applied type of secondary cell, used extensively in automobiles inverters, backup
power system, etc. Requiring high values of load current.
(b) Anode: Porous lead
(c) Cathode: Lead-dioxide
(d) Electrolyte: Sulfuric acid, 6 molar H2SO4
(e) The output is about 2.1 V per cell.
(f) Cells are typically used in series combinations of 3 (6V battery) or 6 (12V battery)
(ii) Nickel cadmium (NiCd) cell:
(a) This type of cell delivers high current.
(b) It can be recharged many times.
(c) Anode: Nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)2
(d) Cathode: Cadmium hydroxide, Cd(OH)2
(e) Electrolyte : Cadmium hydroxide, KOH
(f) Maintain a steady voltage of 1.2V per cell until completely depleted
(g) It can be stored for long periods of times.
(h) Its specific gravity does not charge with the state of charge.
(I) Applications include portable power tools, alarm systems, portable radio and TV equipment.

om
(iii) Lithium-ion battery:
(i) Li-based cells are most compact ways of storing electrical energy.

.c
ty
(ii) Lower in energy density than lithium metal, lithium-ion is safe.

si
(iii) Anode: Graphite
(iv) Cathode: Lithium manganese dioxide
v er
ni
(v) Electrolyte : mixture of lithium salts
gu

(vi) Energy density is twice of the standard nickel-cadmium.

cadmium.
r in

(vii) No memory and no scheduled cycling is required to prolong battery life.

ee

(iv) Nickel-metal- hydride (NiMH) cell:

in

(i) These cells are used in applications demanding long-running battery performance (e.g., high-end portable
ng

electrical or electronic products like power tools).

re

(ii) They offer 40% more capacity over a comparably-sized NiCb cell.
ha

(iii) They contain the same components as a NiCd cell, expect for the negative electrode.
bi

(iv) They are more expensive than NiCd cells, self-discharge more rapidly, and cannot be cycled as
frequently as NiCd cells.
(v) Nickel-iron (Edison) cell:
(i) Anode: Nickel hydroxide, Ni(OH)2
(ii) Cathode: iron
(iii) Electrolyte: potassium hydroxide
(iv) The specific gravity of electrolyte remains unaffected during the charging and discharging process.
(v) They are now almost obsolete due to lead-acid batteries.
(vi) These are used in emergency lamps in hospitals and at places where the rate of discharge and charge are
rapid.
(vi) Fuel cell:
(i) A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts chemicals (such as hydrogen and oxygen)into water
and produces electricity in the process.
(ii) As long as the reactants (H and O) are supplied to the fuel cell, it will continually produce electricity and
never go dead, unlike conventional batteries.
(iii) Fuel cells are used extensively in the space program as sources of DC power.
(iv) They are very efficient, capable of providing hundreds of kilowatts of power.
(vii) Solar cell:
(i) Solar cells convert the light energy into electric energy.
(ii) They are made of semiconductor materials.

om
(iii) They are arranged in modules that are assembled into a large solar array to produce the required power.
(iv) An applied voltage higher than the voltage of one cell can be obtained by connecting cells in series.

.c
ty
(v) The total voltage available across the battery of cells is equal to the sum of the individual values for each

si
cell.
er
(vi) Parallel cells have the same voltage as one current capacity, To provide a higher output voltage and
v
ni
more current capacity, cell can be connected in series-parallel
parallel combinations.
gu

Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cells:

r in

S.N Primary Cell Secondary Cell

ee

o
in

01 If discharged once cannot be charged If discharged once can be charged again

ng

again
re

02 Light in weight Heavy in weight

ha

03 Used for intermittent use with low load Used for continuous rating with high load
bi

current rating current rating

04 Short life Long life
05 Low cost High life
06 Low efficiency High efficiency
07 Low power output High power output
08 Less maintenance More maintenance
Battery Characteristics:
There are many characteristics that can help to identify a battery that can help to identify a battery and we
can distinguish the three main ones as; chemistry, battery capacity and voltage. However, if the battery is
only a starter, it also delivers cold cranking amps (CCA), which permits to offer high current at cold
temperatures.
(i) Chemistry
The main battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium. They all need a specific designated charger, this is
why charging these batteries on a different charger from their own might cause an incorrect charge, despite
it seeming to work at first. This happens because of the different regulatory requirement of each chemistry.
(ii) Battery Capacity
Battery capacity is a measure (typically in Amp-hr) of the charge stored by the battery, and is determined by
the mass of active material contained in the battery. The battery capacity represent the maximum amount of

om
energy that can be extracted from the battery under certain specified conditions. However, the actual energy
storage capabilities of the battery can

.c
ty
capacity depends strongly on the age and past history of the battery, the charging or discharging regimes of

si
the battery and the temperature.
The energy stored in a battery, called the battery
v er
ttery capacity, is measured in either watt-hours
watt (Wh), kilowatt-
ni
hours (kWh), or ampere-hours
hours (Ahr). The most common measure of battery capacity is Ah, defined as the
gu

number of hours for which a battery can provide a current equal to the discharge rate at the nominal voltage
r in

of the battery. The unit of Ah is commonly used when working with battery systems as the battery voltage
ee

will vary throughout the charging or discharging cycle.

in

(ii) Voltage
ng

A battery feature a nominal voltage. Along with the amount of cells connected in series, chemistry provides
re

the open circuits voltage (OCV), which is about 55-7% higher on a fully charged battery. It is important to
ha

check the correct nominal voltage of a battery before connecting it.

bi

(iv) Cold Cranking Amps (CCA)

Every starter battery is marked with cold cranking amps, also abbreviated CCA. The number denotes the
amount of amps that the battery is able to provide at -180C.
Energy Consumption Calculation:
Energy and power are closely related. Electrical energy can be measured only when electrical power is
known. So first we understand the electrical power. Electrical power it the amount of electrical current that
results from a certain amount of voltage or we can say that power is the rate which energy is delivered. It is
measured in watts. Mathematically it is written as
Power = Voltage × Current
The measurement of electrical energy is completely dependent on power which is measured in watt,
kilowatts, megawatts, gigawatts, and time which is measured in an hour. Joule is the smallest unit of energy.
But for some bigger calculation, some better unit it required. So, the unit used for electrical energy is watt-
hour.
Electrical energy is the product of electrical power and time, and it measured in joules. It is defined as
joule of energy is equal to 1 watt of power is consumed for 1 I.e.,
Energy = Power × Time
1 Joule = 1 watt × 1 second
Watts are the basic unit of power in which electrical power is measured or we can say that rate at which
electrical current is being used at a particular moment.
Watt-hour is the standard unit used for measurement of energy, describing the amount of watts used over a

om
time. It shows how fast the power is consumed in the period of time.
Energy in watt hours = Power in watts × Time in hours

.c
ty
Kilowatt-hour
hour is simply a bigger unit of energy when large appliance drawn power in kilowatts. It can be

si
described as one kilowatt hour is the amount of energy drawn by the 1000 watts appliance when used for an
hour.
v er
ni
Where, One kilowatt = 1000 watts
gu

Energy in kilowatt hours = Power in kilowatts × Time in hours

r in

The electrical supply companies take electric energy charges from their consumer per kilowatt hour unit
ee

basis.
in

This kilowatt hour is board of trade (BOT) unit.

ng

Illustration for Energy Consumption:

re

A consumer uses a 10 kW geezer, a 6 kW electric furnace and five 100 W bulbs for 15 hours. How many
ha

units (kWh) of electrical energy have been used?

bi

Explanation : Given that

Load 1 = 10 kW geezer
Load 2 = 6 kW electric furnace
Load 3 = 500 watt (five 100 watt bulbs)
Total load = 10kW + 6kW + 0.5kW = 16.5kW
Time taken = 155 hours
Energy consumed = Power in kW × Time in hours
= 16.5 × 15 = 247.5 kWh
For above electrical energy consumption, the tariff can be calculated as follows :
1 unit = 1kWh
So, the total energy consumption = 247.5 units
If the cost per unit is 2.5, then the total cost of energy consumption
247.5 × 2.5 = 618.75/-

om
.c
ty
si
v er
ni
gu
r in
ee
in
ng
re
ha
bi
bi
ha
re
ng
in
ee
r in
gu
ni
v er
si
ty
.c
om