CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL DISCUSSION

The current technologies of the modern era are looking for materials with unusual combinations
of properties that cannot be met by the conventional materials. This is especially true for the
materials needed for aerospace, shipbuilding and many other transportation applications. For
example aircraft engineers are searching for structural materials having high impact strength and
lighter in weight. This is a quite formidable combination of material properties. Usually strong
materials are relatively dense but it is difficult to produce light weight material with dense
materials. Material property combinations and ranges have been, and are yet being, extended by
the development of composite materials

Today various types of synthetic polymers are increasingly being used in modern technologies to
replace conventional materials like metal, steel, alloys, concerts, wood and so on. Much of our
industrial progress embedded in the use of easily available synthetic polymers like polystyrene,
polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride as insulator for both heat and electricity. They are also
comprehensively used as building materials and household commodities for their excellent
balance of mechanical strength. The increasing demand of our life-style, the steadily increasing
demand of plastic and plastic product leads to rapidly growing plastic industries everywhere in
the world resulting in decreasing the feedstock energy resources in one hand and increasing the
environmental pollutions on the other. Consequently, the existing pattern of resource use for the
production of plastic materials may lead to a collapse of the whole eco-system within this
century. It is high time to diminish the utilization of stored natural fuels to save the milieu.

Considering all the above issues, an approach of synthesizing and developing novel materials by
a combination of natural and synthetic polymers has been searched by the materials scientist and
engineers. This search gives us the knowledge of developing new composites, known as bio-
composites and provides consciousness of the emissions of susceptible ingredients to the

1
environments. With abundance of easily available, readily renewable and above all environment-
friendly natural polymers, processing of versatile bio-composites has opened up a new area of
research in materials science and engineering.

Although natural polymers are biodegradable but they do not possess the necessary thermal and
mechanical properties desirable for the substitution of engineering plastics. This limits their wide
industrial applications. Moreover, natural polymers absorb moisture due to their hydrophilic
nature and the content of which supposedly reaches 8-13% resulting in natural polymer based
products les durable [1]. On the other hand, synthetic polymers are hydrophobic in nature and
they exhibit poor compatibility when combined with natural polymers. This also limits their use
in bio-composites. Considering all these setbacks, natural polymer must be processed in order to
remove their intrinsic hydrophilicity and make them compatible with synthetic polymers for
producing biodegradable polymers with desired properties.

Jute is a well known golden fiber and main cash crop of Bangladesh and its survival in
competition with synthetic fiber depends on its performance as a preferred material. To
strengthen the agro-based economy of Bangladesh, the potential use of jute in prospective
applications needs to be increased and materialized with a great importance by gradually
developing and enhancing its properties. Improving the quality of jute products in terms of
mechanical, chemical and electrical properties have been receiving significant awareness in
recent years [2-8]. Natural fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites have been reported to be
suitable materials for applications in automobiles, building, electrical and packaging sectors
because of their availability, ease of processing, fast production cycling and low processing cost
over conventional materials. The natural fibers (jute, sisal, coir, banana and hemp) have many
attractive characteristics like low density, less abrasiveness, biodegradability and renewability
over usual glass and organic fibers (aramid and carbon fibers) [2-14].

OBJECTIVES OF THIS RESEARCH

2
The usages of natural fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites are increasing day by day and
many researchers are engaged in research to investigate various properties of these composites.
Effect of chemical modification, surface modification, processing parameters (Temperature,
pressure, fabric-resin ratio etc.), Gamma radiation, Shock weave treated jute fabric etc. on the
physico-mechanical properties of jute reinforced composites have already been studied [15-29].
The orientation of the reinforcing materials affects the properties of composites to a great extent.
So the weave structures may have profound effect on the physico-mechanical properties of the
jute fabric reinforced polyester composites. But there is a research gap regarding this issue and
no work found on the effect of weave structures of on the mechanical properties of jute fabric
reinforcing polymer composites. In the present work untreated jute fabrics having different
weave structures ( Plain, 2×2 matt, 4×4 matt, Twill, Zig-zag twill and Diamond ) have been used
as reinforcing material and unsaturated polyester resin has been used as matrix for the
preparation of composites. This research work will discuss about the jute fabric reinforced
polyester composites. Special focus will be on the:

(i) Effect of weave structure on the mechanical properties of the jute fabric reinforced
polyester composites.
(ii) Evaluation of water uptake properties of the composites according to the weave
structure.
(iii) Investigations on the effect of gamma radiation on the tensile strength of the
composites according weave structure.
(iv) Evaluation of soil degradation properties of the composites according to the weave
structure.
If the mechanical properties of the composite vary with the weave structure of the reinforcing
jute fabric then the structure providing the best mechanical properties can be chosen for
composite preparation for better mechanical properties than the convention structures. On the
other hand from water up take and degradation (Gamma radiation and soil) properties less
degradable composite may be chosen for longer use.

1.2 OUTLINE OF THIS RESEARCH

3
 In this work, Chapter-One contains a general Introduction with objectives and expected
outcomes. Chapter-Two provides the Literature survey where a review of recent work is
presented. Chapter-Three describes the Theoretical Background. Chapter-Four includes a
detailed description of the Materials and Methods where the details of the sample preparation
and measurement techniques are discussed. Chapter-Five contains Results and Discussion and
finally conclusion belongs to Chapter-Six. References are added at the end of chapter six.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 REVIEW OF RECENT RESEARCH

2.1.1 BACKGROUND

Many researchers have so far studied mechanical, electrical and thermal properties of natural
fibre reinforced polymer composite and many others are mentionable who are still engaged in
research to investigate more about these composites. In this respect fairly large number of
research articles which have already been published can be cited [15-29]. Some of the works
have been done by thermal method using various types of catalyst and others by radiation
processing technology. Radiation grafting method is a new evolution which commenced in
recent past. Some of the works have been done using gamma ray radiation method while others
by ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Abdullah et. al. [15] investigated the mechanical properties of jute/glass fiber reinforced
unsaturated polyester hybrid composites. The composites were prepared by hand layup
technique. From the results it was found that the composites with a jute to glass ratio of 1:3
shows improved mechanical properties as tensile strength (TS) 125%, tensile modulus (TM)

4
49%, bending strength (BS) 162% and bending modulus (BM) 235% over untreated jute –
polystyrene composites. For additional improvement of the properties the surface of jute and
glass fiber were irradiated under UV radiation of different intensities. UV pre-treated jute and
glass fibers composites at optimum intensities demonstrated the highest mechanical properties
such as TS 70%, TM 33%, BS 40% and BM 43% compared to untreated jute and glass based
hybrid composites. UV modified jute/glass reinforced hybrid composites exhibit the best impact
strength (40 KJ/m2). The interfacial adhesion between jute/glass and USP is monitored by a
scanning electronic microscope.

Uddin et. al. [16] investigated the biodegradable jute plastic composites prepared under UV
radiation with urethane acrylate prepolymer in the presence of some plasticizers and monomers
of different glass transition temperatures. They showed an increase of tensile properties of the
jute plastic composites prepared with different formulations. To study the degradable character
of the composite the treated jute products were buried in soil, semi-mud and water. The
composite was degradable in mud and not decomposable in water and soil.

Ali et. al. [17] searched for improvement of jute fibre through UV-cured films urethane acrylate.
Physical and mechanical properties of the UV cured film, role of plasticizers and water uptake
were investigated. As a result plasticizers decreased the tensile properties of the UV cured films;
they substantially enhanced tensile strength by 300%. Water and moisture uptake at different
relative humidity of the samples decreased significantly.

Mohanty et. al. [18] investigated the effects of chemical modification on the performance of
biodegradable jute yarn- biopol composites. Jute yarn-biopol composites were prepared by hot
press molding technique. Jute yarns of two varieties were used for composite fabrication. Effect
of temperature, yarn amount, chemical modification like de-waxing (defeating), alkali treatment,
graft copolymerization and orientation of yarn winding on the performance of resultant
composites were investigated. The mechanical properties like tensile strength, bending strength,
impact strength and bending modulus were reported to increase.

Ray et. al. [19] studied the impact fatigue behavior of untreated and alkali treated jute fiber
reinforced vinyl ester composites. Jute fiber was kept immersed in alkali solution for 4 and 8
hours. They reported that longer alkali treatment removed the hemicelluloses and improved the

5
crystallinity and gave better fiber dispersion. For 35% jute/vinyl ester composites containing
both untreated fibers, the flexural strength of the composite made from treated fiber was
superior. Four hour alkali treated jute fibers gave the optimum combination of improved
interfacial bonding and fiber strength properties.

Misra et. al. [20] examined graft polymerization of MMA on different modified jute fibres using
V5+ cyclohexanol redox initiator in an aqueous solution. High lignin content of jute fibres was
reported to be responsible for the low grafting yield. The softening of jute fibres, however, after
removal of certain impurities improved considerably.

Mohanty et. al. [21] published their work on tensile strength, bending strength, bending strength
and impact strength of biodegradable jute fibre/ biopol composites. The effects of different fibre
surface treatments and amounts of fabrics on the performance of the resulting composites were
investigated. They observed more than 50% enhancement in tensile strength, 30% in bending
strength and 90% in impact strength of composites occurred relative to pure biopol sheets. The
effect of jute content on the mechanical properties of the composites fabricated from defatted
hessian cloth was also investigated. Composite with 20-25% jute content gave rise to optimum
mechanical properties.

Ghosh et. al. [22] studied the chemical modification of jute fibres on the properties of jute
reinforced polyester composites. Grafting with polyacrylonitrile (10-25%) imparts 10-30%
improvement in flexural strength. Grafting with PMMA was also effective in this respect though
to a lower extent.

Khan et. al. [23] observed starch treated jute composites, which showed higher mechanical
properties than that of the untreated jute composite. Composites prepared with 3% starch treated
yarns established the highest mechanical properties i.e. tensile strength 52 MPa, tensile modulus
700 Mpa.

Shah and Lakkad [24] studied mechanical properties of jute reinforced plastics. They
investigated about tensile strength, flexural strength, compressive strength and again tensile
strength after accelerated weathering. It found that the addition of jute as a reinforcement by
about 25% weight increases the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) by 100%.The compressive
strength did not increase, the flexural modulus increased considerably but the increased in

6
flexural was marginal. The increase in the strength and modulus was naturally dominated by the
content of glass fibre in the composites due to their higher modulus and strength. The results of
the tests on the mechanical properties clearly showed that the jute fibres when introduced in to
the resin matrix as reinforcement considerably improved the mechanical properties. But the
improvement was much lower than that obtained by introduction of of glass and other high
performance fibres. Hence the jute fibres can be used as reinforcement where self-effacing
strength and modulus are required.

Hayharuzzaman et. al. [35] studied the PP-hessain cloth composites and the effect of gamma
radiation on them. The radiation dose was varied from 250-1000 krad and the composites made
using 500 krad showed the highest tensile strength, bending strength and impact strength of 57
Mpa, 62 Mpa and 2.75 KJ/m2 respectively.

Karmaker and Hinrichen [26] studied the processing and characterization of jute fibre
reinforced thermoplastic polymers. A laboratory press was modified and laminates produced
using polymer films of low and high density polyethylene (PE), PE copolymers and PP as inter
layers. Variations of the processing parameters were carried out in order to find optimal
adjustment. High molding temperature leads to a decrease of mechanical properties and water
absorption ability of the composites.

Mukerjee et. al. [27] observed the effect of ethylenediamine treatment on to jute fiber. The
physico-mechanical properties of the jute fiber such as weight loss, swelling moisture absorption
and tensile properties were studied. Changes in the fine structure of jute were assessed from X-
ray an IR studies.

Khan, M. A. [28] showed that effect of Gamma Radiation on the physico-mechanical properties
of jute fiber Reinforced polypropylene composites. Tensile strength and tensile modulus of PP
sheets improved 28 and 26% respectively, and for composites 16 and 25% respectively. On the
other hand, bending strength and bending modulus of PP sheet improved 16 and 125%. For
composites bending strength, bending modulus and impact strength improved 12, 38 and 62%
respectively. Water uptake of the composites at 258oC was measured and it was found that
treated samples had lower water uptake properties.

7
Rahman, G. M. Shafiur et. al. [29] studied physico-mechanical properties of shock wave
treated jute fibre reinforced composite materials. In this work newly a novel physical method
underwater shock wave treatment for surface modification of jute fibre is developed for
composite fabrication. This work also examines the effect of fibre treatments using underwater
shock wave on the mechanical properties and absorption behavior of fabricated jute fibre
reinforced thermosetting polyester composite. The studies of physico-mechanical properties
show that the shock wave treated jute fibre reinforced composite exhibits better hydrophobic
property than that of the untreated one. On the other hand mechanical properties of shock wave
treated jute fibre reinforced composites were not found satisfactory level due to formation of
micro cracks on the fibre surface after treatment.

From the above literature survey it is found that a lot of works have already been done on the
mechanical properties of jute fibre reinforcing polymer composites. Still the effect of weave
structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the mechanical properties of jute fibre reinforcing
polymer composite has not found yet. Thus the present study will be a novel work on the
mechanical properties of bio composites.

8
CHAPTER THREE: THEORITCAL BACKGROUNDS

3.1 POLYMER

3.1.1 DEFINITION OF POLYMER

Definition by Berzelius

Organic compounds which shared identical empirical formulas but differed in overall molecular
weight, the larger of the compounds being described as "polymers" of the smallest. Example:
Glucose (C6H12O6) would be a polymer of Formaldehyde (CH2O)

Modern Definition

A Polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of a long, repeating chain of smaller

units called monomers.

o Polymers usually have high melting and boiling points.

o Subunits are connected together by covalent chemical bonds.

o Highest molecular weight among any molecules.

9
 o There is virtually no upper end to the molecular weight range since giant three-
dimensional networks may produce cross linked polymers of a molecular weight
of many millions.

3.1.2 EXAMPLES OF SOME COMMON POLYMERS

Table.3.1: Examples of some common polymers

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3.1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER

3.1.3.1 TYPES OF POLYMER ON THE BASIS OF ORIGIN

(i) Natural polymer: Those isolated from natural materials are called natural polymers.

Example: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, chitosan, silk, wool, rubber etc

11
Fig.3.1: Chemical structure of Chitin, Chitosan and Cellulose

(ii) Synthetic polymers: polymers synthesized from low molecular weight compound are called
synthetic polymer. Examples: plastics, synthetic rubbers, synthetic fibres.

3.1.3.2 ORGANIC AND INORGANIC POLYMERS

(i) Organic polymers: A polymer whose backbone chain is essentially made of carbon atom is
termed as an organic polymer. The atoms attached to the side valences of the backbone carbon
atom are however, usually those of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc. the majority of synthetic
polymers are organic and they are very extensively studied.

12
(ii) Inorganic polymers: In fact, the number and variety of organic polymers are so large that
when we refer to “polymer”, we normally mean organic polymers. The molecules of inorganic
polymers on the other hand, generally contain no carbon atom in their chain backbone. Glass and
silicone rubber are the examples of inorganic polymers.

3.1.3.3 TYPES OF POLYMER ON THE BASIS OF SYNTHESIS

(i) Condensation polymer: Condensation polymers are those in which the molecule formula of
the repeat unit of the polymer chains locks certain atoms present in the monomer from which it
formed. So, condensation polymer in this process there occurs a stepwise reaction of molecule
and each step a molecule of a simple compound generally water form as a byproduct.

(ii) Addition polymer: Addition polymers are those in which this loss of a small molecule does
not take place. The most important group of addition polymers includes those derived from
unsaturated vinyl monomer.

3.1.3.4 TYPES OF POLYMER ON THE BASIS OF THERMAL RESPONSE

(i) Thermoplastic polymer: Thermoplastics are relatively weak intermolecular forces so that the
material softens when exposed to heat and then returns to its original condition when cooled.
These can be repeatedly softened by heating and then solidified by cooling - a process similar to
the repeated melting and cooling of metals. Most linear and slightly branched polymers are
thermoplastic. These are produced by chain polymerization. Thermoplastics have a wide range of
applications because they can be formed and reformed in so many shapes. Some examples are
food packaging, insulation, automobile bumpers, and credit cards.

(ii) Thermosetting polymer: these polymers undergo some chemical change on heating and
convert themselves into an infusible mass. They are like the yolk of the egg, which on setting
sets into a mass and once set, cannot be reshaped such polymer that became an infusible and
insoluble mass on heating are called thermosetting polymers. (e.g. phenolics, polyurethane,
polyester, melamine-formaldehyde resins, epoxy resins etc)

13
Examples of thermosets:

Melamine-formaldehyde resins

Fig.3.2: Chemical reaction for the formation of Melamine-formaldehyde resins

Epoxy resins

Fig.3.3: Chemical reaction for the formation of Epoxy resins

3.1.3.5 TYPES OF POLYMER ON THE BASIS OF SKELETAL STRUCTURE

(i) Linear: Monomeric units are joined in the form of long straight chains, such polymers have
high densities, high tensile strength and high melting point with two ends. e. g. Polyethylene,
nylons and polyesters

14
 Fig.3.4: Linear polymer

(ii)Branched chain: are mainly linear in nature but also possess some branches along the main
chain. (e.g. low density polyethylene ,LDPE). They have densities, lower tensile strength and
low melting point.

Fig.3.5: Branched chain polymer

(iii) Crossed Linked polymer: Monomeric unit’s are linked together to constitute a three
dimensional network. They are hard, rigid, and brittle. e. g. Bakelite, Melamine formaldehyde
resin, etc.

Fig.3.6: Crossed linked polymer

3.1.3.6 TYPES OF POLYMER ON THE BASIS OF COMPOSITION

(i) Homopolymers: contain one type of repeat unit.

15
 Fig.3.7: Homo- polymer

(ii) Copolymers: Contain at least 2 repeat units. Ex. Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene block

copolymer (SBS)

Fig.3.8: Co- polymer

3.2 NATURAL FIBRE

3.2.1 DEFINITION
These fibres are naturally obtained from different types of plants. The vegetable world is full of
examples where cells or groups of cell are designed for strength and stiffness. A sparing use of
resources has resulted in optimization of the cell function. Cellulose is natural polymer with high
strength and stiffness per weight, and it is the building material of long fibre cells. These cells
can be found in the stem, the leaves or the seeds of plant

3.2.2 CLASSES

(i) Bast fibres: In general the bast consists of a wood core surrounded by a stem. Within the
stem there are a number of fibre bundles, each containing individual fibre cells or filaments. The
filaments are made of cellulose and hemi-cellulose, bonded by a matrix which can be lignin or
pectin.

16
(ii) Leaf fibres (Sisal, abaca, banana, palm)

The leaf fibres are coarser the bast fibres normally. Applications are areas of leaf fibres are in
ropes and coarse textiles. In some interior application sisal is preferred. Especially manufacturing
at increases temperatures (NMT) fibres like flax can cause smell [30].

(iii) Seed fibres (cotton, coir, kapok)

Cotton is the most common seed fibre and is used for most of the textiles all over the world.
Other seed fibres are applied in less demanding application such as stuffing of upholstery. Coir is
an exception to this. Classification of various fibres is presented in fig.3.9 [31]

Reinforcing natural fibres/ Fillers

Non wood Wood

natural fibres

Straw Bast Leaf Grass

fibres Examples: fibres
sisal, pine
apple leaf
Examples:
corn, wheat, Seed/fruit
rice, straws Examples:
cotton, coir

Examples: Examples: Examples:

flax, kenaf, bamboo, grass, soft and hard
jute, hemp miscanthus wood

Fig.3.9: Classification of natural fibre which can be used as reinforcement of fillers in polymers

17
3.2.3 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES

Natural fibres can be classified according to their origin. The vegetable, or cellulose-base, class
includes such important fibres as cotton, flax, and jute; the animal, or protein-base, fibres include
wool, mohair, and silk; an important fibre in the mineral class is asbestos. [43]

The vegetable fibres can be divided into smaller groups, based on their origin within the plant.
Cotton, kapok, and coir are examples of fibres originating as hairs borne on the seeds or inner
walls of the fruit, where each fibre consists of a single, long, narrow cell. Flax, hemp, jute, and
ramie are bast fibres, occurring in the inner bast tissue of certain plant stems and made up of
overlapping cells. Abaca, henequen, and sisal are fibres occurring as part of the fibro vascular
system of the leaves. Chemically, all vegetable fibres consist mainly of cellulose, although they
also contain varying amounts of such substances as hemi-cellulose, lignin, pectins, and waxes
that must be removed or reduced by processing. The animal fibres consist exclusively of proteins
and, with the exception of silk, constitute the fur or hair that serves as the protective epidermal
covering of animals. Silk filaments are extruded by the larvae of moths and are used to spin their
cocoons.

With the exception of mineral fibres, all natural fibres have an affinity for water in both liquid
and vapour form. This strong affinity produces swelling of the fibres connected with the uptake
of water, which facilitates dyeing in watery solutions.

Unlike most synthetic fibres, all natural fibres are non-thermoplastic—that is, they do not soften
when heat is applied. At temperatures below the point at which they will decompose, they show
little sensitivity to dry heat, and there is no shrinkage or high extensibility upon heating, nor do
they become brittle if cooled to below freezing. Natural fibres tend to yellow upon exposure to
sunlight and moisture, and extended exposure results in loss of strength.

All natural fibres are particularly susceptible to microbial decomposition, including mildew and
rot. Cellulosic fibres are decomposed by aerobic bacteria (those that live only in oxygen) and
fungi. Cellulose mildews and decomposes rapidly at high humidity and high temperatures,
especially in the absence of light. Wool and silk are also subject to microbial decomposition by
bacteria and molds. Animal fibres are also subject to damage by moths and carpet beetles;

18
termites and silverfish attack cellulose fibres. Protection against both microbial damage and
insect attacks can be obtained by chemical modification of the fibre substrate; modern
developments allow treatment of natural fibres to make them essentially immune to such
damage.

3.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL FIBRES

The advantages of natural fibres are:

(i) Low specific weight which result in a higher specific strength and stiffness than glass.
This is a benefit especially in parts designed for bending stiffness.
(ii) It is a renewable resource, the production requires little energy, and CO 2 are used
while oxygen is given back to the environment.
(iii) Predicable with low investment at low cost, which makes the material an interesting,
produced for low wage countries.
(iv) Thermal recycling is possible, where glass causes in combustion furnaces.
(v) Good thermal and acoustic insulating properties.

3.2.5 DISADVANTAGES OF NATURAL FIBRES

The disadvantages of natural fibres are:

(i) Lower strength properties, particularly its impact strength.

(ii) Variable quality depending on unpredictable influences such as weather.
(iii) Moisture absorption which eases swelling of the fibres.
(iv) Restricted maximum processing temperatures.
(v) Low durability
(vi) Poor fire resistant.
(vii) Price can fluctuate by harvest results or agricultural polictics.

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3.2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBRE

Classification of Textile Fiber

Fig.3.10: Classification of textile fibres

3.2.7 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE NATURAL FIBRES

Fig.3.11: Chemical structure of cellulose

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 Table 3.2: The chemical compositions of some natural fibres:

Fibre Cellulose Hemi- Pectin Lignin Ash

cellulose
Flax 71 19 2 2 1.2

Bast fibres Hemp 75 18 1 4 1.2

Jute 72 13 >1 13 8

Ramie 76 15 2 1 5
Leaf fibres Abaca 70 22 1 6 1

Sisal 73 13 1 11 7
Seed-hair Cotton 93 3 3 ------- 1
fibres

3.3 JUTE FIBER

Jute is a bast fiber used for sacking, burlap, and twine as a backing material for tufted carpets. It
is a long, soft, shiny fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is one of the cheapest
natural fibers, and is second only to cotton in amount produced and variety of uses. Jute fibers
are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose, lignin, and pectin. Both the fiber and the
plant from which it comes are commonly called jute. It belongs to the genus Corchorus in the
basswood family, Tiliaceae.

21
 Fig.3.12: Image of jute fibre

3.3.1 PROPERTIES OF JUTE FIBRE

(i) Jute fibre is 100% bio-degradable and recyclable and thus environmentally friendly.
(ii) Jute is a natural fibre with golden and silky shine and hence called The Golden Fibre.
(iii) Jute is the cheapest vegetable fibre procured from the bast or skin of the plant's
stem.
(iv) It is the second most important vegetable fibre after cotton, in terms of usage, global
consumption, production, and availability.
(v) It has high tensile strength, low extensibility, and ensures better breathability of fabrics.
Therefore, jute is very suitable in agricultural commodity bulk packaging.
(vi) It helps to make best quality industrial yarn, fabric, net, and sacks. It is one of the most
versatile natural fibres that has been used in raw materials for packaging, textiles, non-
textile, construction, and agricultural sectors. Bulking of yarn results in a reduced
breaking tenacity and an increased breaking extensibility when blended as a ternary
blend.
(vii) Unlike the fiber known as hemp, jute is not a form of (Cannabis). Therefore it can
be much more easily distinguished from forms of Cannabis that produce a narcotic
(viii) Jute is one of the most versatile natural fibres that have been used in raw materials
for packaging, textiles, non-textile, and agricultural sectors.

22
 (ix) Jute stem has very high volume of cellulose that can be procured within 4-6 months, and
hence it also can save the forest and meet cellulose and wood requirement of the world.
(x) The best varieties of Jute are Bangla Tosha - Corchorus olitorius (Golden shine) and
Bangla White - Corchorus capsularis (Whitish Shine), and Mesta or Kenaf (Hibiscus
cannabinus) is another species with fibre similar to Jute with medium quality.
(xi) Raw Jute and Jute goods are interpreted as Burlap, Industrial Hemp, and Kenaf in some
parts of the world.

3.3.2 USES OF JUTE FIBRE

Jute is the second most important vegetable fibre after cotton; not only for cultivation, but also
for various uses.

 Jute is used chiefly to make cloth for wrapping bales of raw cotton, and to make sacks
and coarse cloth.
 The fibres are also woven into curtains, chair coverings, carpets, area rugs, hessian cloth,
and backing for linoleum.
 While jute is being replaced by synthetic materials in many of these uses, some uses take
advantage of jute's biodegradable nature, where synthetics would be unsuitable.
 Jute butts, the coarse ends of the plants, are used to make inexpensive cloth.
 Traditionally jute was used in traditional textile machineries as textile fibres having
cellulose (vegetable fibre content) and lignin (wood fibre content). But, the major
breakthrough came when the automobile, pulp and paper, and the furniture and bedding
industries started to use jute and its allied fibres with their non-woven and composite
technology to manufacture nonwovens, technical textiles, and composites.
 Jute can be used to create a number of fabrics such as Hessian cloth, sacking, scrim,
carpet backing cloth (CBC), and canvas.
 Hessian, lighter than sacking, is used for bags, wrappers, wall-coverings, upholstery, and
home furnishings.
 Sacking, a fabric made of heavy jute fibres, has its use in the name.

23
  Diversified jute products are becoming more and more valuable to the consumer today.
Among these are espadrilles, floor coverings, home textiles, high performance technical
textiles, Geo-textiles, composites, and more.
 Another diversified jute product is Geo-textiles, which made this agricultural commodity
more popular in the agricultural sector. It is a lightly woven fabric made from natural
fibres that is used for soil erosion control, seed protection, weed control, and many other
agricultural and landscaping uses. The Geo-textiles can be used more than a year and the
bio-degradable jute Geo-textile left to rot on the ground keeps the ground cool and is able
to make the land more fertile.

3.3.3 PROPERTIES OF JUTE FIBRE IN COMPARISON WITH OTHER FIBRE

Table 3.3: Properties of jute fibre in comparison with other fibres:

Fibre Density(g/cm3) Tensile Young’s Elongation Specific Specific

strength Modulus(GPa) at break (%) Tensile Young’s
(MPa) Strength Modulus
3
(MPa/g.cm ) (MPa/g.cm3)

Jute 1.3-1.45 393-773 13-26.5 1.16-1.5 286-562 9-19

Flax 1.5 345-1100 27.6 2.7-3.2 230-773 18
Ramie 1.5 400-938 61.4-128 1.2-3.8 267-625 41-85
Sisal 1.45 468-640 9.4-22.0 3-7 323-441 6-15
Coir 1.15 131-175 4-6 15-40 114-152 3-5
E-glass 2.5 2000-3500 70 2.5 800-1400 28
S-glass 2.5 4570 86 2.8 1828 34

3.3.4 ADVANTAGES OF USING JUTE FIBRE AS REINFORCING MATERIALS

(i) It is lower in cost

(ii) Since the specific gravity of jute fibre is much less that of glass fibre. The cost
advantages per unit volume are further enhanced.
(iii) The specific gravity of a jute/polyester laminate can be up to 25% less than
that of a glass/polyester construction.

24
 (iv) The use of woven material ensures uniformity of reinforcement thickness
throughout the area of the laminate.
(v) Jute/polyester laminate and glass/polyester laminate of the same dimensions
will have equal stiffness but the jute/polyester laminate will be lighter and will
cost less.
(vi) Jute reinforcement is therefore a means of providing structural rigidity with
low weight and low cost. The natural fibres can be used to reinforce both
thermosetting and thermoplastic matrices. Thermosetting resins such as
epoxy, polyester, polyurethane, phenolic etc. are commonly used today in
natural fibre composites in which composites requiring higher performance
applications. They provide sufficient mechanical properties in particular
stiffness and strength at acceptably low price levels. Compared to compounds
based on thermoplastic polymers, thermoset compounds have a superior
thermal stability and lower water absorption. However, in the case of the
demand for improved recycling and in combination with new long fibre
reinforced thermoplastic processing, thermoplastic polymers have been
expected to substitute the thermoset polymers.

3.3.5 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF JUTE FIBRE

25
 Fig.3.13: Chemical structure of jute fibre

Cellulose, a primary component of the jute fibre is a linear condensation polymer consisting of
D-anhydro-glucopyranose units joined together by β-1, 4 glucosidic bonds [31]. The long chains
of cellulose re lined together in bundles called micro fibrils.

Hemi-cellulose is also found in all plant fibres. Hemi-cellulose is polysaccharides bonded

together in relatively short, brunching chains. They are intimately associated with the cellulose
micro fibrils, embedding the cellulose in a matrix. Hemi-cellulose are very hydrophilic and have
lower molecular masses than both cellulose and lignin. The degree of polymerization is about
50-200. The two main types of hemi-cellulose are xylanes and glucomannans. Lignin is a
randomly branched polyphenol, made up of phenyl propane (C9) units. It is the most complex
polymer among naturally occurring high-molecular-weight materials with an amorphous
structure [31]. Of the three main constituents in fibres, lignin is expected to be the one with least
affinity for water. Another important feature of lignin is that it is thermoplastic (i.e. at
temperatures around 900 C it starts to soften and at temperatures around 170 0C it starts to flow
[32].

26
The jute fibre is polygonal or oval in cross section with a lumen. Climatic conditions, age and the
fermentation process which influences also the chemical composition; influence the structure of
the jute fibre [33].

3.3.6 THE ACIDIC BEHAVIOR OF JUTE FIBRE

It is well known that jute fibre when suspended in water gives acidic reactions. Sarkar and co-
workers have shown that although the major portion of the –COOH occurring in jute fibre are
combined with basic ions such as calcium, magnesium etc, a small fraction exists in the free state
and it is this fraction which is responsible for the acidic reaction of the fibre. Like tensile strength
and other properties of fibres such as extensibility and flexibility are also influenced to a great
extent by the cross-linkages in the amorphous regions usually, the low inter cohesion in the
amorphous region permits a better freedom of movement to the chain molecules as a result of
which these regions impart the above useful qualities to the fibre. In natural fibre, however, due
to the presence of cross-linkages the relative movement of the carbohydrate chains is much
restricted, which ultimately affects both flexibility and extensibility. It has fairly high affinity for
moisture and hydroscopicity of the fibre compared to other pure cellulosic fibres is attributable to
its low crystalline/non-crystalline ratio.

3.4 WOVEN DESIGN FUNDAMENTAL

A woven cloth is formed by the interlacement of two sets of threads namely warp and weft
threads. These threads are interlaced with one another according to the type of weave or
design. The warp threads are those that run longitudinally along the length of the fabric and
the weft threads are those that run transversely across the fabric. For the sake of convenience
the warp threads are termed as ends and the weft as picks or fillings [34].

Fig.3.14: Warp and weft of a woven fabric

27
3.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF WOVEN STRUCTURES

Woven structures are classified into the following categories:

(i) Simple structures

(ii) Compound structures

In case of simple structures, there is only one series of warp and weft threads. These threads
interlace with one another perpendicularly. All the neighboring warp and weft threads are
parallel to one another and play an equally important role in determining the properties of the
fabric.

Fig.3.15: Simple structure of a woven fabric

In case of compound structures, there may be more than one series threads, of which one set
forms the body or ground and the other forms the figuring or ornamentation. Unlike the
simple structures, the neighboring threads need not be parallel to one another.

Fig.3.16: Compound structure of a woven fabric

3.4.2 METHOD OF WEAVE REPRESENTATION

28
A weave is the interlacing pattern of the warp and weft. Two kinds of interlacing are
possible:

(i) Warp overlap in which warp is above weft

(ii) Weft overlap in which weft is above warp

When the warp is lifted above the inserted weft, a warp overlap is obtained. When the warp
thread is lowered, the weft thread is inserted above the warp thread and the weft overlap is
obtained.

There are two practical methods of weave representation:

(i) Linear: In the linear method each warp thread is represented by a vertical line and
each weft thread by a horizontal line. The point of intersection of lines corresponding
to a warp overlap is marked by the dot, and the point of intersection corresponding to
weft overlap remains unmarked.
(ii) Canvas: In the canvas method, a squared paper is employed, on which each vertical
space represents a warp thread and each horizontal space represents a weft thread.
Each square therefore indicates an intersection of warp and weft thread. To show the
warp overlap, a square is filled in or shaded. The blank square indicates that the weft
thread is placed over the warp i.e. weft overlap. Several types of marks may be used
to indicate the warp overlap. The ‘x’ mark is most commonly used.

X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X

Fig.3.17: Weave presentation

29
 3.4.3 WEAVE REPEAT OR REPEAT SIZE

The repeat of a weave is a quantitative expression of any given weave. It indicates the minimum
number of warp and weft threads for a given weave. It comprises of warp and weft repeat. The
size of a repeat may be even or uneven depending upon the nature of the weave. In elementary
weave such as plain, twill, satin etc. the repeat size is normally even. However in weaves such as
honey comb, huck a back the repeat size may be even or uneven. For any weave the repeat size is
the sum of the warp and weft floats. Thus in case of a 2/1 twill the repeat size is 3X3. It is
common practice to denote one repeat of a weave on design paper.

X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X

Fig.3.18: Repeat size of a woven fabric

3.4.4 BASIC ELEMENTS OF A WOVEN DESIGN

30
There are three basic elements in a woven design. They are:

(i) Design.
(ii) Drafting plan.
(iii) Lifting plan.

Design: The design indicates the interlacement of warp and weft threads in the repeat of the
design. It is made up of a number of squares which constitute the repeat size of a design. The
vertical direction of the squares indicates the picks and the horizontal direction indicates the
ends.
Drafting plan: The drafting plan indicates the manner of drawing the ends through the heald
eyes and it also denotes the number of heald shaft required for a given weave repeat [35].

Lifting plan: The lifting plan provides useful information to the weaver. It denotes the order of
lifting of heald shafts.

Fig.3.19: Basic elements of a woven design

3.4.5 TYPES OF DRAFT PLANS

31
 The various drafts are classified as follows:

(i) Straight
(ii) Pointed
(iii) Skip and sateen
(iv) Broken
(v) Divided
(vi) Grouped
(vii) Curved
(viii) Combination

3.4.6 PLAIN WEAVE

The plain weave is variously known as “calico” or “tabby” it is the simplest of all weaves having
a repeat size of 2. The range of application of this weave is wide. The principle involved in the
construction of plain cloth is the interlacement of any two continuous threads either warps or
weft in an exactly contrary manner to each other, with every thread in each series passing
alternately under and over consecutive threads of other series interlaces with every thread in the
fabric. Bt this plan of interlacement every thread in each series interlaces with every thread in the
other series to the maximum extent, thereby producing a comparatively firm and strong texture
of cloth.

3.4.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF PLAIN WEAVE

The plain weave has the following characteristics:

(i) It has the maximum number of binding points

(ii) The threads interlace on alternate order of 1 up and 1 down

32
(iii) The thread density is limited

(iv) Cloth thickness and mass per unit area are limited.

(v) It produces a relatively stronger fabric that is obtained by any other simple combination of
threads excepting that of “gauze” or “cross weaving”.

3.4.7 DERIVATIVES OF PLAIN WEAVE

(i) Warp rib

(ii) Weft rib

(iii) Matt rib

Each of the above type can be of two types i.e. Regular and Irregular

3.4.8 WARP RIB WEAVES

These are produced by extending the plain weave in warp wary direction. Fig 3.2 shows warp rib
weaves constructed on regular and irregular basis.

3.4.9 WEFT RIB WEAVES

These are constructed by extending the plain weave in weft direction as in Fig.. In both warp and
weft rib weaves, the appearance of the cloth depends on the respective thread settings, and to
achieve good effects, it is necessary to weave a weft rib with a high number of picks per inch and
a comparatively low number of ends per inch. Similarly the warp rib effect can be enhanced with
a high number of ends per inch and comparatively low number of picks per inch. The
prominence of rib can be increased by suitable use of coarse and fine yarns.

3.4.10 MATT RIB WEAVES

These weaves are also variously known as hopsack or basket weaves. The matt rib structures
result from extending the plain weave in both directions. In case of regular matt weave, the plain

33
weaves are extended equally in the warp and weft directions, whereas in case of irregular matt
weaves, the plain weave is extended unevenly or irregularly in the warp and weft directions.

Fig.3.20: Regular and irregular matt weave

3.4.11 TWILL WEAVES

Twill weaves are the weaves that find a wide range of application. They can be constructed in
variety of ways. The main feature of these weaves that distinguishes from other types is the
presence of pronounced diagonal lines that run alone the width of the fabric.

Fig.3.21: Twill weave

34
The basic characteristics of twill weaves are:

(i) They form diagonal lines from one selvedge to another.

(ii) More ends per unit area and picks per unit area than plain cloth.
(iii) Less binding points than plain cloth
(iv) Better cover than plain weave
(v) More cloth thickness and mass per unit area

3.4.12 DERIVATIVES OF TWILL WEAVES

(i) Zig-zag twill

Fig.3.22: Zig-zag twill weave

(ii) Diamond twill

Fig.3.23: Diamond twill weave

(iii) Diaper twill

(iv) Herring bone twill

(v) Broken twill

35
(vi) Elongated twill

(vii) Rearranged twill

(viii) Stepped twill

(ix) Shades twill, etc.

3.5 COMPOSITES

Two inherently different materials that when combined together produce a material with
properties that exceed the constituent materials. Each of the materials must exist more than 5%.
Composite refers to a judicious combination of two or more materials that produces a synergistic
effect. A material system composed of two or more physically distinct phases whose
combination produces aggregate properties that are different from those of its constituents. Wood
is a good example of a natural composite, combination of cellulose fiber and lignin. The
cellulose fiber provides strength and the lignin is the "glue" that bonds and stabilizes the fiber
Bamboo is a very efficient wood composite structure. The components are cellulose and lignin,
as in all other wood, however bamboo is hollow. This results in a very light yet stiff structure.
Composite fishing poles and golf club shafts copy this natural design. The essence of the concept
of composites is that the load is applied over a large surface area of the matrix. Matrix then
transfers the load to the reinforcement, which being stiffer, increases the strength of the
composite. It is important to note that there are many matrix materials and even more fiber types,
which can be combined in countless ways to produce just the desired properties. In the United
States, composites manufacturing is a 25 billion dollar a year industry. There are about 6000
composites related manufacturing plants and materials distributors across the U.S. The industry
employs more than 235,000 people. An additional 250,000 people are employed in businesses
that support the composites industry, including materials suppliers, equipment vendors, and other
support personnel. About 90% of all composites produced are comprised of glass fiber and either
polyester or vinyl ester resin. Composites are broadly known as reinforced plastics.

3.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES

(i) Higher Specific Strength (strength-to-weight ratio): Composites have a higher specific strength
than many other materials. A distinct advantage of composites over other materials is the ability to use

36
many combinations of resins and reinforcements, and therefore custom tailor the mechanical and physical
properties of a structure.

The lowest properties for each material are associated

with simple manufacturing processes and material
forms (e.g. spray lay-up glass fibre), and the higher
properties are associated with higher technology
manufacture (e.g. autoclave moulding of unidirectional
glass fibre), the aerospace industry.

(ii)Low Relative Investment: One reason the composites industry has been successful is because of the
low relative investment in setting-up a composites manufacturing facility. This has resulted in many
creative and innovative companies in the field.

(iii) Durability: One reason the composites industry has been successful is because of the low relative
investment in setting-up a composites manufacturing facility. This has resulted in many creative and
innovative companies in the field. In 1947 the U.S. Coast Guard built a series of forty-foot patrol boats,
using polyester resin and glass fiber. These boats were used until the early 1970s when they were taken
out of service because the design was outdated. Extensive testing was done on the laminates after
decommissioning, and it was found that only 2-3% of the original strength was lost after twenty-five
years of hard service.

3.5.2 DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITES

(i) Composites are heterogeneous: Properties in composites vary from point to point in the
material. Most engineering structural materials are homogeneous.

(ii) Composites are highly anisotropic: The strength in composites varies as the direction along
which we measure changes (most engineering structural materials are isotropic). As a result, all other
properties such as, stiffness, thermal expansion, thermal and electrical conductivity and creep resistance
are also anisotropic. The relationship between stress and strain (force and deformation) is much more
complicated than in isotropic materials. The experience and intuition gained over the years about the
behavior of metallic materials does not apply to composite materials . Composites materials are

37
difficult to inspect with conventional ultrasonic, eddy current and visual NDI methods such as
radiography.

3.5.3 PHASES OF COMPOSITES

A composite material consists of two phases:

Primary: Forms the matrix within which the secondary phase is imbedded. Any of three basic
material types: polymers, metals, or ceramics.

Secondary: Referred to as the imbedded phase or called the reinforcing agent serves to
strengthen the composite (fibres, particles, etc.) can be one of the three basic materials or an
element such as carbon or boron.

woven
fibers

0.5 mm
cross
section
view

0.5 mm

Fig.3.24: The primary and secondary phases of a composite

3.5.4 THE REINFORCING PHASE

The imbedded phase is most commonly one of the following shapes:

(i) Fibres
(ii) Particles
(iii) Flakes

Fibers: Diameters range from .0001 in to about .005 in depending on the material. Generally
circular in cross-section, but can also be in the form of tubular, rectangle, hexagonal. Fibers used
can be either continuous or discontinuous. Continuous fibers – are very long; in theory, they

38
offer a continuous path by which a load can be carried by the composite material. Discontinuous
fibers – are short lengths.

Particles:

• Is an important material form for metals and ceramics range in size from microscopic
(less than 1 micron) to macroscopic (greater than 1 micron)

– In the microscopic size range and proportion of imbedded material of 15% or less,
the particles result in strengthening the matrix

– In the macroscopic size range and proportion of imbedded material of 25% or

more, the particles serve to share the load with the matrix material.

– This form of composite strengthening occurs in cemented carbides, in which

tungsten carbide (80%) is held in a cobalt binder.

Flakes:

• Basically, two-dimensional particles ranging 0.01 to 1.0 mm in across the flake, with a
thickness of 0.001 to 0.005 mm

3.5.5 ORIENTATION OF THE REINFORCING PHASE

Orientation of fibers is an important consideration.

• One-dimensional : maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in the direction of the
fiber

• Planar: in the form of two-dimensional woven fabric

• Random or three-dimensional: the composite material tends to posses isotropic

properties

Types of fabrics:

Currently, the most common fibers used in composites are glass, graphite (carbon), boron and
Kevlar 49.

39
Glass – most widely used fiber in polymer composites, the term fiberglass is applied to denote
glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP)

– E-glass – strong and low cost, but modulus is less than other (500,000 psi)

– S-glass – stiffer and its tensile strength in one of the highest of all fiber materials
(650,000 psi). Has about five times the tensile strength of steel and has a density
of about one third that of steel

Carbon – are generally a combination of graphite. Graphite has a tensile strength three to five
times stronger than steel and has a density that is one-fourth that of steel.

Boron – very high elastic modulus, but its high cost limits its application to aerospace
components

Ceramics – Silicon carbide (SiC) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) are the main fiber materials
among ceramics. Both have high elastic moduli and can be used to strengthen low-density, low-
modulus metals such as aluminum and magnesium

Metal – Steel filaments, used as reinforcing fiber in plastics

3.5.6 SUITABLE RESINS

Thermoplastics: (melts when heated, solidifies when cooled, no permanent curing)

Thermosets: (cures permanently by irreversible cross linking at elevated temp.)

Some Common Resins:

Unsaturated Polyesters

Epoxies

Vinyl Esters

Polyurethanes

Phenolics

40
3.5.7 UNSATURATED POLYESTERS

(i) 75% Resins Used in USA

(ii) Condensation Polymerization of Dicarboxylic Acids & Dihydric Alcohols

(iii) Contains Maleic Anhydride or Fumaric Acid

(iv) Dimensional Stability

(v) Affordable Cost

(vi) Ease in Handling, Processing, & Manufacturing

(vii) High Corrosion Resistant & Fire Retardants

(viii) Best Value for Performance & Strength

RESIN SYSTEM VINYL ESTERS

 Good Workability

 Fast Curing

 High Performance

 Toughness

 Excellent Corrosion Resistance

RESIN SYSTEM EPOXIES

 Glycidyl Ethers and Amines

 Customized Properties

 Limited Workability

 Sensitive to Curing Agents

 High Performance

41
  High First Cost

POLYURETHANES

 Polyisocyanate & Polyol

 Reaction or Reinforced Injection Molding Process

 High Performance

 Toughness

 Excellent Corrosion Resistance

PHENOLICS

 Phenols & Formaldehyde

 Resole - Alkaline (F/P > 1.0) (Cured by Heat)

 Novolac - Acidic (F/P < 1.0) (Cured by Chemical Reaction)

 Resistance to High Temperature

 Good Thermal Stability

 Low Smoke Generation

3.5.8 TYPES OF COMPOSITE

42
 Fig.3.25: Types of composites

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs):

Include mixtures of ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides and other cermets, as well
as aluminum or magnesium reinforced by strong, high stiffness fibers.

Common reinforcing phase includes:

– Particles of ceramic (commonly called cermets)

– Fibers of various materials, including other metals, ceramics, carbon, and boron

FRMMC – combine the high tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of a fiber with
metals of low density, thus achieving good strength-to-weight and modulus-to-weight
ratios in the resulting composite material. Cemented carbides are composed of one or
more Carbide compounds bonded in a metallic matrix

Common cemented carbides are based on:

Tungsten carbide (WC)

Titanium carbide (TiC)

43
 Chromium carbide (Cr3C2)

Tantalum carbide (TaC)

• Cutting tools are the most common application of cemented carbides based on tungsten
carbide

• Titanium carbide cermets are used principally for high temperature applications.

– Nickel is the preferred binder; its oxidation resistance at high temperature is

superior to that of cobalt.

Used as a cutting tool material for machining steels.

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs): Ceramic matrix composites represent an attempt to

retain the desirable properties of ceramics while compensating for their weakness. Aluminum
oxide and silicon carbide are materials that can be imbedded with fibers for improved properties,
especially in high temperature applications. Ceramic materials used as matrices include:

Alumina

Boron carbide

Boron nitride

Silicon carbide

Silicon nitride

Titanium carbide

Advantages:

• High stiffness

• Hardness

• Hot hardness

• Compressive strength

44
 • Relatively low density

Disadvantage

• Low toughness and bulk tensile strength

• Susceptibility to thermal cracking

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs):

Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers in PMCs. Epoxy and polyester are

commonly mixed with fiber reinforcement. The most important of the three classes of synthetic
composites is the PMC. FRP are most closely identified with the term composite.

FRPC

• A composite material consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded with high-strength fibers.

• Widely used in rubber products such as tires and conveyor belts.

• Principle fiber materials are: glass, carbon, and Kevlar 49 with glass (E-glass) the most
common fiber material

Attractive features of FRP:

• high strength-to-weight ratio

• high modulus-to-weight ratio

• low specific gravity

• good fatigue strength

• good corrosion resistance, although polymers are soluble in various chemicals

• low thermal expansion, leading to good dimensional stability

• significant anisotropy in properties

45
 3.5.9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES

Two major components of an FRP composite material is resin and reinforcement. A cured
thermosetting resin without any reinforcement is glass like in nature and appearance, but often
very brittle. By adding a reinforcing fiber such as carbon fiber, glass, or aramid, the properties
are vastly improved. Additionally, with reinforcing fiber, a composite can have anisotropic
properties. Meaning, the composite can be engineered to have different properties in different
directions depending on the orientation of the fiber reinforcement. Aluminum, steel, and other
metals have isotropic properties, meaning, an equal strength in all directions. A composite
material, with anisotropic properties, can have additional reinforcement in the direction of
stresses, and this can create more efficient structures at lighter weights. For example, a pultruded
rod having all fiberglass reinforcement in the same parallel direction could have tensile strength
upwards of 150,000 PSI. Where as a rod with the same area of random chopped fiber would only
have tensile strength around 15,000 PSI. Another difference between FRP composites and metals
is the reaction to impact. When metals receive impact, they can yield or dent. While FRP
composites have no yield point and will not dent.

3.5.10 RULES OF MIXTURE

The Rule of Mixtures will accurately predict the relative amounts and the properties of the

individual constituents. The general form is

ρc=∑ f i . ρi= f 1 . ρ1 +f 2 . ρ2 +.. .. .+f n . ρn

where ρc , is the density of the composite, ρ1 , ρ2 . . , ρ n are the densities of each constituent in

the composite and

f 1 , f 2 . .. f n be the volume fraction of each constituent. A greater volume
fraction of fibres increases the strength and stiffness of the composite. The maximum volume
fraction is about 80%, beyond which the fibres can no longer be completely surrounded by
matrix. As for the laminated composites, the rule of mixtures always predicts the density of

46
 fibre-reinforced composite:
ρc =V m ρm +V f ρf where the subscripts m and f refer to the

matrix and fibre,

Also, V m=1−V f

If we consider the fiber to be isotropic, the Rule of Mixtures can be presented as:

E1 =V m Em +V f E f 1 /E 2 =V m / E m+V f /E f 1 /G 12=V f /G f +(1−V f )/G m

3.6 DEFORMATION OF MATERIALS

3.6.1 DEFORMATION

When an engineering material (as composite) is subjected to forces such as those typically
imposed by service loads, its atoms may be displaced from their equilibrium positions. Any
displacement from the position or separation results in an energy increase. This requires work
which is supplied by the forces creating the displacement. Thus it is clear that this premise
holds whether the material is stretched causing the atoms to separate thus bringing attractive
forces into play, or compressed bringing the atoms closer together and causing repulsion.

3.6.2 ELASTIC/PLASTIC DEFORMATION

When a sufficient load is applied to a metal or other structural material, it will cause the material
to change shape. This change in shape is called deformation. A temporary shape change that is
self-reversing after the force is removed, so that the object returns to its original shape, is called
elastic deformation. In other words, elastic deformation is a change in shape of a material at low
stress that is recoverable after the stress is removed. This type of deformation involves stretching
of the bonds, but the atoms do not slip past each other.

47
When the stress is sufficient to permanently
deform the metal, it is called plastic
deformation. As discussed in the section on
crystal defects, plastic deformation
involves the breaking of a limited number
of atomic bonds by the movement of
dislocations. Recall that the force needed to
break the bonds of all the atoms in a crystal
plane all at once is very great. However, the
movement of dislocations allows atoms in
crystal planes to slip past one another at a
much lower stress levels. Since the energy
required to move is lowest along the
densest planes of atoms, dislocations have a
preferred direction of travel within a grain
of the material. This results in slip that occurs along parallel planes within the grain. These
parallel slip planes group together to form slip bands, which can be seen with an optical
microscope. A slip band appears as a single line under the microscope, but it is in fact made up
of closely spaced parallel slip planes as shown in the image.

3.6.3 STRESS AND STRAIN

When a stretching force (tensile force) is applied to an object, it will extend. We can draw its
force - extension graph to show how it will extend. Note: that this graph is true only for the
object for which it was experimentally obtained. We cannot use it to deduce the behavior of
another object even if it is made of the same material. This is because extension of an object is
not only dependent on the material but also on other factors like dimensions of the object (e.g.
length, thickness etc.) It is therefore more useful to find out about the characteristic extension
property of the material itself. This can be done if we draw a graph in which deformation is
independent of dimensions of the object under test. This kind of graph is called stress- strain
curve.

48
Stress

Stress is defined as the force per unit area of a material.

i.e. Stress = force / cross sectional area:

Where,

σ = stress,

F = force applied, and

A= cross sectional area of the object.

Units of s: Nm-2 or Pa.

Strain

Strain is defined as extension per unit length.

Strain = extension / original length

where,

ε = strain,

lo = the original length

e = extension = (l-lo), and

l = stretched length

49
Strain has no units because it is a ratio of lengths.

We can use the above definitions of stress and strain for forces causing tension or compression.

If we apply tensile force we have tensile stress and tensile strain

If we apply compressive force we have compressive stress and compressive strain.

A useful tip: In calculations stress expressed in Pa is usually a very large number and strain is
usually a very small number. If it comes out much different then, you've done it wrong!

Young Modulus

Instead of drawing a force - extension graph, if you plot stress against strain for an object
showing (linear) elastic behavior, you get a straight line.

This is because stress is proportional to strain. The gradient of the straight-line graph is the
Young's modulus, E

E is constant and does not change for a given material. It in fact represents 'stiffness' property of
the material. Values of the young modulus of different materials are often listed in the form of a
table in reference books so scientists and engineers can look them up.

50
Units of the Young modulus E: Nm-2 or Pa.

3.6.4 ENGINEERING STRAIN

The Cauchy strain or engineering strain is expressed as the ratio of total deformation to the initial
dimension of the material body in which the forces are being applied. The engineering normal
strain or engineering extensional strain or nominal strain e of a material line element or fiber
axially loaded is expressed as the change in length ΔL per unit of the original length L of the line
element or fibers. The normal strain is positive if the material fibers are stretched and negative if
they are compressed. Thus, we have

Where the engineering is normal strain, is the original length of the fiber and is the final
length of the fiber. Measures of strain are often expressed in parts per million or micro strains.

The true shear strain is defined as the change in the angle (in radians) between two material line
elements initially perpendicular to each other in the un-deformed or initial configuration. The
engineering shear strain is defined as the tangent of that angle, and is equal to the length of
deformation at its maximum divided by the perpendicular length in the plane of force application
which sometimes makes it easier to calculate.

3.6.5 TRUE STRAIN

The logarithmic strain ε, also called natural strain, true strain or Hencky strain. Considering an
incremental strain (Ludwik)
51
The logarithmic strain is obtained by integrating this incremental strain:

Where e is the engineering strain. The logarithmic strain provides the correct measure of the final
strain when deformation takes place in a series of increments, taking into account the influence
of the strain path.

3.6.6 STRETCH RATIO

The stretch ratio or extension ratio is a measure of the extensional or normal strain of a
differential line element, which can be defined at either the un-deformed configuration or the
deformed configuration. It is defined as the ratio between the final length ℓ and the initial length
L of the material line.

The extension ratio is approximately related to the engineering strain by

This equation implies that the normal strain is zero, so that there is no deformation when the
stretch is equal to unity. The stretch ratio is used in the analysis of materials that exhibit large
deformations, such as elastomers, which can sustain stretch ratios of 3 or 4 before they fail. On

52
the other hand, traditional engineering materials, such as concrete or steel, fail at much lower
stretch ratios.

3.6.7 NORMAL STRAIN

As with stresses, strains may also be classified as 'normal strain' and 'shear strain' (i.e. acting
perpendicular to or along the face of an element respectively). For an isotropic material that
obeys Hooke's law, a normal stress will cause a normal strain. Normal strains produce dilations.

Consider a two-dimensional infinitesimal rectangular material element with dimensions

, which after deformation, takes the form of a rhombus. From the geometry of the
adjacent figure we have

and

For very small displacement gradients the squares of the derivatives are negligible and we have

The normal strain in the -direction of the rectangular element is defined by

Similarly, the normal strain in the -direction, and -direction, becomes

53
3.6.8 SHEAR STRAIN

The engineering shear strain is defined as ( ) the change in angle between lines and .
Therefore,

From the geometry of the figure, we have

For small displacement gradients we have

For small rotations, i.e. and are we have . Therefore,

thus

By interchanging and and and , it can be shown that

54
Similarly, for the - and - planes, we have

The tonsorial shear strain components of the infinitesimal strain tensor can then be expressed
using the engineering strain definition, , as

3.6.9 HOOK’S LAW

The elastic limit of an engineering material is the highest stress that can be produced without
experiencing any plastic (permanent) deformation. We alluded to the concept of elastic limit
easier in the discussion of plastic deformation. In most materials for values of stress below the
elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain as follows:

σ=Ee

This relationship is known as Hook’s law and the proportionality constant (E) is the modulus of
elasticity (Young’s modulus).

3.7 GAMMA RADIATION

Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays, and denoted by the Greek letter γ, refers to
electromagnetic radiation of extremely high frequency and therefore high energy per
photon. Gamma rays are ionizing radiation, and are thus biologically hazardous. They are
classically produced by the decay from high energy states of atomic nuclei (gamma decay),
but are also created by other processes. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist,
discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radiation emitted from radium.
Villard's radiation was named "gamma rays" by Ernest Rutherford in 1903.

55
 Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from naturally occurring
radioisotopes, and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with cosmic ray
particles. Rare terrestrial natural sources produce gamma rays that are not of a nuclear
origin, such as lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. Additionally, gamma
rays are also produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy
electrons are produced, that in turn cause secondary gamma rays via bremsstrahlung,
inverse Compton scattering and synchrotron radiation. However, a large fraction of such
astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earth's atmosphere and can only be detected by
spacecraft.

Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 10 exahertz (or >1019 Hz), and therefore have
energies above 100 keV and wavelengths less than 10 picometers (less than the diameter of
an atom). However, this is not a hard and fast definition, but rather only a rule-of-thumb
description for natural processes. Gamma rays from radioactive decay are defined as
gamma rays no matter what their energy, so that there is no lower limit to gamma energy
derived from radioactive decay. Gamma decay commonly produces energies of a few
hundred keV, and almost always less than 10 MeV. In astronomy, gamma rays are defined
by their energy, and no production process need be specified. The energies of gamma rays
from astronomical sources range over 10 TeV, at a level far too large to result from
[1]
radioactive decay. A notable example is extremely powerful bursts of high-energy
radiation normally referred to as long duration gamma-ray bursts, which produce gamma
rays by a mechanism not compatible with radioactive decay. These bursts of gamma rays,
thought to be due to the collapse of stars called hyper novae, are the most powerful events
so far discovered in the cosmos.

3.7.1 UNITS OF MEASURE AND EXPOSURE OF GAMMA RADIATION

The measure of gamma rays' ionizing ability is called the exposure.

56
  The coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) is the SI unit of ionizing radiation exposure, and is the
amount of radiation required to create 1 coulomb of charge of each polarity in 1 kilogram
of matter.
 The röntgen (R) is an obsolete traditional unit of exposure, which represented the amount
of radiation required to create 1 esu of charge of each polarity in 1 cubic centimeter of
dry air. 1 röntgen = 2.58×10−4 C/kg

However, the effect of gamma and other ionizing radiation on living tissue is more closely
related to the amount of energy deposited rather than the charge. This is called the absorbed
dose:

 The gray (Gy), which has units of (J/kg), is the SI unit of absorbed dose, and is the
amount of radiation required to deposit 1 joule of energy in 1 kilogram of any kind of
matter.
 The rad is the deprecated CGS unit, equal to 0.01 J deposited per kg. 100 rad = 1 Gy.

The equivalent dose is the measure of the biological effect of radiation on human tissue. For
gamma rays it is equal to the absorbed dose.

 The sievert (Sv) is the SI unit of equivalent dose, which for gamma rays is numerically
equal to the gray (Gy).
 The rem is the deprecated CGS unit of equivalent dose. For gamma rays it is equal to the
rad or 0.01 J of energy deposited per kg. 1 Sv = 100 rem.

CHAPTER FOUR: MATERIALS AND METHODS

57
4.1 INSTRUMENTS USED THROUGH THE EXPRIMENTAL WORKS

Apparatus which have been used in this thesis are listed below:

(i) Hand loom

(ii) Hand Rolling Machine

(iii) UTM with related accessories

(iv) Impact strength testing machine

(v) Electronic balance

(vi) Beaker

(vii) Pipette

(viii) Funnel

(ix) Measuring Scale

(x) Grinding Machine

(xi) Scissor

(xii) Leveler

(xiii) Glass Plate

(xiv) Dead Weight

4.1.1 HAND LOOM

A conventional hand loom was used to manufacture the jute fabric of various structures. The
main parts of the hand loom are shown in the figure.

58
 Fig.4.1: Image of hand loom

4.1.2 HAND ROLLING MACHINE

59
The hand rolling machine was prepared in the local (Tangail Town) engineering workshop with a
hollow cylindrical roller. Two small bearing were mounted in the two edges of the roller. A rod
shaft was inserted through the bearing and a suitable handle was welded with this shaft.

Fig.4.2: Image of a hand rolling machine

4.1.3 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

A universal testing machine (UTM) was used for the measurement of various mechanical
properties (Tensile strength, Tensile modulus, Elongation-at-break, Bending strength, Bending
modulus etc.) of the composite. The load range, speed, measuring unit, gauge length etc. can be
selected over a wide range. A computer is compiled to the instrument with relevant software.
There is a fixed jaw and a movable jaw. The sample is inserted within the jaws and pressure is
applied by an input system. The testing results are obtained from the output system.

60
 Fig.4.3: Image of a Universal Testing Machine

Specification:

Model: H5OKS-0404

Band Name: HOUNSFIELD

Series: S

Country of origin: UK

Electrical data: 230 volts, 50/60 Hz, 5.2 KW (Heat), 1 Phase, 23 amp (in full load).

4.1.4 IMPACT ENERGY TESTING MACHINE

The configuration of this instrument is very simple. It has been designed for testing the impact
fracture strength of plastics, composites & metallic materials etc. according to ASTM D-256, JIS
K-7110, K-6911, K-6771, K-6819, K-6740, CNS-8768, B6068 standards. There is a sample
mounting station where the sample is placed in vertical direction. A pendulum weighing 2.634
kg is lifted at an angle of 1500. Then the pendulum is freely fallen on the sample which strikes
the sample forcibly. There is a circular scale calibrated from 0 0 to 1500 angle. There is an

61
indicator which indicates a specific angle when the pendulum strikes the sample. The impact
energy is calculated from a supplied chart with this machine.

Fig.4.4: Image of IZOD impact strength tester

Specification:

Manufacturer: HUNG TA INSTRUMENT CO. LTD.

Country of origin: China

Weight of Pendulum=2.634 kg

Pendulum Lifting Angle=1500

Cycle of Pendulum= 1.13 sec

62
4.1.5 ELECTRONIC BALANCE

Electronic Balance was used in various stages of this thesis for weighing the jute fabric,
composites and for the determination of matrix-reinforcing agent ratio. It was also used for the
determination of water uptake properties.

Fig.4.5: Image of an electronic balance

Specification:

Country of origin: USA

Model: HZY-A200

Range: Max-200gm

Brand Name: HUAZHI

Readability: 0.001 gm

Power Consumption: DC 9V

63
4.1.6 GRINDING MACHINE

An angle grinder machine was modified by replacing the grinding wheel with cutting wheel for
cutting the composite in various dimensions precisely according to different norms and
standards.

Fig.4.6: Image of Sencan grinding machine

Specification:

Model No. NO: 541003(5410F3)

Cutting disc diameter:Φ100mm/Φ115mm

Hole Diameter Of Disc:Φ16mm
No-load Speed:11000rpm
Rated Input Power:650W
Spindle Thread:M14

64
4.1.7 OTHER APPARATUS

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

65
 (g) (h)

Fig.4.7: Photographs of (a) Beaker, (b) Pipette, (c) Funnel, (d) Measuring Scale, (e) Glass plate,
(f) Scissor, (g) Mylot paper and (h) Sealer machine

4.2 MATERIALS

Grey jute yarn, jute fabrics having different weave structures, polyester resin and methyl ethyl
ketone peroxide were used for the preparation of composites. A brief discussion about these
materials has been presented below.

4.2.1 JUTE YARN

Grey jute yarn of 17 lbs/spyndle was collected from the local market (Tangail town) and used to
manufacture jute fabric of various constructions without any further treatment.

Fig.4.8: Jute yarn package

66
4.2.2 JUTE FABRIC

2
Plain, 2×2 matt, 4×4 matt, twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabric were manufactured in a hand
2
loom

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

67
Fig.4.9: Photographs of (a) Plain fabric, (b) 2×2 Matt fabric, (c) 4×4 Matt fabric, (d) Twill fabric,
(e) Zig-zag twill fabric and (f) Diamond fabric

Table 4.1: Fabric Specification

Fabric Type Ends per inch (EPI) Picks per inch (PPI)
Plain 12 13
2×2 Matt 12 20
4×4 Matt 12 20
Twill 12 15
Zig-Zag Twill 12 15
Diamond 12 15

4.2.3 POLYESTER RESIN

Unsaturated polyester resins are the condensation products of unsaturated acids or anhydrides
and diols with or without diacids. The unsaturation present in this type of polyesters provides a
site for subsequent cross-linking.

Fig.4.10: Chemical structure of unsaturated polyester resin

Since 1930, unsaturated polyester resins have been used remarkably for wide range of
applications making them a thermosetting system of major importance. These resins are

68
compounded with varied fillers, reinforcements and cured by using free radical initiators to yield
thermoset articles having a wide range of chemical and mechanical properties depending upon
the choice of diacids, diols, cross- linking agents, initiators and other additives. This versatility in
the properties of the final thermo set product associated with comparatively low cost has
renewed the interest in these resins as an important matrix material for wide range of
applications. In 1929, Arvin and Carothers developed unsaturated polyester resins from maleic
acid and ethylene glycol reacted at temperature 175 0-1850C. Ford Motor Co. Ltd. synthesized
unsaturated polyester resin by reacting maleic anhydride and phthalic anhydride with propylene
glycol at 1000C and then at 2500C till the acid number diminished to the value less than 50 (mg
of KOH per gm of sample). Corrado and his assistants synthesized low viscosity unsaturated
polyester resins by reacting maleic anhydride, phthalic anhydride and dipropylene glycol at
2000C. Ochsenbein and Olliver synthesized storage stable unsaturated polyester resin by reacting
maleic anhydride, propylene glycol and dipropylene glycol at 185 0C under inert atmosphere.
General purpose unsaturated polyester resins were prepared by using maleic anhydride, phthalic
anhydride and propylene glycol with the molar ratio of phthalic anhydride: maleic anhydride
ranging from 1:2 to 2:1. For thermoset products, the resultant resin was blended with styrene for
cross-linking and small amount of peroxide as initiator. These types of resins are useful in
making trays, shower stalls, boats, swimming pool, water tanks and many other composite
materials [36].

69
 Fig.4.11: Unsaturated Polyester Resin

Trade name: Polyester resin

Manufacture: Polymer Company Limited, Singapore

Supplier: Nasim Plastic Industries Ltd. 6/1, North South Road, (2nd Floor),Dhaka.

4.2.4 MEYHYL ETHYL KETONE PEROXIDE

Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) is an organic peroxide, a high explosive similar to
acetone peroxide. The UPAC name of MEKP is 2-Hydroperoxy-2-((2-hydroperoxybutan-2-
yl)peroxy)butane. The chemical structure of MEKP is as follow:

Fig.4.12: Chemical structure of MEKP

MEKP is a colorless, oily liquid whereas acetone peroxide is a white powder at STP; MEKP is
slightly less sensitive to shock and temperature, and more stable in storage. Depending on the
experimental conditions, several different adducts of methyl ethyl ketone and hydrogen peroxide
is known. The first to be reported was a cyclic dimer, C 8H16O4, in 1906. Later studies found that
a linear dimer is the most prevalent in the mixture of products typically obtained, and this is the
form that is typically quoted in the commercially available material from chemical supply
companies.

70
Dilute solutions of 30 to 60% MEKP are used in industry and by hobbyists as the catalyst which
initiates the cross linking of unsaturated polyester resins used in glass-reinforced plastic, and
casting. For this application, MEKP is dissolved in dimethyl phthalate, cyclohexane peroxide, or
diallyl phthalate to reduce sensitivity to shock. Benzoyl peroxide can be used for the same
purpose. MEKP is a severe skin irritant and can cause progressive corrosive damage or blindness
[37].

Fig.4.13: Photograph of MEKP in a beaker

4.3 METHODS

Methods of composite preparation and various mechanical test procedures have been discussed
in this segment.

4.3.1 COMPOSITE PREPARATION

The composites were prepared by hand layup technique. Jute fabrics having different weave
structure were cut with a dimension of 40cm×30cm. A glass plate of the dimension 50cm×40cm
was placed on a suitable table. A mylot paper with similar dimension to the glass plate is placed
on the glass plate. 500 cc polyester resin was taken in a plastic mug and 3.75 cc methyl ethyl
ketone peroxide was added in the mug. These two chemicals were mixed vigorously with an
agitator. One third of the mixture was poured on to the mylot paper and spread over an area
similar to the jute fabric with a plastic spreader. One ply jute fabric was then placed on to the
polyester resin mixture and rolled with hand rolling machine. Again one third of the mixture was

71
poured and spread on the jute fabric. Another ply of the jute fabric was placed on the previous
one and rolled. The rest of the mixture was poured on to the second ply and spread. The ply
consisting of two lays of jute fabric was then covered with another mylot paper and rolled with
the hand rolling machine and another glass plate is placed on it. A dead weight of 20 kg was
loaded on the lay for 60 min. Finally the dead weighted was unloaded and the two layer of the
mylot paper were separated from the composite. Thus jute reinforced polyester composite was
obtained. The flow chart of jute-polyester composite preparation is shown in the following
photographs:

72
 Fig.4.14: Photographs of different steps of composite preparation.

4.3.1.1 IMAGES OF THE RESULTANT COMPOSITES

The images of the composites prepared from the above way are presented below:

(a) (b)

73
 (c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig.4.15: Photographs of composites prepared from (a) Plain, (b) 2×2 Matt, (c) 4×4 Matt, (d)
Twill, (e) Zig-zag and (f) Diamond fabric

4.4 METHODS OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES TESTING

The mechanical properties such as tensile strength, elongation-at-break, Young’s modulus,

flexural strength or bending strength and bending modulus of the prepared composites were
evaluated by a universal testing machine [Fig.4.3] and was carried out at Institute of Radiation
and Polymer Technology (IRPT) laboratory , Bangladesh Atomic Energy Establishment,
Ganakbari, Savar, Dhaka-1344. The impact strength of the composites was evaluated with IZOD
impact energy tester in the same laboratory.

4.4.1 MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE PROPERTIES

74
The specimen for tensile strength measurement was prepared according to ASTM standard [38].
Crosshead speed of 10 mm/min and gauge length of 50 mm were maintained. The load was
continuously applied to the sample till it is fractured. The loads and the corresponding extensions
were recorded by the computer. Fig.4.15 shows the size and shape of the specimen used in
measuring tensile strength (TS), Elongation-at-break (EB%) and Young’s modulus of the various
composites.

TENSILE STRESS:

Tensile stress was evaluated using the following formula:

F
∆ σ= …………………………………………………………………….. (4.1)
A

The value of F was obtained from the UTM. The value of A was obtained by a slide calipers by
measuring the width and thickness at least three points in the narrow zones of the samples.

75
 Fig.4.16: Specimens for measuring tensile strength

4.4.1.1 TENSILE STRAIN (ε%)

Tensile strain was calculated by the following relationship:

ΔL
ε (%)= ( L )X100% ………………………………………………….(4.2)
0

Where, ΔL is the extension due to applied load

L0 is the gage length or original length of the sample

The value of ΔL is obtained from the UTM.

4.4.1.2 TENSILE STRENGTH

76
Tensile strength was estimated by the following formula:

F max
TS= …………………………………………………………………. (4.3)
A

Where, Fmax= Maximum load applied to the sample

A= Cross sectional area of the sample

4.4.1.3 ELONGATION-AT-BREAK

Percentage of elongation-at-break was obtained by the following relation:

ΔLb
EB(%)= ( 0)×100% ………………………………………………….(4.4)
L0

Where, ΔLb= Extension at breaking point of the sample

L0= Gauge length or original length of the sample

The value of ΔLb was obtained from the UTM

4.4.1.4 YOUNG’S MODULUS

Young’s modulus (E) is one of the basic parameters for the characterization of the mechanical
properties of any solid material. The higher the E, the stiffer the material is i.e. it is higher for
steels than for aluminums. For all material it is determined from the tensile test. Within elastic
limit, the stress-strain variation of a material is linear. Fig.4.16 shows a typical stress-strain curve
of a polymeric material. The stress increases linearly with the strain up to yield point. The slope
of the linear portion gives Young’s modulus and determined by the following equation:

dσ
Y= ………………………………………………………………………… (4.5)
dε

Where, dσ = Stress at yield point

dε = Strain at yield point

77
 Yield point
Stress,σ
dε

dσ

Strain, ε (%)

Fig.4.17: A typical stress-strain curve

4.4.2 MEASUREMENT OF FLEXURAL PROPERTIES

Flexural properties were measured according to ASTM standard [39]. The specimen was
mounted on two support spans of the UTM. The span length was 16 times of the thickness of the
specimen and the width of the specimen was 12.7 mm. A continuously increasing load was
applied on the middle of the specimen. The loads and corresponding deflections were recorded
by the computer.

4.4.2.1 FLEXURAL STRESS

The applied on the mid-span was taken from the UTM and then the following equation was used
to calculate the flexural stress of the specimens:

3 PL
σf = 2 …………………………………………………………………(4.6)
2b d
Where, P= Load applied on the mid-span, L= Distance between support Span, b= Width of the
specimen and d= Depth of the specimen.

4.4.2.2 FLEXURAL STRAIN

78
The mid-span deflection was taken from the UTM and flexural strain was calculated according to
the following equation:

6 yd
εf (%)= L
2 x 100%..........................................................................................(4.7)

Where, y = Mid-span deflection

d= Depth or thickness of the specimen

L= Distance between support spans

4.4.2.3 BREAKING STRAIN, FB%

The mid-span deflection at break or maximum deflection, y was taken from the UTM and was
used in following equation to calculate maximum flexural strain:

6 y max d
FB(%)= 2 ..........................................................................................(4.8)
L
Where, ymax= Mid-span deflection at maximum flexural stress
d= Depth or thickness of the specimen

L= Distance between support spans

4.4.2.4 FLEXURAL STRENGTH

The maximum load applied on the mid-span was taken from the UTM and then the following
equation was used to calculate the flexural stress of the samples:

3 P max L
FS= 2 ……………………………………………………………….(4.8)
2bd

Where, Pmax= Maximum load applied on the mid-span

L=Distance between support spans

b= Width of the specimen

d= Depth or thickness of the specimen

79
4.4.3 IMPACT STRENGTH MEASUREMENT

Impact is a very important phenomenon in governing the life of a structure. For example, in the
case of an aircraft, impact can take place by a bird hitting a plane while it is cruising, or during
takeoff and landing the aircraft may be struck by debris present on the runway, and as well as
other causes.

Impact tests are used in studying the toughness of material. A material's toughness is a factor of
its ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Brittle materials have low toughness as a
result of the small amount of plastic deformation that they can endure. The impact value of a
material can also change with temperature. Generally, at lower temperatures, the impact energy
of a material is decreased. The size of the specimen may also affect the value of the Izod impact
test because it may allow a different number of imperfections in the material, which can act as
stress risers and lower the impact energy. [40]

Impact energy absorbed by the composites was measured by Izod Impact Testing Machine (HT-
8041B) according to the ASTM standard [41]. The dimensions of a standard specimen for
ASTM D-256 are 63.5 x 12.7 x 3.2 mm (2.5" x 0.5" x 1/8"). The most common specimen
thickness is 3.2 mm (0.125"), but the width can vary between 3.0 and 12.7 mm (0.118" and
0.500").

Impact is applied to a test piece put on an anvil by a hammer brought up to a specified level and
the absorbed energy required for the fracturing is read from the conversion table.

Energy absorbed by the specimen

Impact strength of the specimen=
Area of the specimen

Table 4.2: Izod impact energy table

IZOD IMPACT ENERGY TABLE

Pendulum lifting angle (0) --------Capacity absorbed (kg-f-cm)

0 150.796 32 138.516 64 105.410 96 61.537 128 20.232

1 150.783 33 137.758 65 104.137 97 60.136 129 19.128
2 150.746 34 136.980 66 102.853 98 58.738 130 18.040

80
 3 150.685 35 136.181 67 101.560 99 57.343 131 16.968
4 150.599 36 135.362 68 100.257 100 55.952 132 15.911
5 150.488 37 134.523 69 98.945 101 54.565 133 14.871
6 150.353 38 133.665 70 97.624 102 53.183 134 13.848
7 150.193 39 132.787 71 96.294 103 51.806 135 12.842
8 150.009 40 131.889 72 94.956 104 50.435 136 11.854
9 149.801 41 130.973 73 93.611 105 49.069 137 10.883
10 149.568 42 130.039 74 92.259 106 47.710 138 9.930
11 149.311 43 129.086 75 90.900 107 46.358 139 8.996
12 149.030 44 128.115 76 89.534 108 45.012 140 8.080
13 148.724 45 127.127 77 88.163 109 43.675 141 7.182
14 148.395 46 126.121 78 86.786 110 42.347 142 6.304
15 148.042 47 125.098 79 85.404 111 41.024 143 5.446
16 147.665 48 124.058 80 84.017 112 39.712 144 4.607
17 147.265 49 123.001 81 82.626 113 38.409 145 3.788
18 146.840 50 121.929 82 81.231 114 39.116 146 2.989
19 146.393 51 120.841 83 79.833 115 35.832 147 2.211
20 145.922 52 119.737 84 78.432 116 34.559 148 1.453
21 145.428 53 118.618 85 77.028 117 33.297 149 0.716
22 144.911 54 117.484 86 75.622 118 32.046 150 0.000
23 144.372 55 116.336 87 74.214 119 30.806
24 143.809 56 115.773 88 72.805 120 29.579
25 143.224 57 113.997 89 71.395 121 28.364
26 142.617 58 112.808 90 69.984 122 27.161
27 141.988 59 111.605 91 68.574 123 25.972
28 141.336 60 110.390 92 67.164 124 24.795
29 140.663 61 109.162 93 65.755 125 23.633
30 139.969 62 107.923 94 64.347 126 22.485
31 139.253 63 106.672 95 62.941 127 21.351

Energy absorbed by the specimen is obtained from the above conversion table:

Example:
If the indicator 1430 in the circular scale of the machine then corresponding impact energy
absorbed= 5.446 Kgfcm=(5.446×9.8)/100 J=0.534 J

Area of the specimen, A= Width of the specimen × Thickness of the specimen

=12.7 × 3.2 mm2= 0.00004064 m2

81
 0.534 J -2 2
Impact strength = 2 = 13139.76 Jm =13.14 KJ/m
0.00004064 m

4.4.4 WATER UPTAKE MEASUREMENT

Water up take of the composites was measured according to ASTM standard [42]. The test
specimen was cut in a dimension of 10.4 cm X 0.9-1.0 cm. The cut samples were kept in an oven
at 800 C for 24 hr. Those were then taken out from the oven and immediately weighed. Let this
weight be Wi. Then the specimens were immersed in a static water bath at 25 0 for time interval of
a 5 hr (up to 25 hr). After certain period of time the specimens were taken out from the bath and
wiped by tissue paper and weighed. Let this weight be W f. Water up take was determined by
subtracting the initial weight from the final one according to the following formula:

W f −W i
Water uptake (%) = ………………………………………………………….(4.9)
Wi

4.5 METHOD OF DEGRADATION PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT

4.5.1 DEGRADATION IN SOIL

For the determination of soil degradation the composites were buried under 12 inch soil for 74
days. The composites were withdrawn from the soil and washed in normal water. The excess
water from the surface was removed by tissue paper. Then the composites were tested by tensile
strength measurement. The soil degradation of the composites was determined by the loss of
tensile strength (%).

4.5.2 DEGRADATION IN GAMMA RADIATION

The composites were irradiated in gamma radiation with the doses of 1 kGy, 3 kGy and 7 kGy at
a dose rate of 6.89 kGy per hour. Then the degradation in gamma radiation was determined by
testing the tensile strength of the composites after irradiation.

82
CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Mechanical properties such as tensile strength (TS), percentage of elongation-at-break (EB%),

Young’s modulus (E), flexural strength (FS), bending modulus (BM), Bending stress at 3.5%

83
extension (BS) and impact strength (IS) of the composites have been measured. Results and
discussion of mechanical properties are presented below:

5.1.1 TENSILE PROPERTIES

5.1.1.1 TENSILE STRENGTH (WARP WAY)

Warp way TS of the composites are shown in table.5.1 and fig.5.1 which indicate the change of
TS as function of weave structure of reinforcing jute fabric.

Table 5.1: Warp way tensile strength of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to
weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the Tensile strength of

No. reinforcing jute fabrics the composites (MPa)
1. Twill 39
2. Zig-zag twill 33
3. Diamond 29
4. Plain 32
5. 2×2 Matt 25
6. 4×4 Matt 23

84
 45

40

Tensile Strength(MPa) 35

30

25

20
Tensile strength
15

10

0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twill

Weave structure

Fig.5.1: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the tensile strength of the
composites (warp way)

The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have great
influence on the warp way tensile strength (TS) of the composites. Composite prepared from the
twill fabric shows maximum TS value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics. This could be due to more compactness and more cover factor of the twill
structure. TS decreases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. Composites
prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics show intermediate and lowest TS values
respectively. TS values also decrease gradually in case of plain and its derivatives. Composite
prepared from the plain fabric shows maximum TS value among those prepared from plain and
its derivatives due to its structural rigidity and more cover factor. Composites prepared from 2×2
matt and 4×4 mat fabrics show intermediate and lowest TS values respectively.

5.1.1.2 TENSILE STRENGTH (WEFT WAY)

Weft way TS of the composites are shown in table.5.2 and fig.5.2 which indicate the change of
TS as function of weave structure of reinforcing jute fabrics.

85
Table 5.2: Weft way tensile strength of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to
weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the reinforcing Tensile strength of

No. jute fabrics the composite (MPa)
1. Twill 42
2. Zig-zag twill 35
3. Diamond 32
4. Plain 35
5. 2×2 Matt 38
6. 4×4 Matt 43

50
45
Tensile strength (MPa)

40
35
30
25
20
Tensile strength
15
10
5
0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil

Weave structure

Fig.5.2: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the tensile strength of the
composites (weft way)

The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics affect the weft way
tensile strength (TS) of the composites. Composite prepared from the twill fabric shows
maximum TS value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. This
could be due to more compactness and more cover factor of the twill structure. TS decreases
gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag
twill and diamond fabrics show intermediate and lowest TS values respectively. TS increases in

86
case of composites prepared from plain and its derivatives as the no. of ends per inch increases.
Composite prepared from the 4×4 matt fabric shows maximum TS value among those prepared
from plain and its derivatives. Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and plain fabrics show
intermediate and lowest TS values respectively.

50
45
40
Tensile strength TS (MPa)

35
30
25
weft way TS
20
Warp way TS
15
10
5
0
Twill Zig-Zag Twil Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt

Weave structure

Fig.5.3: Comparison of warp and weft way tensile strength of jute fabric reinforced polyester
composites.

The above figure indicates that weft way TS values of the composites for all weave structures of
the reinforcing fabric are higher than those of warp way. As the PPIs (no. of picks per inch) are
higher than EPIs (no. of ends per inch) so the weft way TS are higher than the warp way TS for
all weave structures.

5.1.1.3 YOUNG’S MODULUS (WARP WAY)

Warp way Young’s modulus (E) of the composites are shown in table.5.3 and fig.5.4 which
indicate the change of E as function of weave structure of reinforcing jute fabric.

87
Table 5.3: Warp way Young’s modulus of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according
to weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the reinforcing Young’s modulus (MPa)

No. jute fabrics
1. Twill 887
2. Zig-zag twill 868
3. Diamond 862
4. Plain 1108
5. 2×2 Matt 889
6. 4×4 Matt 823

1200

1000
Young's Modulus (MPa)

800

600
Young's modulus
400

200

0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil

Weave structure

Fig.5.4: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the Young’s modulus of the
composites (warp way)

The above figure shows that the weave structures of the reinforcing jute fabrics have noticeable
influence on the warp way E values of the composites. There is a relationship between warp way
tensile strength and warp way E value. Composite having a higher tensile strength has a higher E
value also. Composite prepared from the twill fabric shows maximum E value among those
88
prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. It could be due to the structural
rigidity of the twill fabrics which results in less strain for higher stress on the composites. The
value of E decreases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. Composites
prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics show intermediate and lowest E values
respectively. The value of E also decreased in case of plain and its derivatives. Composite
prepared from the plain fabric shows maximum E value among those prepared from plain and its
derivatives due to its structural rigidity and more cover factor. Composites prepared from 2×2
matt and 4×4 mat fabrics show intermediate and lowest E values respectively.

5.1.1.4 YOUNG’S MODULUS (WEFT WAY)

Weft way Young’s modulus (E) of the composites are shown in table.5.4 and fig.5.5 which
indicate the change of E as function of weave structure of reinforcing jute fabric.

Table 5.4: Weft way Young’s modulus of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according
to weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the Young’s modulus (MPa)

No. reinforcing jute fabrics
1. Twill 1170
2. Zig-zag twill 1029
3. Diamond 948
4. Plain 1206
5. 2×2 Matt 1320
6. 4×4 Matt 1548

89
 Young's mudulus, EM (MPa)
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
Young's mudulus
200
0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil

Weave Structure

Fig.5.5: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the Young’s modulus of the
composites (weft way)

The above figure designates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have mark able
influence on the weft way Young’s modulus, E values of the composites. Composite prepared
from the twill fabric shows maximum E value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill
and diamond fabrics. It could be due to the structural rigidity of the twill fabrics which results in
less strain for higher stress on the composites. The value of E decreases gradually in case of
twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond
fabrics show intermediate and lowest E values respectively. The value of E increases in case of
composites prepared from plain and its derivatives as the no. of ends per inch increases.
Composite prepared from the 4×4 matt fabric shows maximum E value among those prepared
from plain and its derivatives. Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and plain fabrics show
intermediate and lowest E values respectively.

90
 1800

1600

1400
Young's modulus,E(MPa)

1200

1000

800 Warp way E

weft way E
600

400

200

0
Twill Zig-Zag Twil Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Weave structure

Fig.5.6: Comparison of warp and weft way Young’s modulus of jute fabric reinforced polyester
composites

The above figure indicates that weft way E values of the composites for all weave structures of
the reinforcing fabric are higher than those of warp way. As the PPIs (No. of Picks per inch) are
higher than EPIs (No. of Ends per inch) so the weft way E are higher than the warp way E for all
weave structures.

5.1.1.5 ELONGATION-AT-BREAK (EB %) (WARP WAY)

Warp way EB% of the composites are shown in table.5.5 and fig.5.6 which indicate the change
of EB% as function of weave structure of reinforcing jute fabric.

91
Table 5.5: Warp way EB% of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to weave
structure.

Serial Weave structure of the Elongation at Break (%)

No. reinforcing jute fabrics
1. Twill 7.42
2. Zig-zag twill 8.66
3. Diamond 9.15
4. Plain 6.30
5. 2×2 Matt 6.44
6. 4×4 Matt 8.16

10
9
8
Elongation at break (%)

7
6
5
4
EB (%)
3
2
1
0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil
Weave structure

Fig.5.7: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the elongation at break (%) of
the composites (warp way)

The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have great
influence on the warp way elongation-at-break (EB %) of the composites. Composite prepared
from the diamond fabric shows maximum EB% value among those prepared from the twill, zig-
zag twill and diamond fabrics. It might be due to comparatively unfastened weave structure of
the diamond fabric. EB% increases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics.

92
Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and twill fabrics show intermediate and lowest EB%
values respectively. EB% also increases in case of plain and its derivatives. Composite prepared
from the 4×4 matt fabric shows maximum EB% value among those prepared from plain and its
derivatives due to less structural rigidity. Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and plain fabrics
show intermediate and lowest EB% values respectively.

5.1.1.6 ELONGATION-AT-BREAK (EB %) (WEFT WAY)

Weft way EB% of the composites are shown in table.5.6 and fig.5.7 which indicate the change of
EB% as function of weave structure of reinforcing jute fabric.

Table 5.6: Weft way EB% of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to weave
structure.

Serial No. Weave structure of the Elongation at Break (%)

reinforcing jute fabrics
1. Twill 8.45
2. Zig-zag twill 8.66
3. Diamond 8.78
4. Plain 9.92
5. 2×2 Matt 8.13
6. 4×4 Matt 6.51

93
 12

10
Elongation at break (%)
8

4 EB (%)

0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil
Weave Structure

Fig.5.8: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the elongation at break (%) of
the composites (weft way)

The figure shows the relationship between the weave structure of the reinforcing fabric and weft
way EB (%) of the composite. The elongation-at- break is inversely proportional to the E value.
As the higher E value indicates the more stiffness of the composite so the composites having
higher E value will elongate less before break. In case of twill and its derivatives the
compactness of the weave structure is reduced gradually so the weft way EB (%) increases
gradually. But reverse effect is observed in case of plain and its derivatives.

94
5.1.2 FLEXURAL PROPERTIES

5.1.2.1 FLEXURAL STRENGTH (WARP WAY)

Table 5.7: Warp way flexural strength of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to
weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the Flexural strength, FS of

No. reinforcing jute fabrics the composites (MPa)
1. Twill 67
2. Zig-zag twill 56
3. Diamond 41
4. Plain 52
5. 2×2 Matt 44
6. 4×4 Matt 42

80

70
Flexural strength,FS (MPa)

60

50

40

30 FS

20

10

0
Twill Zig-Zag Twil Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt

Weave structure

95
Fig.5.9: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the flexural strength of the
composites (warp way)

The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have great
influence on the warp way flexural strength (FS) of the composites. Composite prepared from
the twill fabric shows maximum FS value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics. As the twill structure is more rigid than its two derivatives so the composites
from the twill fabric will not bend easily. FS value decreases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag
twill and diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics show
intermediate and lowest FS values respectively. FS values also decreased in case of plain and its
derivatives. Composite prepared from the plain fabric shows maximum FS value among those
prepared from plain and its derivatives due to its structural compactness and more cover factor.
Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and 4×4 mat fabrics show intermediate and lowest FS
values respectively.

5.1.2.2 FLEXURAL STRENGTH (WEFT WAY)

Table.5.8: Weft way flexural strength of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to
weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the Flexural strength,FS of

No. reinforcing jute fabrics the composites (MPa)
1. Twill 69
2. Zig-zag twill 66
3. Diamond 45
4. Plain 55
5. 2×2 Matt 64
6. 4×4 Matt 73

96
 80

70
Flexural strength,FS (MPa)
60

50

40

30 FS

20

10

0
Twill Zig-Zag Twil Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt

Weave structure

Fig.5.10: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the flexural strength of the
composites (weft way)

The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have significant
influence on the weft way flexural strength (FS) of the composites. Composite prepared from the
twill fabric shows maximum FS value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics. As the twill structure is more rigid than its two derivatives so the composites
from the twill fabric will not bend easily. FS value decreases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag
twill and diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics show
intermediate and lowest FS values respectively. FS value increases gradually in case of
composites prepared from plain and its derivatives as the no. of ends per inch increases.
Composite prepared from the 4×4 matt fabric shows maximum FS value among those prepared
from plain and its derivatives. Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and plain fabrics show
intermediate and lowest FS values respectively.

97
5.1.2.3 BENDING MODULUS, BM (WARP WAY)

Table 5.9: Warp way bending modulus of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according
to weave structure.

Serial No. Weave structure of the Bending modulus (MPa)

reinforcing jute fabrics
1. Twill 2470
2. Zig-zag twill 2237
3. Diamond 1505
4. Plain 1902
5. 2×2 Matt 1892
6. 4×4 Matt 1762

3000

2500
Bending modulus,BM (MPa)

2000

1500
BM
1000

500

0
Twill Zig-Zag Twil Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt

Weave structure

Fig.5.11: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the bending modulus of the
composites (warp way)

98
The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have noticeable
influence on the warp way bending modulus (BM) of the composites. Composite prepared from
the twill fabric shows maximum BM value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill
and diamond fabrics. It could be due to the structural rigidity of the twill fabrics which results in
less flexural strain for higher flexural stress on the composites. BM value decreases gradually in
case of twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics show intermediate and lowest BM values respectively. BM value also decreases
in case of plain and its derivatives. Composite prepared from the plain fabric shows maximum
BM value among those prepared from plain and its derivatives due to more flexural rigidity.
Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and 4×4 mat fabrics show intermediate and lowest BM
values respectively.

5.1.2.4 BENDING MODULUS, BM (WEFT WAY)

Table 5.10: Weft way bending modulus of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according
to weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the Bending modulus (MPa)

No. reinforcing jute fabrics
1. Twill 2287
2. Zig-zag twill 2285
3. Diamond 1491
4. Plain 2167
5. 2×2 Matt 2298
6. 4×4 Matt 3417

99
 4000

Bending Modulus,BM (MPa)

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500 BM
1000
500
0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil
Weave structure

Fig.5.12: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the bending modulus of the
composites (weft way)

The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have great
influence on the weft way bending modulus (BM) of the composites. Composite prepared from
the twill fabric shows maximum BM value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill
and diamond fabrics. It could be due to the structural rigidity of the twill fabrics which results in
less flexural strain for higher flexural stress on the composites. BM value decreases gradually in
case of twill, zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics show intermediate and lowest BM values respectively. BM value increases in
case of composites prepared from plain and its derivatives as the no. of ends per inch increases.
Composite prepared from the 4×4 matt fabric shows maximum BM value among those prepared
from plain and its derivatives. Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and plain fabrics show
intermediate and lowest BM values respectively.

100
5.1.2.5 BENDING STRESS AT 3.5% EXTENSION (WARP WAY)

Table 5.11: Warp way bending stress at 3.5% extension of jute fabric reinforced polyester
composites according to weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the Bending stress at 3.5% extension

No. reinforcing jute fabrics (MPa)
1. Twill 57
2. Zig-zag twill 48
3. Diamond 34
4. Plain 48
5. 2×2 Matt 41
6. 4×4 Matt 36

60

50
Bending stress at 3.5% extension

40

30
(MPa)

BS at 3.5% extension
20

10

0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil

Weave structure

Fig.5.13: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the bending stress at 3.5%
extension of the composites (warp way)

101
The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have significant
influence on the warp way bending stress at 3.5% extension (BS) of the composites. Composite
prepared from the twill fabric shows maximum BS value among those prepared from the twill,
zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. BS value decreases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill
and diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics show
intermediate and lowest BS values respectively. BS value also decreases in case of plain and its
derivatives. Composite prepared from the plain fabric shows maximum BS value among those
prepared from plain and its derivatives. Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and 4×4 mat fabrics
show intermediate and lowest BS values respectively.

5.1.2.5 BENDING STRESS AT 3.5% EXTENSION (WEFT WAY)

Table 5.12: Weft way bending stress at 3.5% extension of jute fabric reinforced polyester
composites according to weave structure.

Serial Weave structure of the Bending stress at 3.5% extension

No. reinforcing jute fabrics (MPa)
1. Twill 59
2. Zig-zag twill 58
3. Diamond 35
4. Plain 48
5. 2×2 Matt 52
6. 4×4 Matt 65

102
 70

60
Bending stress at 3.5% extension
50

40
(MPa)

30
BS at 3.5% extension
20

10

0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil

Weave structure

Fig.5.14: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the bending stress at 3.5%
extension of the composites (weft way)

The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have immense
influence on the weft way bending stress at 3.5 % extension (BS) of the composites. Composite
prepared from the twill fabric shows maximum BS value among those prepared from the twill,
zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics. BS value decreases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill
and diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics show
intermediate and lowest BS values respectively. BS value increases in case of composites
prepared from plain and its derivatives as the no. of ends per inch increases. Composite prepared
from the 4×4 matt fabric shows maximum BS value among those prepared from plain and its
derivatives. Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and plain fabrics show intermediate and lowest
BS values respectively.

103
 70

60
Bending stress at 3.5% extension(MPa)
50

40

30
Warp way BS at 3.5% extension
Weft way BS at 3.5% extension
20

10

0
Twill Zig-Zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt
Twil

Weave structure

Fig.5.15: Comparison of warp and weft way bending stress at 3.5% extension of jute fabric
reinforced polyester composites

The above figure indicates that weft way BS at 3.5% elongation values of the composites for all
weave structures of the reinforcing fabric are higher than those of warp way. As the PPIs are
higher than EPIs so the weft way BS at 3.5 % extension values are higher than the warp way BS
at 3.5% elongation values for all weave structures.

104
5.1.3 IMPACT STRENGTH

5.1.3.1 WARP WAY IMPACT STRENGTH

Table 5.13: Warp way impact energy of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to
fabric structure.

Serial No. Weave structure of the Impact energy (KJ/m2)

reinforcing jute fabrics
1. Twill 14.39
2. Zig-zag twill 12.30
3. Diamond 10.83
4. Plain 8.74
5. 2×2 Matt 7.89
6. 4×4 Matt 7.20

16

14
Impact strength,IS (KJ/m2 )

12

10

6 IS

0
Twill Zig-Zag Twil Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt

Weave structure

Fig.5.16: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the impact strength (IS) of
the composite (warp way)

105
The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have profound
influence on the warp way impact strength (IS) of the composites. Composite prepared from the
twill fabric shows maximum IS value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics. This might be due to the higher capability of twill weave to absorb more
energy before plastic deformation. IS value decreases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics show intermediate
and lowest IS values respectively. IS value also decreases in case of plain and its derivatives.
Composite prepared from the plain fabric shows maximum IS value among those prepared from
plain and its derivatives. It might be due to the higher impact energy absorption capacity of the
plain structure. Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and 4×4 mat fabrics show intermediate and
lowest IS values respectively.

5.1.3.2 WEFT WAY IMPACT STRENGTH

Table 5.14: Weft way impact energy of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to
weave structure.

Serial No. Weave structure of the Impact energy (KJ/m2)

reinforcing jute fabrics
1. Twill 16.80
2. Zig-zag twill 15.53
3. Diamond 10.85
4. Plain 14.05
5. 2×2 Matt 14.43
6. 4×4 Matt 16.16

106
 18

16

Impact strength,IS (Kj/m2 ) 14

12

10

8
IS
6

0
Twill Zig-Zag Twil Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt

Weave structure

Fig.5.17: Effect of weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric on the impact strength (IS) of
the composites (weft way)

The above figure indicates that the weave structures of the reinforcing fabrics have profound
influence on the weft way impact strength (IS) of the composites. Composite prepared from the
twill fabric shows maximum IS value among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics. This might be due to the higher capability of twill weave to absorb more energy
before plastic deformation. IS value decreases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill and
diamond fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and diamond fabrics show intermediate
and lowest IS values respectively. IS value increases in case of composites prepared from plain
and its derivatives as the no. of ends per inch increases. Composite prepared from the 4×4 matt
fabric shows the maximum IS value among those prepared from plain and its derivatives.
Composites prepared from 2×2 matt and plain fabrics show intermediate and lowest IS values
respectively.

107
 18

16

Impact strength IS (Kj/m2 ) 14

12

10

8 warp way IS
weft way IS
6

0
Twill Zig-Zag Twil Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt

Weave structure

Fig.5.18: Comparison of warp and weft way impact strength of jute fabric reinforced polyester
composite

The above figure indicates that weft way IS values of the composites for all weave structures of
the reinforcing fabric are higher than those of warp way. As the PPIs (no. of Picks per inch) are
higher than EPIs (no. of Ends per inch) so the weft way IS values are higher than the warp way
IS values for all weave structures.

108
5.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

5.2.1 WATER UP TAKE (%) MEASUREMENT

Table 5.15: Water up take (%) of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites according to weave
structure.

Weave Water up take (%) after

Structures 5 hr 10 hr 15 hr 20 hr 25 hr 30 hr 35 hr 40 hr
Twill 1.01 1.34 1.73 1.87 2.32 2.62 2.96 3.10
Zig-zag 1.95 2.97 3.87 4.25 4.96 5.57 6.28 6.56
Diamond 1.14 1.68 2.25 2.43 2.94 3.38 3.83 4.03
Plain 1.39 1.87 2.43 2.69 3.24 3.59 4.00 4.28
2×2 Matt 1.67 2.50 3.19 3.45 4.08 4.53 5.08 5.25
4×4 Matt 1.74 2.62 3.18 3.38 4.21 4.71 5.31 5.50

6
Water up take (%)

5
Twill
4
Zig-zag
3 Diamond
Plain
2 2X2 Matt
4X4 Matt
1

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Time (hr)

Fig.5.19: Comparison of water uptake (%) of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites
according weave structure

109
The figure shows that water up take (%) of the composites increases with the increase of the
immersion time in water. But the rate of increase in water up take (%) is not same for all the
composites. It varies significantly with the weave structure variations of the reinforcing jute
fabric. The composite prepared from the zig-zag fabric shows the highest water up take (%) and
the composite prepared from the twill shows the minimum water up take (%) due to structural
rigidity. Water up take (%) curve of the composites from the 2×2 Matt and 4×4 Matt is very
close to each other. On the other hand the composites from the plain and diamond absorb water
in almost similar manner but the water up take (%) of the composite from the plain is slightly
higher than that of the composite from diamond.

5.3 DEGRADATION PROPERTIES

5.3.1 DEGRADATION IN SOIL

Table 5.16: Loss of tensile strength (%) due to degradation in soil of jute fabric reinforced
polyester composites according to weave structure.

Weave structures Tensile strength before Tensile strength after Loss of tensile
degradation (MPa) degradation (MPa) strength (%)
Twill 39 27.51 29.46
Zig-zag 33 23.04 30.18
Diamond 29 19.98 31.10
Plain 32 22.91 28.41
2×2 Matt 25 17.65 29.40
4×4 Matt 23 16 30.43

110
 31.5

31

30.5
Tensile strength loss (%)

30

29.5

29
Tensile strength loss (%)
28.5

28

27.5

27
Twill Zig-zag Diamond Plain 2X2 Matt 4X4 Matt

Weave structure

Fig.5.20: Effect of weave structure on the soil degradation properties of the jute fabric reinforced
polyester composites

The above figure indicates that the weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric has very little
effect on the soil degradation properties of composites. Composite prepared from the twill fabric
shows maximum resistivity to soil degradation among those prepared from the twill, zig-zag
twill and diamond fabrics. It could be due to the structural rigidity of the twill fabric in the
composite. Soil degradability increases gradually in case of twill, zig-zag twill and diamond
fabrics. Composites prepared from zig-zag twill and Diamond fabrics show intermediate and
highest soil degradability respectively. Soil degradability also increases in case of plain and its
derivatives. Composite prepared from the plain fabric shows maximum resistivity to soil
degradation among those prepared from plain and its derivatives. Composites prepared from 2×2
matt and 4×4 mat fabrics show intermediate and highest soil degradability respectively.

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5.3.1 DEGRADATION IN GAMMA RADIATION

Table 5.17: Loss of tensile strength due to degradation in gamma radiation of jute fabric
reinforced polyester composites according to weave structure.

Weave Tensile strength Tensile strength after radiation (MPa)

structure before radiation (MPa) 1 kGy 3 kGy 7 kGy
Twill 39 32.37 27.58 27.19
Zig-zag 33 22.12 19.74 17.14
Diamond 29 20.53 17.30 15.65
Plain 32 26.81 24.67 22.13
2×2 Matt 25 19.15 18.40 17.43
4×4 Matt 23 17.22 16.03 15.37

45

40

35
Tensile strength (MPa)

30

25 Twill
Zig-zag
20 Diamond
Plain
15
2X2 Matt
10 4X4 Matt

0
Before radiation 1 KGrey 3 Kgrey 7 Kgrey

Gamma ray dose (KGrey)

Fig.5.21: Effect of gamma radiation of tensile strength of the jute fabric reinforced polyester
composites (warp way)

112
The above figure indicates that gamma radiation plays a vital role in degradation properties of
the jute fabric reinforced polyester composites. The tensile strength of the composites decreases
gradually with the increase of gamma ray dose rate.

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 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS

6.1 CONCLUSIONS

Polyester-jute composites were prepared using unsaturated polyester resin and woven jute fabric.
Various mechanical properties and water up take (%) of the composites were measured
according to ASTM standards. Degradation properties of the composites were evaluated in soil
and gamma ray exposure. On the basis on the results obtained from this investigation it is
observed that the weave structures of the reinforcing jute fabric have significant influence on the
properties of the resultant composites. Finally the following conclusion may be drawn from the
results obtained from this thesis.

The warp way mechanical properties of composites prepared from Twill, Zig-zag twill,
Diamond, Plain, 2×2 Matt and 4×4 Matt shown TS of 39, 33, 29, 32, 25 and 23 MPa, E of 887,
868, 862, 1108, 889 and 823 MPa, FS of 67, 56, 41, 52, 44 and 42 MPa, BM of 2470, 2237,
1505, 1902, 1892 and 1762 MPa, BS of 57, 48, 34, 48, 41 and 36 MPa EB of 7.42%, 8.66%,
9.15%, 6.30%, 6.44% and 8.16% and IS of 14.39, 12.30, 10.83, 8.74, 7.89, and 7.20 KJ/m 2
respectively.

The weft way mechanical properties of composites prepared from Twill, Zig-zag twill, Diamond,
Plain, 2×2 Matt and 4×4 Matt shown TS of 42, 35, 32, 35, 38 and 43 MPa, E of 1170, 1029,
948, 1206, 1320 and 1548 MPa, FS of 69, 66, 45, 55, 64 and 73 MPa, BM of 2287, 2285, 1491,
2167, 2298 and 3417 MPa, BS of 59, 58, 35, 48, 52 and 65 MPa EB of 8.45%, 8.66%, 8.78%,
9.92%, 8.13% and 6.51% and IS of 16.80, 15.53, 10.85, 14.05, 14.43 and 16.16 KJ/m2
respectively.

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Water up take (%) of the composites increases with the increase of the immersion time in water.
But the rate of increase in water up take (%) is not same for all the composites. It varies
significantly with the weave structure variations of the reinforcing jute fabric. The composite
prepared from the zig-zag fabric shows the highest water up take (%) and the composite from the
twill shows the minimum water up take (%).

Weave structure of the reinforcing jute fabric has very little effect on the soil degradation
properties of composites. Gamma radiation plays an adverse effect on the warp way tensile
strength of the jute fabric reinforced polyester composites. The tensile strength of the composites
decreases gradually with the increase of gamma ray dose rate.

6.2 SUGGESTION FOR FUTURE WORK

This work has been carried out with plain and twill and only two derivatives of each. The fabrics
were manufactured in local hand loom so the number of EPI and PPI of the fabrics could not be
maintained strictly. So in future many other fabrics having different complex weave structures
can be manufactured in modern loom for composite preparation and their effect on the properties
of composites can be studied. The effect of weave structure on water uptake and some
mechanical properties of the composites were studied in this work. Electrical and thermal
properties can be studied in future work. Only polyester resin and jute fabric were used in
composite preparation in this study so other fibres and resin can be used for further study.

115
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