Circuit Diagram:

PN-Junction Diode:
Forward Bias:

Reverse Bias:

Symbol:

1
Expt. No.: Date:
Characteristics of PN-Junction Diode
Aim:
To plot the forward and reverse bias characteristics of a PN diode and to
calculate cut-in voltage, forward resistance and reverse resistance.
Apparatus Required:

S. No Item Range Qty

1. Diode 1N4007 1

2. Resistor 1KΩ 1

3. Voltmeter DC (0-1V) 1
DC (0-30mA) 1
4. Ammeter
DC (0-500µA) 1

5. RPS DC (0-30)V 1

Theory:
A diode is a PN junction formed by a layer of a P type and layer of N type
semiconductors. Once formed the free electrons in the N region diffuse across the
junction and combine with holes in P region and so a depletion Layer is developed.
The depletion layer consists of ions, which acts like a barrier for diffuse of charged
beyond a certain limit. The difference of potential across the depletion layer is called
the barrier potential. At 2.5 degree the barrier potential approximately equal to 0.7v for
Silicon diode and 0.3V for Germanium diode. When the junction is forward biased, the
majority carrier acquired sufficient energy to overcome the barrier and the diode
conducts. When the junction is Reverse Biased the depletion layer widens and the
barrier potential increases. Hence the majority carrier cannot cross the junction and the
diode does not conduct. But there will be a leakage current due to minority carrier.

2
Model Graph:

PN Diode V-I Characteristics Curve

Tabular Column:
Forward Bias:

S. No. Forward Voltage (Vf) Forward Current (If)

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

3
 10

Procedure:
Forward Bias:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The positive terminal of power supply is connected to anode of the
diode and negative terminal to cathode of the diode.
3. Forward voltage Vf across the diode is increased in small steps and the
forward current is noted.
4. The readings are tabulated and the graph is drawn for Vf versus If.
5. The forward resistance is found from the graph using the formula
rf = ΔVf/ ΔIf. Ω

Reverse Bias:
1. The connection as made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For reverse bias the positive terminal of the power supply is connected
to cathode and negative terminal to anode of the diode.
3. The power supply is switched ON, the reverse bias voltage V f is
increased in steps and reverse current Ir is noted in each steps.
4. The readings are tabulated and the graph is drawn for Vr Versus Ir .
5. The reverse characteristics are approximately a straight line, inverse of
the slope give the reverse resistance.

6. The reverse resistance is found from the graph using the formula
rr = ΔVr/ ΔIr. Ω

4
Reverse Bias:

S. No. Reverse Voltage (Vr) Reverse Current (Ir)

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

5
Result:

Thus the characteristic of PN-Junction diode was drawn and the following

parameters are calculated.

Forward resistance : Ω

Reverse resistance : Ω

6
 Cut-in Voltage : V

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is doping?
Doping means adding impurities to the semiconductor to improve its
electrical conductivity. When we add large amount of impurities to the
semiconductor, it will produces large number of free electrons in the n-type
semiconductor and large number of holes in the p-type semiconductor.

2. What is N-type semiconductor?

In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes
are the minority carriers. N-type semiconductors are created by doping an
intrinsicsemiconductor with donor impurities (or doping a p-type
semiconductor as done in the making of CMOS chips). A common dopant
for n-type silicon is phosphorus.

3. What is P-type semiconductor?

P-Type Semiconductor. The addition of trivalent impurities such as
boron, aluminum or gallium to an intrinsic semiconductorcreates deficiencies
of valence electrons,called "holes"

4. What is Diffusion?
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of
high concentration (or high chemical potential) to a region of low concentration
(or low chemical potential). This is also referred to as the movement of a
substance down a concentration gradient.

5. What is Depletion region?

Depletion region or depletion layer is a region in a P-N junction diode
where no mobile charge carriers are present. Depletion layer acts like a barrier
that opposes the flow of electrons from n-side and holes from p-side.

6. What is meant by barrier potential?

The voltage across the depletion layer. This voltage is built into the pit
junction because it is the difference of potential between the ions on both sides
of the junction. It equals approximately 0.7 V for a silicon diode.
7. Explain how PN junction is formed?
P-n junctions are formed by joining n-type and p-type semiconductor
materials, as shown below. Since the n-type region has a high electron
concentration and the p-type a high hole concentration, electrons diffuse from
the n-type side to the p-type side.

8. What is forward bias and reverse bias?

When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type
material and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type
material, such a connection is called forward bias.

7
 When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-type material
and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to p-type material, such a
connection is called reverse bias.
9. What are the applications of Diode?
 Rectifying a voltage, such as turning AC into DC voltages
 Isolating signals from a supply
 Voltage Reference
 Controlling the size of a signal
 Mixing signals
 Detection signals
 Lighting
 Lasers diodes

10. What is Avalanche breakdown?

Avalanche breakdown is a phenomenon that can occur in both
insulating and semiconducting materials. It is a form of electric current
multiplication that can allow very large currents within materials which are
otherwise good insulators

11. What is Zener breakdown?

It occurs in a reverse biased p-n diode when the electric field enables
tunneling of electrons from the valence to the conduction band of a
semiconductor, leading to a large number of free minority carriers which
suddenly increase the reverse current.

8
Circuit Diagram:
Zener Diode:
Forward Bias:

Reverse Bias:

Symbol:

9
10
Expt. No.: DATE:
Characteristics of Zener Diode
Aim:
To plot the VI Characteristics of a Zener diode and to determine the zener
breakdown voltage and Zener break down current
Apparatus Required:

S. No Item Range Qty

1. Zener Diode Z 6.8 V 1

2. Resistor 1KΩ 1

DC (0-10V) 1
3. Voltmeter
DC (0-1V) 1

4. Ammeter DC (0-50mA) 1

5. RPS (0-30)V 1

Theory:
Zener doide is a special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to
compensate for the damage that occurs in the case of a PN junction diode when the
reverse bias exceeds the breakdown voltage and thereby current increases at a rapid
rate.
Applying a positive potential to the anode and a negative potential to the
cathode of the zener diode establishes a forward bias condition. The forward
characteristic of the zener diode is same as that of a pn junction diode i.e. as the
applied potential increases. The current increases exponentially. Applying a negative
potential to the anode and positive potential to the cathode reverse biases the zener
diode. As the reverse bias increases the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite
to that of the positive voltage region. Thus under reverse bias condition breakdown
occurs.

11
Modal Graph

Zener Diode V-I Characteristics Curve

Tabulation:
Forward Bias:

S. No. Forward Voltage (Vf) Forward Current (If)

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

12
 10

Procedure:
Forward Bias:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram for forward bias.
2. The positive terminal of power supply is connected to anode of the
diode and negative terminal to cathode of the diode.
3. Forward voltage Vf across the diode is increased in small steps and the
forward current is noted.
4. The reading is tabulated.
5. A graphs is drawn between Vf and If.
Reverse Bias:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram for reverse bias
2. The positive terminal of the power supply is connected to cathode and
negative terminal to anode of the diode.
3. The power supply is switched ON
4. The reverse bias voltage Vr is increased in steps and reverse current I r is
noted in each steps.
5. The readings are tabulated.
6. A graph is drawn between Vr and Ir. The reverse characteristics is
approximately as straight line, inverse of the slope give the reverse
resistance

13
Reverse Bias:

S. No. Forward Voltage (Vr) Forward Current (Ir)

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

14
Result:

Thus the characteristics of Zener diode were drawn and the following

parameters are determined.

Zener Breakdown Voltage: V

Zener Breakdown Current: mA

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is Zener Diode?

Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally
operated in reverse biased condition. But ordinary PN junction diode connected
in reverse biased condition is not used as Zener diode practically. A Zener
diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN junction diode.

2. What is Avalanche breakdown?

Avalanche breakdown is a phenomenon that can occur in both insulating and
semiconducting materials. It is a form of electric current multiplication that can
allow very large currents within materials which are otherwise good insulators

3. What is Zener breakdown?

It occurs in a reverse biased p-n diode when the electric field enables tunneling
of electrons from the valence to the conduction band of a semiconductor,
leading to a large number of free minority carriers which suddenly increase the
reverse current.

4. Explain how Zener diode can be used as voltage regulator?

The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load
connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the
variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to regulate
the voltage until the diodescurrent falls below the minimum IZ(min) value

5. Explain the working of zener diode under forward and reverse bias?
Notice the change of voltage scale between the forward biased (positive)
direction and the reverse biased(negative) direction. Temperature coefficient
of Zenervoltage against nominal Zener voltage. A conventional solid-
state diode allows significant current if it isreverse-biased above
its reverse breakdown voltage.

15
 Circuit Diagram:

Pin Diagram:

Top view of BC 107

Model Characteristics Curve:

(a) Input Curve

16
Expt. No.: DATE:
Common Emitter input-output Characteristics
Aim:
To determine the input and output characteristics of Common Emitter (CE)
configuration and Calculate the h-parameter values from the input and output
characteristic curves.
Apparatus Required:

S. No. Name Range Qty

1 RPS DC (0-30)V 2
DC (0–10)mA 1
Ammeter
2 DC (0 – 500) µA 1
DC (0–30)V 1
Voltmeter
3 DC (0–1)V 1
4 Transistor BC 107 1

5 Resistor 1kΩ 2
6 Bread Board - 1
As per
7 Connecting Wires -
requirement.

Theory:
Bipolar Junction transistor (BJT) was Developed by Dr.Shockley in bell
laboratories in the year 1951. BJT is a three terminal two – junction semiconductor
device in which the conduction is due to both the charge carrier. Hence it is a
bipolar device. In BJT the output current, output voltage, power are
controlled by its input current ,so the device is called as current
controlled device.
Cut in voltage for Si transistor = 0.7v
Cut in voltage for Ge transistor = 0.3v
The application of a suitable DC voltage across
transistor terminals is called biasing. There are three different ways of

17
biasing a transistor, which are known as modes of transistor operation.

18
 (b) Output Curve
Tabulation:
Input characteristics:

VCE = 5V VCE = 10V

Sl. No
VBE (volts) IB ( mA) VBE ( volts) IB ( mA)

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

19
Junction bias Condition:

S.No. Region Emitter Base Junction Collector Base Junction

1 Active Forward Bias Reverse Bias

2 Saturation Forward Bias Forward Bias

3 Cut off Reverse Bias Reverse Bias

In CE configuration, the Emitter terminal is connected

as common terminal between the input and output circuit.
Procedure:
Input Characteristics:
These Curves give the relationship between the Base current (IB) and Base to
Emitter voltage (VBE) for a Constant Collector to Emitter voltage (VCE).
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Adjust the Collector to Emitter voltage (VCE) to 5 volt. Then increase Base to
Emitter voltage (VBE) in small suitable steps and record the corresponding
values of Base current (IB) at each step.
3. Plot a graph with Base to Emitter voltage (VBE) along X-axis and the Base
current (IB) along y-axis. We shall obtain a curve marked VCE = 5V as shown
in fig.
4. A Similar procedure may be used to obtain Characteristics at different values
of Collector to Emitter voltage i.e., VCE = 10V, 15V etc.
Output characteristics:
These Curves give the relationship between the Collector current (IC) and
Collector to Emitter voltage (VCE) for a Constant Base Current (IB).
1. Adjust the Base current (IB) to 20µA value. Then increase the Collector to
Emitter voltage (VCE) in number of steps and record the corresponding values
of Collector current (IC) at each step.
2. Plot a graph with Collector to Emitter voltage (VCE) along X-axis and the
Collector current (IC) along y-axis. We shall obtain a curve marked IB = 20µA
as shown in fig.
3. A Similar procedure may be used to obtain Characteristics at different values
of Base current (IB) at 40µA,60µA etc.

20
Output characteristics:

IB = 20µA IB = 40µA
Sl. No
VCE (volts) IC ( mA) VCE (volts) IC ( mA)

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

21
Graphical Determination of h-parameters for CE:

1. Input impedance hie = ΔVBE / ΔIB ( for a constant VCE )

2. Reverse Voltage gain hre = ΔVBE / ΔVCE ( for a constant IB )

3. Forward Current gain hfe = Δ IC / ΔIB ( for a constant VCE )

4. Output Admittance hoe = ΔIC / ΔVCE ( for a constant IB )

RESULT:

Thus t h e input and output characteristics of Common Emitter (CE)

configuration was plotted and the following h-parameter values are determined from
the input and output characteristic curves.
Input impedance hie =
Reverse Voltage gain hre =
Forward Current gain hfe =
Output Admittance hoe =
22
VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is BJT?
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a Semiconductor device
constructed with three doped Semiconductor Regions (Base, Collector and
Emitter) separated by two p-n Junctions, Figure 1. The p-n Junction between
the Base and the Emitter has a Barrier Voltage (V0) of about 0.6 V

2. Determine the construction of PNP and NPN Transistor.

3. Explain the operation of PNP transistor.

A two-junction (bipolar) semiconductor transistor with a P-type
collector and emitter, and an N-type base. In such a device, the current
amplification arises from the injection of holes from the emitter into the base,
and their subsequent collection in the collector.

4. Explain the operation of NPN transistor.

npn transistor operation is basically the action of a relatively small
emitter-base bias voltage controlling a relatively large emitter-to-collector
current. The current flow in the external circuit is always due to the movement
of free electrons.

5. What is β of a transistor?
β (beta) of a transistor is the gain or amplification factor of a transistor.
It is the factor by which current is amplified in the circuit.

6. What is the need of configuration in transistor?

The term configuration is used to denote the element that is common to
both input and output circuits. Because the common element is often grounded,
these configurations are frequently referred to as grounded emitter, grounded
base, and grounded collector.

7. What are the types of configuration?

A transistor may be connected in any one of three basic configurations
common emitter (CE), common base (CB), and common collector (CC).

8. What is cutoff region?

23
 On the other hand, in cut off region both the junctions are in reverse
bias. The activeregion has the base junction as forward biased and collector
junction as reverse bias and is hence us a linear amplifier. Each junction of a
transistor may be forward biased or reverse biased independently.

9. What is active region?

The transistor is said to be operated in active region when the emitter-
base junction is forward biased and collector –base junction is reverse biased.
The collector current is said to have two current components one is due to the
forward biasing of EB junction and the other is due to reverse biasing of CB
junction.

10. What is saturation region?

Saturation is the on mode of a transistor. A transistor in saturation
mode acts like a short circuit between collector and emitter. In saturation
mode both of the “diodes” in the transistor are forward biased.

24
Pin Diagram:

Circuit Diagram:

Model Graph:
Drain Characteristics:

25
Expt. No.:
Date:
Characteristics of Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Aim :
To plot the transistor characteristics of JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
& to find drain resistance, transconductance & amplification factor
Apparatus Required:

S. No Component Range Qty

1. JFET FET BFW10 1

2. Resistor 1KΩ 2

3. RPS Dual (0-30)V 2

4. Voltmeters DC (0-10)V 2

5. Ammeters DC (0-30)Ma 1

Bread Board -- 1
6.
As Per
7. Connecting Wires --
Requirement

Theory:
Drain Characteristics:
In BJT, the relationship between an output parameter Ic and an input parameter
IB is given by a constant _, the relationship in JFET between an output parameter, I d,

26
and an input parameter, Vgs, is more complex. In the saturation region, there exists a
square-law transfer relationship.
Transconductance Characteristics:
In the transfer characteristics of a two port network, the input parameter is
changed and its effect on the output parameter is observed. Similarly JFET can be
treated as a two port nonlinear network. The transfer characteristics wherein the input
parameter is the voltage across gate and source, and the output parameter is the drain
current are called the trans-conductance characteristics.

27
Transfer characteristics:

Vgs = 0V Vgs = -1V

Sl. No.
VDS (V) ID (mA) VDS (V) ID (mA)

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

28
Procedure:

Drain Characteristics (rd):

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. VGS is kept constant (Say -1V), VDS is varied insteps of 1V and the
corresponding ID values are tabulated.
3. The above procedure is repeated for VGS =0V.
4. Graph is plotted between VDS and ID for a constant VGS
5. The Drain resistance is found from the graph using the formula rd = ΔVDS/ ΔID.
Ω

Transfer Characteristics (gm):

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. VDS is kept constant (Say 5V), VGS is varied insteps of 1V and the corresponding
ID values are tabulated.
3. The above procedure is repeated for different values of VDS=10V, 15V.
4. Graph is plotted between VGS and ID for a constant VDS
5. The Transconductance is found. From the graph.

gm = ΔID/ΔVGS Ω -1

Amplification Factor (µ):

Amplification factor (µ) = rd*gm (the amplification factor value must not exceed
50)

29
Transfer Characteristics:

VDS = 5V
Sl.No
-VGS (V) ID (mA)

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

30
Result:

Thus the Drain and Transfer Characteristic of JFET is drawn, and form the
characteristics curve the following parameters are determined.

Drain resistance value (rd) =Ω

Trans conductance value (gm) = Ω -1
Amplification factor (µ) =

Viva Questions

1. Why FET is called a Unipolar device?

FETs are unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type operation.

2. What are the advantages of FET?

The main advantage of the FET is its high input resistance, on the order of 100
MΩ or more. Thus, it is a voltage-controlled device, and shows a high degree of
isolation between input and output. It is a unipolar device, depending only upon
majority current flow. It is less noisy. and is thus found in FM tuners and in low-noise
amplifiers for VHF and satellite receivers. It is relatively immune to radiation. It
exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an excellent signal
chopper. It typically has better thermal stability than a bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

3. What is transconductance?

Trasconductance is an expression of the performance of a bipolar transistor or

field-effect transistor (FET). In general, the larger the transconductance figure for a
device, the greater the gain(amplification) it is capable of delivering, when all other
factors are held constant. The symbol for transconductance is gm. The unit is
thesiemens, the same unit that is used for direct-current (DC) conductance.

4. What are the disadvantages of FET?

It has a relatively low gain-bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The

MOSFET has a drawback of being very susceptible to overload voltages, thus
requiring special handling during installation.The fragile insulating layer of the
MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to electrostatic damage
during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed in a
properly designed circuit.

5. Relation between µ, gm and rd?

µ = gm * r d

31
Circuit Diagram

FWR with Filter

32
Ex.No: Date:

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

Aim:

To find the specifications of the Full Wave Rectifier with filter and generate a
desired D.C Voltage.

Apparatus Required:

S.No. Item Range Qty

1. Diode IN4007 1
2. Resistor 1KΩ 1
3. Transformer 12-0-12 V 1
4. Capacitor 100µF 1
5. CRO (0-30)MHz 1

Theory

A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating

dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which
one conducts during one half cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle
of the applied ac voltage.

During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes forward
biased and D2 becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts and D2 remains OFF. The
load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the
input voltage.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes reverse
biased and D2 becomes forward biased. Hence D1 remains OFF and D2 conducts. The
load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the
input voltage.

33
Output waveform:

Tabular Column
FWR with Filter

Vs (Input Voltage) =-------------------

T=------------------ Hz

Rload Vm Vr(p-p) Vrms Vdc= Vm–Vr(p-p) /2 RF=Vrms /Vdc

( Ω) (V) (V) =Vr / √2 (V)

Rectifier with filter

Given Vdc and Idc with a suitable size of capacitor in the circuit, the output D.C.
level comes to Vm Ripple factor of HWR with capacitor filter is given by

R.F = Vac/Vdc
Procedure

34
 1. The circuit connections are made for the designed vales.
2. The supply voltage is switched ON.
3. The D.C voltage and current are noted down.

Result:

Practical value of ripple factor (with filter) = _____________

Hence the FWR with and without filter is constructed for the design
specifications.

Viva Questions

1. What is filter?
Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal
processing functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components
from the signal.
2. Give some rectifications technologies?
Synchronous rectifier, Vibrator, Motor-generator set ,Electrolytic ,Mercury arc,
and Argon gas electron tube.
3. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?

%
4. What is the value of PIV of a center tapped FWR?
2Vm.
5. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?
Ans: Capacitor allows AC and blocks DC signal.in rectifier for converting AC
to DC, capacitor placed in parallel with output, where output is capacitor blocked
voltage.If capacitance value increases its capacity also increases which increases
efficiency of rectifier.

35