Fit Notes

SEC/FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
PREPARED BY:Mrs.A.ALAGULAKSHMI,AP/CS
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device which converts raw data into meaningful
information, which can be used later. It can most accurately process millions of instructions in a
few seconds.
A computer is a programmable muti-use machine that accepts data and processes them
into information for our present and future usage.
DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
A computer is defined as an "Electronic Data Processing machine which receives and
store a large volume of information in the form of symbols and digits and process them at a high
speed as per the instructions given and outputs the results with a preselected degree of accuracy."
Acronym for Computer
Computer – Common Machine Particularly Used For Trade And Educational
Research
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
 Solving any number of problems even complex easily.
 High speed of processing capacity
 Multiple capacity of memory and storing.
 Employing different input and output devices.
 Repetition of the same work within minimum time duration.
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER
 Lacking common sense
 Requires human intervention for operation.
 Needs programmer for operation and solution.
 Depends on the programmer's instruction
Cannot correct itself, when some wrong instructions are fed.
1 .CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
1. Speed
A computer works one operation at a time. It can do all arithmetic operations, compare
numbers and manipulate the characters and so on with a high speed. Small computers take a few
micro seconds to execute an arithmetic operation, whereas large computers take only few nano
seconds for the same. But latest computers take only a few Pico seconds for an operation.
2. Reliability
Computer systems are widely accepted for their exceptional reliability. They are capable of
operating under the most adverse conditions for extended periods of time without showing any
sign of fatigue. They do not take sick days, coffee breaks and they seldom complain.
3. Accuracy
The computers process data accurately as well as quickly. Accuracy is a prime
consideration in installing computers. Computers rarely make mistakes and can accurately
perform all kinds of complex computations. The probability of computer error is quite minimum
and often traceable as faulty data.
4. Memory Capacity
Enormous amount of data can be compactly shared in computers and retrieved almost
instantaneously. It will have many billions of characters and images stored and available at
instant recall.
5. Automation
In the case of a computer the program is fed first and then the data are supplied. When the
command for execution is given, the computer does the work in an orderly manner and gives the
result without human intervention. If we want to repeat the same process for another set of data,
we need not feed the program once again. We just need to give the execution command and the
fresh data.
6. Versatility
Computer is capable of performing logical operations. For logical operations it makes use
of its internal control It can perform the job given to it without any break for a very long
duration. It is capable of doing the following functions:
 Transfers the data internally.
 Performs the functions of comparison.
 Performs arithmetical operation
 Exchanges information with the outside world.
7. Diligence
Computer does not suffer from the human trials of tiredness. It is capable of performing the
jobs with full concentration. It can be put to work for continuously several hours and it will
perform the job with the same speed and accuracy.
8. Cost
With the ever-increasing advances being made, the cost of computer equipment has dropped
drastically over the years. Therefore, now-a-days companies find it not only feasible to acquire a
system, but cost-effective as well.
The history of computer dated back to the period of scientific revolution (i.e. 1543 –
1678). The calculating machine invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642 and that of Goffried
Liebnits marked the genesis of the application of machine in industry.
This progressed up to the period 1760 – 1830 which was the period of the industrial
revolution in Great Britain where the use of machine for production altered the British society
and the Western world. During this period Joseph Jacquard invented the weaving loom (a
machine used in textile industry).
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER
The computer was born not for entertainment or email but out of a need to solve a serious
number-crunching crisis. By 1880, the United State (U.S) population had grown so large that
it took more than seven years to tabulate the
U.S. Census results. The government sought a faster way to get the job done, giving rise to
punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms. Today, we carry more computing
power on our smart phones than was available in these early models. The following brief
history of computing is a timeline of how computers evolved from their humble beginnings to
the machines of today that surf the Internet, play games and stream multimedia in addition to
crunching numbers. The followings are historical events of computer.
1623: Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator.
1673: Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped
Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for,
among other reasons, documenting the binary number system.
1801: In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom that uses punched wooden cards to
automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch cards. Home
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Physics.
1820: Thomas de Colmar launched the mechanical calculator industry when he released his
simplified arithmometer, which was the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable
enough to be used daily in an office environment.
1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage (Father of Computer) conceives of a steam-
driven calculating machine that would be able to compute tables of numbers. The project,
funded by the English government, is a failure. More than a century later, however, the
world's first computer was actually built.
1843: During the translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in
one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli numbers, which is
considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a
computer.
1885: Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical
information; eventually his company became part of IBM.
1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880 census,
accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the government $5 million. He establishes
a company that would ultimately become IBM.
1936: Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later called the Turing machine,
capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of the modern
computer was based on his ideas.
1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State University, attempts
to build the first computer without gears, cams, belts or shafts.
1937: One hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM,
which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business
to develop his giant programmable calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbage's
Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was
finished, some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".
1939: Hewlett-Packard is founded by David Packard and Bill Hewlett in a Palo Alto, California,
garage, according to the Computer History Museum.
1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can solve 29
equations simultaneously. This marks the first time a computer is able to store information on
its main memory.
1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert,
build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of
digital computers, it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes.
1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding from the
Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business and
government applications.
1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories invent the
transistor. They discovered how to make an electric switch with solid materials and no need for
a vacuum.
1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes known as
COBOL. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives
the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.
1954: The FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, is
developed by a team of programmers at IBM led by John Backus, according to the University of
Michigan.
1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the computer chip.
Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his work.
1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse and a
graphical user interface (GUI). This marks the evolution of the computer from a specialized
machine for scientists and mathematicians to technology that is more accessible to the general
public.
1969: A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that addressed
compatibility issues. Written in the C programming language, UNIX was portable across multiple
platforms and became the operating system of choice among mainframes at large companies
and government entities. Due to the slow nature of the system, it never quite gained traction
among home PC users. 1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic
Access Memory (DRAM) chip.
1971: Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the "floppy disk," allowing data
to be shared among computers.
1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet for
connecting multiple computers and other hardware.
1974 -1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair,
IBM 5100, Radio Shack's TRS-80 — affectionately known as the "Trash 80" — and the
Commodore PET.
1975: The January issue of Popular Electronics magazine features the Altair 8080, described as
the "world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." Two "computer geeks," Paul
Allen and Bill Gates, offer to write software for the Altair, using the new Beginners All Purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) language. On April 4, after the success of this first endeavor,
the two childhood friends form their own software company, Microsoft.
1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April Fool's Day and roll out the
Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board, according to Stanford University.
1977: Radio Shack's initial production run of the TRS-80 was just 3,000. It sold like crazy. For the
first time, non-geeks could write programs and make a computer do what they wished.
1977: Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the first West Coast
Computer Faire. It offers color graphics and incorporates an audio cassette drive for storage.
1978: Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first computerized spreadsheet
program.
1979: Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International releases WordStar. "The
defining change was to add margins and word wrap," said creator Rob Barnaby in email to Mike
Petrie in 2000. "Additional changes included getting rid of command mode and adding a print
function. I was the technical brains — I figured out how to do it, and did it, and documented it.
"The first IBM personal computer, introduced on Aug. 12, 1981, used the MS- DOS operating
system. (Image: © IBM).
1981: The first IBM personal computer, code-named "Acorn," is introduced. It uses Microsoft's
MSDOS operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy disks and an optional color monitor.
Sears & Roebuck and Computer land sell the machines, marking the first time a computer is
available through outside distributors. It also popularizes the term PC.
1983: Apple's Lisa is the first personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI). It also
features a drop-down menu and icons. It flops but eventually evolves into the Macintosh. The
Gavilan SC is the first portable computer with the familiar flip form factor and the first to be
marketed as a "laptop." The TRS- 80, introduced in 1977, was one of the first machines whose
documentation was intended for non-geeks (Image: © Radioshack)
1985: Microsoft announces Windows, according to Encyclopedia Britannica. This was the
company's response to Apple's graphical user interface (GUI). Commodore unveils the Amiga
1000, which features advanced audio and video capabilities.
1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years before the World Wide
Web would mark the formal beginning of Internet history. The Symbolics Computer Company, a
small Massachusetts computer manufacturer, registers Symbolics.com. More than two years
later, only 100 dot-coms had been registered.
1986: Compaq brings the “Deskpro 386” to market. Its 32-bit architecture provides as speed
comparable to mainframes.
1990: Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory in Geneva,
develops Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), giving rise to the World Wide Web.
1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.
1994: PCs become gaming machines as "Command & Conquer," "Alone in the Dark 2," "Theme
Park," "Magic Carpet," "Descent" and "Little Big Adventure" are among the games to hit the
market.
1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford University.
1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at the time, ending Apple's
court case against Microsoft in which it alleged that Microsoft copied the "look and feel" of its
operating system.
1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and users begin connecting to
the Internet without wires.
2001: Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides protected memory
architecture and pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits. Not
to be outdone, Microsoft rolls out Windows XP, which has a significantly redesigned graphical
user interface GUI.
2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, becomes available to the consumer market.
2004: Mozilla's Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft's Internet Explorer, the dominant Web browser.
Facebook, a social networking site, launches.
2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, is founded. Google acquires Android, a Linux-based
mobile phone operating system.
2006: Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core mobile computer, as
well as an Intel-based iMac. Nintendo's Wii game console hits the market.
2007: The iPhone brings many computer functions to the smart phone.
2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin applications to the taskbar
and advances in touch and handwriting recognition, among other features.
2010: Apple unveils the iPad, changing the way consumers view media and jumpstarting the
dormant tablet computer segment.
2011: Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs the Google Chrome OS.
2012: Facebook gains 1 billion users on October 4.
2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.
2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until now, there hasn't been
any quantum-computing platform that had the capability to program new algorithms into their
system. They're usually each tailored to
attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author Shantanu Debnath, a quantum physicist
and optical engineer at the University of Maryland, College Park.
2017: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is developing a new
"Molecular Informatics" program that uses molecules as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set
of properties that we may be able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and
processing," Anne Fischer, program manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office, said in a
statement. "Millions of molecules exist, and each molecule has a unique three-dimensional
atomic structure as well as variables such as shape, size, or even color. This richness provides a
vast design space for exploring novel and multi-value ways to encode and process data beyond
the 0s and 1s of current logic-based, digital architectures." [Computers of the Future May Be
Minuscule Molecular Machines].
The history of computer is considered with the generations of a computer from first generation
to fifth generation.
In 19th century English mathematics professor name Charles Babbage referred as a “Father of
Computer”. He designed the Analytical Engine and it was this design that the basic framework
of the computers of today are based on. Generally speaking, computers can be classified into
five generations. Each generation lasted for a certain period of time and each gave us either a
new and improved computer or an improvement to the existing computer.
THE GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
First Generation of Computer (1937 – 1946):
In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by Dr. John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry.
It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer.
(ABC). In 1943 an electronic computer name the Colossus was built for the military. Other
developments continued until in 1946 the first general– purpose digital computer, the Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) was built. It is said that this computer weighed 30
tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which was used for processing. When this computer was
turned on for the first time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation
could only perform single task, and they had no operating system.
Characteristics:
i. Sizes of these computers were as large as the size of a room.
ii. Possession of Vacuum Tubes to perform calculation.
iii. They used an internally stored instruction called program.
iv. Use capacitors to store binary data and information.
v. They use punched card for communication of input and output data and information
vi. They generated a lot of heat.
vii. They have about One Thousand 1000 circuits per cubic foot.
Examples:
i. Mark I developed by Aiken in 1944.
ii. Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) built at the Moore School for
Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania in 1946 by J. Presper Eckert and
William Mauchley.
iii. Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) also developed in 1947
by Eckert and Mauchley.
Second Generation of Computer (1947 – 1962):
Second generation of computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes which were more
reliable. In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was introduced to the public; the
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1). In 1953 the International Business Machine (IBM)
650 and 700 series computers made their mark in the computer world. During this generation of
computers over 100 computer programming languages were developed, computers had memory
and operating systems. Storage media such as tape and disk were in use also were printers for
output.
Characteristics:
i. The computers were still large, but smaller than the first generation of computers.
ii. They use transistor in place of Vacuum Tubes to perform calculation.
iii. They were produced at a reduced cost compared to the first generation of
computers.
iv. Possession of magnetic tapes as for data storage.
v. They were using punch cards as input and output of data and information. The use
of keyboard as an input device was also introduced.
vi. These computers were still generating a lot of heat in which an air conditioner is
needed to maintain a cold temperature.
vii. They have about one thousand circuits per cubic foot.
Example:
i. Leprechaun, IBM built by Bell Laboratories in 1947
ii. Transis produced by philco, GE and RCA.
iii. UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC III.
iv. RCA 501.
v. IBM 7030 stretch.
Third Generation of Computer (1963 – 1975):

The invention of integrated circuit brought us the third generation of computers. With this
invention computers became smaller, more powerful more reliable and they are able to run many
different programs at the same time.
Characteristics:
i. They used large-scale integrated circuits, which were used for both data processing
and storage.
ii. Computers were miniaturized, that is, they were reduced in size compared to
previous generation.
iii. Keyboard and mouse were used for input while the monitor was used as output
device.
iv. Use of programming language like COBOL and FORTRAN were developed.
v. They have hundred thousand circuits per cubic foot.
Examples:
i. Burroughs 6700, Mini computers
ii. Honeywell 200
iii. IBM system 360
iv. UNIVAC 9000 series.
Fourth Generation of Computer (PC 1975 – Current)

At this time of technological development, the size of computer was re- divided to what we
called Personal Computers, PC. This was the time the first Microprocessor was created by Intel.
The microprocessor was a very large- scale, that is, VLS integrated circuit which contained
thousands of transistors.
Transistors on one chip were capable performing all the functions of a computer’s central
processing unit.
Characteristics:
i. Possession of microprocessor which performs all the task of a computer system use
today.
ii. The size of computers and cost was reduced.
iii. Increase in speed of computers.
iv. Very large scale (VLS) integrated circuits were used.
v. They have millions of circuits per cubic foot.
Examples:
i. IBM system 3090, IBM RISC6000, IBM RT.
ii. ILLIAC IV.
iii. Cray 2 XMP.
iv. HP 9000.
v. Apple Computers.
Fifth Generation of Computers (Present and Beyond)
Fifth generations computing devices, based on artificial intelligence (AI) are still in
development, although there are some application such as voice recognition, facial face detector
and thumb print that are used today.
Characteristics:
i. Consist of extremely large scale integration.
ii. Parallel processing
iii. Possession of high speed logic and memory chip.
iv. High performance, micro-miniaturization.
v. Ability of computers to mimic human intelligence, e.g. voice
recognition, facial face detector, thumb print.
vi. Satellite links, virtual reality.
vii. They have billions of circuits per cubic.
Examples:
i. Super computers
ii. Robots
iii. Facial face detector
iv. Thumb print.
Block Diagram Of a computer
INPUT UNIT
It is a unit of a computer through which various kinds of information are fed into the
computer .The inputs are information, data, program and the like. The data and instruction are
fed into the computer through the input devices.
OUTPUT UNIT
The output unit is a unit of the computer through which the results received from the
memory are passed in the required form to the user. The output may appear on the monitor or
printer. The main function of an output device is to take the result to the user in the readable
form.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The central processing unit of a computer system is the brain and heart of the computer
which consists of three sub-units such as memory unit, Arithmetic and Logic unit and Control
unit.
MEMORY UNIT OR PRIMARY MEMORY
The memory unit of the CPU is a place where the computer program as well as data are
stored during processing. The results obtained after processing are also stored. Here, all kinds of
instruction are stored in the form of digital codes. The data stored may be words, digits, letters,
characters and symbols. The size of a computer is often measured in terms of the number of
storage location in its memory. Memory locations are serially numbered. A memory location can
be accessed by specifying its address.
Memory may be volatile or non-volatile in nature. Volatile memory is washed as soon as
the power supply is stopped, whereas non-volatile memory is not washed even if the power
Supply is stopped.
ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
The place where arithmetic and logical operations are performed is known as Arithmetic
and logic unit. All arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
comparison are performed and carried out in this unit circuit of ALU is so designed as to perform
arithmetic operations on the information. This unit will not store any information besides doing
arithmetic operations, the ALU can also be used for doing logical operations.
CONTROL UNIT
Control unit performs and supervises the execution of all kinds of instruction. It can send
signals to every other part of the computer in which the instructions are carried out, interprets the
instruction, reverses data from memory, sends results to the virtual memory and then all kinds of
instruction are carried out it co-ordinates the activities of the input-output, arithmetic and
memory units by timing and directing the flow of information from one unit to another. It also
supervises the input of information, storing and retrieving of information and its own activities.
TYPES OF COMPUTER
SUPER COMPUTER
Super computers are the most sophisticated computers used for weather prediction,
crystallo graphic, calculations, complex molecular structures and, designing of supersonic
aircraft. In all these cases, billions of calculations are required on highly precise numbers. They
have a speed of several billion operations per second. Most of the super computers have two
characteristics in common. It is the ability to recover automatically from failures and it has
multiple processors that process multiple instructions at a time.
MAINFRAME COMPUTER
Mainframe computers are also referred to as large scale general purpose computers. They
have more memory capacity and they account for very high processing speed. Any type of
peripheral is available in any mainframe computer. It allow operation simultaneously by several
people.
MINI COMPUTERS
Mini computers are small yet powerful multiuser systems with excellent memory
capability and processing speed. They are typical work-group systems. This operating speed is
low when compared with main-frame computers. They have multi-terminal facilities. They have
only one CPU but many terminals and key boards.
WORKSTATIONS
Workstation is somewhere between Mini computers and Personal computers. They can be used
by individuals or by groups. They are faster and more sophisticated than Personal computers and
are equipped with a number of productivity tools that increase efficiency. Advances in
microprocessors and sophisticated software have significantly increased the capabilities of this
system.
Workstations are used for executing numeric and graphic intensive applications such as
Computer Aided Design, simulation of complex systems and visualizing the results of
simulation.
MICRO COMPUTER
A micro computer is a small computer that is built around micro-processors for storing
and processing. It has a Microprocessor chip as its CPU. It is meant for professional and small
companies.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
Home
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching movies or
shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access, etc. They
provide communication through electronic mail. They help to avail work from home facility for
corporate employees. Computers help the student community to avail online educational support.
Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis, X-rays,
live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform
delicate operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used for
training purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.
Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in playing
games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the entertainment
industry in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed from computers to full
screen televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous features.
Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory, designing
purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc. Online
marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible corners
like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from different
levels of people through the use of computers.
Education
Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations, referring e-
books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the education field.
Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of citizens
and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defense organizations have greatly
benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket launches, etc.
Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct transactions,
such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have reduced manual errors and
expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.
CAPABILITIES OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
Capabilities of a computer system are the qualities of the computer that put it in a positive light
and make the user experience more efficient.
Speed
Speed means the duration computer system requires in fulfilling a task or completing an activity.
It is well-known that computers need very little time than humans in completing a task.
Generally, humans take into account a second or minute as a unit of time.
Accuracy
Accuracy means the level of precision with which calculations are made and tasks are performed.
One may invest years of his life in detecting errors in computer calculations or updating a wrong
record. A large part of mistakes in Computer Based Information System(CBIS) occurs due to bad
programming, erroneous data, and deviation from rules. Humans cause these mistakes.
Reliability
Reliability is the quality due to which the user can stay dependable on the computer. Computers
systems are well-adjusted to do repetitive tasks. They never get tired, bored or fatigued. Hence,
they are a lot reliable than humans. Still, there can be failures of a computer system due to
internal and external reasons.
Adaptability
Adaptability of computer system means the quality of it to complete a different type of tasks:
simple as well as complex. Computers are normally versatile unless designed for a specific
operation. Overall, a daily purpose computer is used in any area of application: business,
industry, scientific, statistical, technological and so on
A general purpose computer, when introduced in a company, can replace the jobs of multiple
specialists due to its flexibility. A computer system can replace the functions of all these
specialists because of being very versatile.
Storage
Storage is the ability of the computer to store data in itself for accessing it again in future.
Nowadays, apart from having instantaneous access to data, computers have a huge ability to
store data in a little physical space.
A general computer system has a capacity of storing and providing online millions of characters
and thousands of pictures. It is obvious from the above discussion that computer capabilities
outperform the human capabilities. Therefore, a computer, when used rightfully, will tenfold the
effectiveness of an organization.
Limitations of Computer Systems
Limitations are the drawbacks of the computer system in which humans outperform them.
Lack of common-sense
This is one of the major limitations of computer systems. No matter how efficient, fast and
reliable computer systems might be but yet do not have any common sense because no full-proof
algorithm has been designed to programme logic into them. As computers function based on the
stored programme(s), they simply lack common sense.
Zero IQ
Another of the limitations of computer systems is that they have zero Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
They are unable to see and think the actions to perform in a particular situation unless that
situation is already programmed into them. Computers are programmable to complete each and
every task, however small it may be.
Lack of Decision-making
Decision-making is a complicated process involving information, knowledge, intelligence,
wisdom, and ability to judge. The computer system does not have the ability to make decisions
on their own because they do not possess all the essentials of decision-making.
They can be programmed to take such decisions, which are purely procedure-oriented. If a
computer has not been programmed for a particular decision situation, it will not take a decision
due to lack of wisdom and evaluation faculties. Human beings, on the other hand, possess this
great power of decision-making.
Solved Question for You
Question: What are the capabilities of a computer system and what makes computer system
reliable?
Answer: The capabilities of a computer system are speed, reliability, adaptability, storage and
accuracy. Computers systems are well adjusted to perform repetitive tasks. They never get tired,
bored or fatigued. Hence, they are a lot reliable than humans.
UNIT II
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES
The devices that are responsible for transferring the information from the user to the
memory of a computer are known as Input devices. They feed the information in the machine
code to the computers.
PUNCHED CARD
It is an input device, invented by Herman Hollerith in 1886 . It has a rectangular shape in
the size 18.8 cm x 8.3 cm and 0.018 cm in thickness. The card is divided into 12 rows (12,
11, 0, 1, 2..9) from top to bottom and 80 columns marked by the numbers 1 to 80 from left to
right. Only one character can be punched on a column. The punching is made by a machine
called key punch machine which is similar to Typewriter.
Correct punching is ensured with the help of a device called verifier. The information
represented by holes in a punched card are decoded by a device called Card reader
The principle of operation is photoelectric emission of diodes and transistors. The card
reader reads 300 to 1400 cards per minute
The technique followed for punches over the specified positions are as given below
 To represent the numbers O to 9, a single punch is made in the rows 0 to 9.
 Two punched holes, one in the 12th row and the other in the rows1 to 9 represent the
alphabet A to I.
 Two punched holes one in the 11th row and the other i the rows 1 to 9 represent the
alphabet J to S.
 Two punched holes, one in the 10th row and the other in the rows 1 to 9 represented
the alphabets T to Z.
 Three punched holes are made to represent The-special characters such as comma,
colon, semicolon and so on.
Advantages of Punched card
 Less expensive.
 Reliable medium for inputting
 Easy removal of cards for addition or deletion of information.
 The codes used for punching are universal.
Disadvantages of Punched card
 Processing of data is relatively very slow.
 The cards require larger space to store because of low data density.
 More number of persons has to be employed for card processing.
 Slow speed of the card reader.
KEY BOARD
Key board is the most commonly used input device, It is used to feed the data
directly to the computer system and obtain a quick response. This resembles the keyboard of
a typewriter. It gives direct access to the computer system during program development. A
normal key board consists of 101 to 105 keys.
When a key is pressed the information is processed in the processing circuit which
gives the ASCII value of the key pressed in serial format. The keys may be of different types:
i) Alphabetic keys
They comprise of alphabet from A-Z and a-z.
ii) Number keys
They comprise of numbers 0 to 9.
iii) Special character keys
They comprise of special characters like,., {}, [], #, $, %,&,, and so on.
iv) Special keys
They perform specific tasks. Some of the special keys are Enter key, Backspace key, Del
key, Ins key, TAB key, Shift key, Caps lock key, Ctrl key, Num lock key, Alt key and the
like.
v) Function keys
These keys are used to perform a set of operations by a single key stroke. They are
F1 to F12.
Advantages of Keyboard
 It is very fast, noiseless and small in size.
 Data entry is made easier.
 The typed information immediately appears on screen.
 Correcting the error easily.
 Man-machine communication is very quick.
 Reliability is higher.
MOUSE
Mouse is a handy electronic input device used for a number of operations in Graphical
User-interface. It has a round ball or layer on the bottom and one or more buttons on the top
with a long tail connected to the mouse card. It can be moved on a smooth surface like table
or mouse pad to stimulate the movement of cursor. The cursor may be in the form of a arrow,
which is called mouse pointer. A mouse enables the user to move the cursor in any direction,
that is, from top to bottom or left to right or one corner to other corner diagonally on the
screen in a flash.
There are two types of mouses used such as Mechanical mouse and Optical mouse.
Advantages of Mouse
 Useful to open windows or sub-windows on the screen at a click.
 Very easier to control cursor movement with, practice of a few minutes.
 Useful to point the icons or tiny pictures.
 Useful to point to line items in lists
 Useful to draw lines and pictures, on screen
LIGHT PEN
The light pen is a digital input device. There is a pen like pointing device used to draw
directly on the monitor resembles the ordinary writing pen. A light pen in combination with a
video screen is used to display or modify images on the screen. It is an electronic device in
the form of a photo-diode. Hence, it does not write on the screen but reads the displayed
image. When the pen is pointed at an intensified point on the screen, the switch available in
the pen is activated and that point is picked up.
Advantage
 It can be connected to a computer to draw graphics.
 It can be used to highlight the text directly on the computer screen.
JOY-STICK
It is an electronic device used as a graphical input device like a-mouse for controlling
cursor movement. It consists of four micro switches arranged in four directions.
The movement is caused by pushing a handle which is fixed on the upper portion of
the Joystick. When the Joystick is moved in a particular direction, the switch is activated in
that direction to give a signal to a cursor. The cursor moves in the direction in which the stick
has been moved.
Advantages of Joystick
 It is a pointing input device
 It is useful for programs like video games.
TRACK BALL
This is also a pointing device. The user moves the ball in its place in the desired
direction to move the cursor on the screen. Speed of spin is controlled by the electronic
circuit. The instructed information is sent to the processor. Track ball is used in the modem
notebook computers.
TOUCH SCREEN
The VDU screens are designed such that the touch of a particular point of the screen
with our fingers is recognized by the system. These are very useful when menu driven
programs are run. The menu is displayed on the screen and the user can just touch the item to
be selected with fingers. The touch screen works by converting an electric signal into surface
waves directed across the screen's glass surface.
MARK AND CHARACTER RECOGNITION
It is an improved version of input device which is capable of reading the information
from the original document directly. Hence, the data fed into the computer will be free from
mistakes. The following are some of such devices:
MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR)
MICR Systems use special ink which is prepared by mixing magnetizable dust particles
with the ink, which can be magnetized to print characters. The characters can be read and
decoded by special magnetic devices. The characters used in this system are highly stylish,
which are called Typographical Font.
This technology has become very popular world-wide and commonly used in banks for
processing cheques. The speed of the MICR is 2400 documents per minute and this method
ensure accuracy of data entry.
The paper selected for MICR cheque is of special quality with a weight of 95 grams per
sq. meter width and different size of the cheques have been prescribed for various accounts.
For saving bank accounts the Size of cheque is 6.5 x 2.5. Same size is applicable to gift
cheques and travellers cheques also.
For current accounts, cash credit accounts, and demand drafts the size of the cheque is
8" x 3.666".
Two MICR equipments are used in clearing namely Encoder and Reader / Sorter.
Encoder
This machine is installed at branch and MICR centre. This machine encodes the
required information/data in magnetic ink. This machine also puts clearing and endorsement
stamp on those cheques which have been processed by the machine
Reader/Sorter
This machine is installed at clearing House of MICR centre. It reads the information
printed in the magnetic ink on MICR band and sorts out the cheques city wise and branch
wise. All cheques are listed and a printout of the cheques is available.
MICR BAND
On the lower part of the MICR cheque there is "band of codes having a width of 5/8". This
band can be divided into 5 fields.
First Field
This field shows the cheque number.
Second Field
This field indicates the codes for city and branch. This field contains 9 digits: First 3
digits city code, next 3 bank code and the last 3 indicate the branch code.
Third Field
This field is for account number and it has 6 digits.
Fourth field
This field is for transaction code and consists of 2 digits
Fifth field
This field is to show amount and has 13 digits.
Advantages of MICR
 The chances of errors are minimized because the instruments are read by the
machines.
 The burden of the manual working of the staff members is reduced because these
machines do accurate work very fast.
 It makes document sorting.
 The work of clearing become easy.
 The transfer of funds between two banks is fast and easy
Disadvantages of MICR
 Only one information can be given one line.
 Only a limited númber of characters can be printed and fed into the computer.
 The device is very sensitive.
OPTICAL CHARACTER READING (OCR)
This is a device which can read the printed character on the object in full by scanning
process. Whatever be the type or Style of the characters either handwritten or printed, the
optical reader Scans the whole character one by one and compare with the character pattern
already stored in the computer. Then data are accepted by the computer for processing
otherwise it is rejected. No data conversion is required.
OCR Readers are capable of reading at a very high speed which ranges from 200 to
2500 characters per second.
Advantages of OCR
 No intermediate device is required.
 Errors during preparation of data are eliminated.
Disadvantages of OCR
 The equipment is very expensive.
 Documents must be treated with care.
 Print quality of OCR sheet must be high.
OPTICAL MARK RECOGNITION (OMR)
OMR technology is a device which can detect the absence or presence of a mark on a
paper, In this method special preprinted forms are designed with boxes which can be marked
with a dark pencil or ink. The characters are read by optical scanners.
Advantages of OMR
 It saves time.
 No intermediate device is required.
 It minimizes unreliability of data.
Disadvantages of OMR
 It is purely machine dependent.
 It can be used only for multiple choice question replies.
 It needs good quality expensive sheet.
 It needs accurate alignment of printing on the OMR sheet .
Area of use of OMR Technology
 This technology is useful for objective type questions used in competitive
examinations.
 This technology is used in-survey of population and markets.
 Time sheet of factory employees in which start and stop times may be marked.
OPTICAL BARCODE READER
This device scans a set of light and dark bars having different width for specific data.
The devices are available as hand-held devices and are used to read merchandise in
departmental stores, books, medicines etc. The code is read by a wand or pen which transmits
a laser beam and receives the reflection from the label. These pulses are compared with
standard codes stored in the computer.
SCANNERS
A scanner is an instrument which is used to scan a photograph, diagram, images,
documents, pictures and the like. While scanning the scanner digitizes the picture and stores
it in the computer. We could immediately see the image on the computer's screen. This image
can be edited and shaped into desired form. To use a scanner, a special software is required to
be loaded in the computer, available with the scanner. This software is generally available
with the scanner.
OUTPUT DEVICE
These are the devices through which the results of the job assigned to the computer are
brought out in a humanly readable form.
Typical output devices are
 CRT
 Printer
 Plotter
Visual Display Unit (or) Cathode Ray Tube (or) Monitor
It is a device commonly used for interactive processing consists of a keyboard and a
CRT with a processing circuit Messages and processed information are displayed on a
Screen. In a CRT an electronic beam, hits a phosphor coated surface which emits light. By
controlling the electron and its intensity, we can generate character and graphics on screen.
The measure of resolution of the monitor is based on the number of pixels on the screen.
Most monitor screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25
lines vertically. The monitors differ in three principal ways called monochrome, Gray-scale
and colour monitors based on signals they are classified into Digital and Analog monitors.
Recent development in colour cards provide improved capabilities with the following
adaptors.
 Colour Graphics Adapter (CGA)
 Monochrome Graphics Adapter (MGR)
 Video Graphics Adapter (VGA)
 Hercules Graphics Adapter (HGA)
 Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)
Flat Screen Technologies
Flat screen technology is useful for laptop computers which can be used in the
office and then taken home or on trips. Now, the researchers have explored different
approaches to develop high resolution, low power consumption flat screens with the same
graphics capabilities of traditional CRT.
The most effective results to date have been achieved in three areas such as- liquid
crystal display electroluminescent display and gas plasma display.
HARDCOPÝ OUTPUT DEVICE
Printers and Plotters are the most commonly used hardcopy output device
PRINTER
Printers are a primary output device used to prepare permanent documents. There are
various kinds of printers.
Impact Printers
An impact printer print the image by pressing an inked ribbon against the paper with
a hammer like mechanism.
Dot matrix printer
It is a printer which print one character at a time, with a speed ranging from 80 to 200
character per seconds. It prints the characters in the form of a group of dots. The writing head
of the printer can print only one character at a time. The print head is moved horizontally. it
consists of a hammer and which contains matrix of pins. Some heads have 9x 7 matrix were
some others have 7 x 5 matrix of pins. The suitable pins impress upon the ribbon to print a
character.
Advantages of Dot Matrix Printer
 Less expensive.
 Simple mechanical and electronic arrangements
 Alphabets other than English character can also be typed.
Disadvantages of Dot Matrix Printer
 Cannot produce better quality print out.
Line Printer
The Line Printer prints one line at a single operation. All the characters to be printed in a
line are selected and kept on a rod. A hammer strikes the rod and this gets the line printed
with the help of ribbon .The printing speed varies from 150 lines to 2500 lines per minute.
The width of the line is 15 inches and the line has 96 to 160 characters.
Advantages
 High speed.
 Low cost of printing.
 Printing area is large.
 continued operation for few hours is possible.
Daisy wheel Printer
The daisy wheel printer has a wheel of metal or plastic, and it has 96 characters on the
outside tips of the flat spokes or petal. To print a specific character, the wheel is rotated until
the appropriate spoke or petal is lined up with the print hammer.
The print hammer is then pushed over the ribbon and the character is printed on the
paper. Typical speed of Daisy wheel printer is 20 to 100 characters per second.
Advantages of Daisy wheel printer
 Better quality printing is achieved.
 Designed letter types can be obtained by interchanging the wheels.
 Has applications in the area of word processing.
Disadvantages of Daisy wheel printer
 Complex mechanical and electronic circuitry..
 Printing speed is less.
 Increased cost and size.
Chain Printer
In a chain printer a set of characters are arranged side by side into section in the
chain. The chain rotates and in this process hammer of the printer-strikes on chain over the
inked ribbon and this leaves an impression of the character on the paper. The hammer and the
chain movement must go in unison. They can print 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages of Chain Printer
 Low cost of printing.
 High speed.
 Chain can be desirably altered or replaced
 Letters on the chain can be printed.
 Can work for a longer time.
Disadvantages of Chain Printer
 Quality of output is not so good.
 It does not offer printing options like bold, italics, different size fonts or graphics.
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
Printers that do not strike characters against ribbon or paper are called non-impact
printers.
Thermal Printer
The method of printing the characters is similar to dot matrix printer except that the
impression is produced thermally. For this, a special heat sensitive paper is used. To print a
character the coils in the printing head produce heat which burns the chemical to produce an
image on the special paper. The printing element is constructed either by using thick film
resistor or by using monolithic silicon element.
Advantages of Thermal Printer
 Noiseless.
 Higher speed.
 Compact in size.
 No ribbon or ink is required.
Disadvantages of Thermal Printer
 Requires expensive special chemical coated paper.
 High cost
Ink Jet Printer
Ink Jet printer is a new development of non-impact printer in which the drops of ink
appear in the form of character. The ink from the tank is filtered and pumped out through a
nozzle. A crystal oscillating at high frequency makes the ink split into drops. The ink is
charged by using two electrodes. This charged ink is defected on the paper in such a way that
it print characters by using vertical defection plates. The speed of ink jet printer ranges
between 50-300 characters per second.
Advantages of Inkjet Printer
 Noiseless.
 Small in size.
 High resolution.
 Good quality of graphics can be obtained.
 Different fonts can be produced.
Laser Printer
Laser printers are page printers. A page of text or pictures is composed at a time. These
printers use the technique of laser and photocopy. Here a photoconductive drum made of
selenium is used. This drum is sensitive to light. First, the drum is charged uniformly. A laser
beam is made to scan the drum by employing lenses and multiple mirror, thereby discharging
the unwanted portions. The laser exposed areas attract a toner that attaches itself to the laser
generated charges on the drum. Heat and pressure permanently fuses the toner on the paper. It
can print up to 120 pages or 20,000 lines per minute.
Advantages of Laser Printer
 It can print text, pictures, graphical display and other special visual effects,
 The quality of printing is very good.
 The speed of this printer is marvelous.
Disadvantages of Laser Printer
 It is very costly.
 Maintenance cost is high.
PLOTTERS
Plotter is a device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from a computer.
Flat Bed Plotter
This plotter uses a light pen and draw graphs on the papers. Pen is controlled by pen
holder. Pen is moved freely on the surface with the co-ordination of two motors. And these
use a bed or tray to hold a paper in fixed position. Single arm moves the pen both
horizontally and vertically. One motor moves the pen on the x-axis and the other on y-axis.
The electronic circuitry is taken care of the proper movement of the pen. To produce multi-
coloured diagram or graph, pens of 8 to 10 colours are used.
Advantages of Flat Bed Plotter
 It is useful for high quality diagrams.
 It can make graphs of small to large size.
Drum Plotter
Drum plotter contains a drum which is cylindrical in shape. The paper is also moved
along with the pen to make the drawings. The pen moves on the x-axis on a rail and the paper
moves on y-axis with the help of motor and roller assembly fixed at the side.
The movement of the pen and paper is governed by the electronic circuitry in order to
draw the desired drawings. This plotter can print 600 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages of Drum Plotter
 The speed of this plotter is considerably higher than that of the flat bed plotter.
 It is used in the computer aided design work stations.
 They can be used to draw machine drawing and civil engineering drawings.
 It can produce larger drawings.
Disadvantages of Drum Plotter
 These plotters are very costly.
UNIT III
STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS
STORAGE DEVICES
The computer needs a storage area for keeping its results, data and
program instruction either temporarily or permanently for quick retrieval and
use during processing. The hardware devices which provide these facilities are
termed as storage devices.
PRIMARY OR MAIN MEMORY
The memory which is built as part of the central processing unit is called
primary or main memory. Data and instructions are stored in the memory unit of
the CPU during processing for immediate access and for future use. It consists
of number of storage locations. Each storage location is identified by a unique
number called address. During processing, data may be stored in any location.
The storage area may be designed to store a fixed number of characters

which are treated as a single entity or word. The capacity of the main memory is
specified in terms of Bytes. The primary memory is a volatile form of storage.
The primary memory can be classified into two types as magnetic core memory
and semiconductor memory.
MAGNETIC CORE MEMORY
It is constructed with millions of basic elements known ferrite cores. The

ferrite cores are thick rings made up of ferromagnetic material.
SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY
A semiconductor is a bad conductor of electricity, but when arsenic and

indium are added to it, can be used to form electrical circuits.
These memories are built with the flip flops as its basic cell . The number of
flip-flops are integrated and made as a read write memory or a read only
memory.
These chips are very small, inexpensive and consume less power.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
A read/write memory is called Random Access Memory (RAM).

It can be used for the storage of data temporarily in memory chips. As this
memory is temporary it is volatile in nature. This memory is washed as soon as
the supply of power is cut. The capacity of the computer is related with RAM.
The more the capacity of RAM the more the powerful is computer. There are
two basic types of RAM such as Dynamic RAM and Static RAM. It comprises
of the main memory of the computer
DYNAMIC RAM
Dynamic RAM is the more common type. It needs to be refreshed

thousands of times per second. In the event of power cut dynamic RAM loses
its contents. It is called volatile storage.
STATIC RAM
It is also a volatile storage device. It needs to be refreshed less often,

which makes it faster. These chips are much more complicated than those of
dynamic RAM. Random Access memory can be further divided into three parts.
i) Cyclic Memory
This memory transfers the data in cyclic order and to read the data is time-
consuming
ii) Serial Access Memory
This memory transfers the data in a serial order and it also takes more time in
transferring the data.
iii) Direct Access Memory
This memory transfers the data in a direct order and then time in reading
the data is less.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
In this type of memory, the data are stored permanently in the memory
locations. Hence, data can only be read from the memory locations but cannot
be written. There are certain essential functions that the computer must perform,
when it is switched on. A series of programs or micro programs are required to
perform its peripherals. These programs are hardwired onto Read Only Memory
chips at the time of manufacture. Data on these chips cannot be changed by the
Programmer/ User.
PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY (PROM)
This is a type of semi conductor chip on which a program can be written

only once. This program is written by the user himself. The manufacturer
initially connects all the memory locations by fuse links to logical one level
requirements of the user each location can be programmed. It should be noted
that once this programming is carried out, it cannot be altered.
ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY (EPROM)
This is a type of semi conductor chip on which the memory can be

erased with the exposure to ultraviolet radiation. The rays enable the stored
charges to discharge and the memory locations are cleared for fresh
programming. This type of memory is useful for design and development
applications, where very frequent changes in memory contents are required.
ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY

(EEPROM)
It is a special type of semi conductor chip on which the memory can be

erased with exposure to ultraviolet radiations. Here the memory locations are
cleared electrically and other processes are similar to the EPROM process.
VIRTUAL MEMORY
An operating system facility which enables a program to burn in a

machine, although it is larger than the size of the main memory available to it.
The operating system stores bits of the program on disk storage automatically
by swapping without affecting the program's operation.
SECONDARY MEMORY
The secondary memory is also called external or Auxiliary memory or

Backing storages. These devices are used to hold mass information which can
be desirably transferred at any time. It is useful to store larger amounts of data
than 'main memory.
MAGNETIC DISK
Magnetic disk is a flat circular, plate made of aluminium and coated

with magnetic material like ferric oxide or chromium Oxide. A read/write head
moves across the surface while the disk is kept constantly rotating at high speed.
The disk is divided into number of tracks and each track is again divided into a
number of sectors .Each sector has an identifying address.
The magnetic disks are similar to gramophone records. Magnetic disks

can be categorized into two types namely floppy disk and hard disk.
FLOPPY DISKS
Floppy disks are made of magnetic oxide-coated mylar plastic. The

floppy disk has nearly 70 tracks and each track has 26 sectors with 64 words in
each sector. It can hold 1.44 Mega Bytes (MB) of data. They may be single
sided single density or double sided double density. A magnetic head is used to
record and retrieve the information. To handle the disks conveniently and to
protect them from dust,) they are permanently sealed in a plastic jacket known
as cartridge.
The hole at the centre is to allow the spindle to lock the floppy so that it
can rotate. The jacket of a floppy disk has a small cut-out opening on the one
side. This opening is called the write protect notch. When it is closed using a
small paper, writing is not allowed but only reading is possible. The index hole
is used to recognize the starting sector of any track. There are different sizes of
floppy disk, with different sizes of drives. They are 8, 5, 3" diameter.
Advantages of Floppy disks

 Easily changeable.
 Storing and transporting is easier.
 Small, compact and easily portable.
 Less expensive
 It is easy to check the errors
 Reusable for many times.
 Data can be read and written randomly.
 It can be used as input, Output and storage medium.
Disadvantages of Floppy disks
 They have to be stored and handled carefully
 They 'may be affected by heat and magnetic field.
 They are easily affected with computer virus.
HARD DISK
Hard disk is a smooth metal plate coated on both sides with a thin film of
magnetic material. A set of six magnetic plastic are fixed to a spindle one below
the other to make up a disk pack. The disk pack is sealed and mounted on a disk
drive and that are not removable.
Hard disk is also called winchester disk. The disk drive consists of a
motor to rotate the disk at a speed of about 3600 rpm. The drive also has a set of
magnetic heads mounted on arms. The arm assembly can move in and out in a
radial direction. Information is recorded on the surface of a disk in circular
tracks as it rotates about axis No information is stored in the upper surface the
top and the lower surface of the bottom plate.
The data are read into the main memory of the computer by a set of
disk drives connected to the disk Controller.
Advantages of Hard Disk

 It is very faster.
 High storage capacity.
 Data are randomly or directly accessible
Disadvantages of Hard Disk
 It is costly.
 It is not portable.
TAPE STORAGE
It is a secondary storage made up of mylar plastic coated with

magnetizable iron oxide. A reel of tape is placed on the spindle. The tape is fed
through a drive capstan.
PAPER TAPES
Paper tape is one of the first popular media for storing the program and
data to be read into computers. The tapes are of many types and sizes such as
medium thickness tape, oiled tape and plastic tape. It is a continuous strip of
paper of 0.5 to 3 inches. There are 8 channels and they are named 1,2,4,8,
check, O, X and EOL. The numeric characters 0 to-9 are coded using the
channels 1,2,4 and 8 by making holes, known as tracks, across the tape.
A punch or a combination of punches in a column can represent the

characters. There is a sprocket hole between two inside tracks which is used to
lift the tape mechanically in the punching and reading devices. A keyboard like
device is used to punch the information in the paper and the coded information
punched onto the tape are entered into the computer by a device called paper
tape reader.
Advantages of Paper Tapes

 They are cheaper than cards.
 The paper tape is compact as it is wound as reels
 The codes used to punch on paper tapes are universal.
Disadvantages of Paper Tapes
 Error correction is difficult.
 Addition or deletion of information is also difficult.
 Inputting speed is low.
 Tapes once used cannot be re-used.
 Tapes can be easily torn, mutilated and so on.
 It is less accurate.
MAGNETIC TAPES
Magnetic tapes are plastic tapes coated with magnetic material such as
ferrous oxide. It is 0.5 inch wide and has a number of channels which run
parallel to the edge of the tape. Normally there are 9 channels. One byte is
recorded in 8 channels and the ninth channel is used for parity check.
The magnetic tape is wound on a spool and the tape is transported

across a set of magnetic heads and is taken on another spool, Between the two
spools, a set of nine heads are mounted for reading and writing. The recording
density of a magnetic tape is 800, 1600, 3200 or 6250 character per inch. They
are used in large scale data processing.
Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

 Usable in large scale data processing centre.
 Even to-day magnetic tapes are the ultimate mass storage media.
 They are used widely in batch processing modes.
 Principle of operation and mechanism is very simple.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Tapes

 To read a particular record, the entire file has to be scanned.
 It takes more access time.
 The data recorded on tape cannot be altered: updated of changed.
 The data recorded on the tape sequentially can be read sequentially.
 The data cannot be read manually.
OPTICAL LASER DISK
Optical laser disks are used to store huge, volume of data up to 6

gigabytes (GB). It uses high power laser beam to write the information onto the
disk and to low power laser beam to read the information from the disk. During
a read operation, the patterns of spots detected by the laser are converted into
electrical signals used by the computers. There are three basic types of optical
disks.
They are:
 CD-ROM (Cómpact Disk Read Only Memory)

 WORM (Write-Once, Read-Many
 EO (Erasable Optical disk)
 COMPACT DISK (CD)
COMPACT DISK
A CD is a small, portable, round medium made of molded polymer for

electronically recording, storing and playing back audio, video, text and other
information in digital form.
It is a small plastic optical disk used to store digital data. It was originally
to store sound recordings exclusively, but later it also allowed the preservation
of other types of data Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 mm and 700 mega
bytes (MB) of data can be stored.
As originally developed for audio system, the sound signal is sampled at

a rate of 44,100 times a second. Then each sample is measured and digitally
encoded on 43" (12 cm) disk as a series of Microscopic pits on an otherwise
polished Surface.
Advantages of Compact Disk

 Very cheap.
 It is easy to record information.
 Unlimited capacity.
Disadvantages of Compact Disk
 Careless, handling will, easily scratch, crack and damage the CD.
 Production errors lead to early deterioration because the damage is
already done, it is impossible to deduct it.
 Air, water, dust and other foreign matters will' affect the CD
 The CD will eventually become unplayable and the data irretrievable.
TYPES OF COMPACT DISK
CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory)
This optical disk data burned into CD by the vendor. The user cannot erase
or change or modified with new data or write on the recorded disk. The user can
only "read" the data. This type of optical disk is used primarily for making
volumes of prerecorded data immediately available to the user. CD-ROM
recording-can be read or played on any standard CD-ROM player. It contains
650 M8 of Information. CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute Computer
software, games and multimedia application.
CD-R (Compact Disk- Recordable)
A CD-R disk is recordable with a type of disk drive called CD -R drive.

The multisession recording enables to keep adding data to a CD-ROM over
time. To create CD-ROM , CD-R drive. and CD-R software package are
necessary. CD-R can be used to store a wide variety of digital data.
CD-RW (Compact Disk Rewritable)
This is a new type of compact disk that enables to write onto it in multiple
sessions. This CD-RW drives can be used just like a floppy or hard disk for
writing data onto it multiple time. The CD-RW can also be erased and, reused.
A CD burner will use its higher laser power to melt the recording layer to record
data onto a compact disk whereas the CD-RW burner uses its medium level of
laser power to melt the data layer, so that new data can be added to the disk.
DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK (DVD)
It is a type of optical disk technology that holds a minimum of 4.7 GB of

data. DVDs are commonly used as a medium for digital representation of
movies and other multimedia presentations that combine sound with graphics In
the case of DVD the information can be stored in layers on both sides of DVD.
Advantages of DVD
 It is useful to store large data at a cheaper cost

 It makes transfer of data quick and easy.
 The quality of data will not deter rate, over a period of time.
Disadvantages of DVD
 DVD uses digital compression. Poorly compressed audio or video may be

blocky, fuzzy and harsh.
 Some DVD players and drivers cannot read CD-Rs.
FEATURES OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

(MAGNETIC, FLOPPY, CD ETC)
 Storage capacity of the device is more.
 Unlimited capacity.
 Price of the device is very low.
 Portability.
 It can be used easily to transport huge amount of data.
 The amount of data that can be transferred from the device to the main
memory of the computer in unit time.
 The access time taken to access a particular location of the memory is
less.
UNIT V
SOFTWARE
What is software?
Software is a collection of instructions, data, or computer programs that are used to run
machines and carry out particular activities. It is the antithesis of hardware, which refers to a
computer’s external components. A device’s running programs, scripts, and applications are
collectively referred to as “software” in this context.
Types of S/W:
Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each type and its
subtypes:
1. System Software
o Operating System
o Language Processor
o Device Driver
2. Application Software
o General Purpose Software
o Customize Software
o Utility Software
System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the
basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in
other words, system software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also
controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an
interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each
other because hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications
are work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software
converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice versa.
Types of System Software

It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer
system ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it
manages all the resources such as computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc.,
and provides an interface to the user, which helps the user to interact with the
computer system. It also provides various services to other computer software.
Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable
language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the
language processor. It converts programs written in high-level programming
languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known as source code), into sets of
instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as object code or machine
code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and
helps that device to perform its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem,
etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer system eternally. So, when you
connect a new device with your computer system, first you need to install the driver
of that device so that your operating system knows how to control or manage that
device.
Features of System Software
Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
 System Software is closer to the computer system.
 System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
 System software is difficult to design and understand.
 System software is fast in speed(working speed).
 System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.
Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the
basic operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words,
application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product or a
program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word processors,
spreadsheets, database management, inventory, payroll programs, etc.
Types of Application Software
What is a Word Processor?
The capability to create documents using a word processor is known as word processing. It
can also refer to advanced shorthand techniques, which are sometimes utilized in specialized
situations with a typewriter that has been customized. These were primarily intended for
typists, especially in organizations where other employees would provide handwritten notes
to be transcribed into documents for printing and then returned for inspection.
Different word processors are available today; some are proprietary, such as Microsoft Word,
StarOffice Writer, WordPerfect Office, and others are open source, such as Openoffice.org
Writer, etc.
How to open MS Word in Windows?
In Windows 8/above:
Step 1: Press Windows + C to open the search bar
Step 2: Type MS Word & click on the MS Word version you are having in your system. MS
Word window will pop up.
In Windows 7 or below:
Step 1: Go to the program section in the windows start menu.
Step 2: Go to MS Office & click on it. A drop-down list is seen
Step 3: Click on MS Word & the MS Word window will pop up.
Creating a New Document in MS Word
Once your MS Word Window pops up, you can create & save the file by:
Step 1: Click on the Microsoft button on the top left.
Step 2: Click on New, a new Document window will pop up.

Step 3: Click on Create & a new document will be created
Note: Shortcut for New: Ctrl + N
How to Save a document or give a Name to a new document created?
Step 1: Click on the Microsoft icon
Step 2: Click On SaveAs button.
Step 3: Click on Word Document & a new Window for save as will pop up
Step 4: Select the drive (by clicking on it: Example: Local Drive (D)) in which you want to
save the document
Then your driver will open up, select the folder in which you want to save the document
(Example: img folder here) & then give the required name to your document (Example: Doc3
here)
Your document is created & saved with the provided name.
Note: Shortcut for save: Ctrl +s
How to print a document through an attached printer?
Step 1: Click on the Microsoft icon
Step 2: Click On Print & a window for Print & Preview the document will pop up.
Step 3: Click on Print. Then a window for Print will pop up.
Step 4: Select the printer by which you want to take out a print of the document. Select the
page range (Print of all or some or current page) & the number of copies you want.
Step 5: Click on OK. You will get a print of your document.
Note: Shortcut for print is Ctrl + P.
MS Word Window
MS Word Window has the following components:
(i) Title Bar: Shows the name/title given by you to the current document. If the user does not
save the document by any name, the default name given by MS Word appears in this bar.
(ii) Menu Bar: Contains menu items like Margins, views, page layout, etc.
(iii) Office Button: MS Office button on the left-most top.
(iv) Formatting Toolbar: Have tools like Bold, Italic, Underline, Font shape & size, etc. to
format your data.
(v) Ribbon: To provide an easy & quick user interface we have ribbon in MS Word.
Depending on what you’re doing in Word, Excel, or another Office software, the Ribbon
varies.
(vi) Scrollbars: To scroll your document up or down.
(vii) Zoom Slider: To zoom in or zoom out your document

(viii) View Buttons: Provides different views of your document like Print view, full-screen
view, web layout view, etc.
(ix) Quick Access Toolbar: To quickly save your document on clicking the save button, or
to redo or undo the last work done.
(x) Work Window: The area where you can actually word, write data, including images, etc,
Sample Questions
Question 1. What will you do for closing a document?
Answer:
The procedure is as follows:
Step 1. Go to Office Button
Step 2. Click on close (last option in the list).
Question 2. Give shortcuts to create, print, close & save a document.
Answer:
1. Ctrl +N – Create a New Document-
2. Ctrl + S – Save a Document
3. Alt + F4 – Close a Document.
4. Ctrl + P – Print a Document.
Question 3. How to Open MS Word in Windows 7?
Answer:
The Steps to open MS Word are as follows:
Step 1. Click on Start icon on the screen.
Step 2. Choose All Programs
Step 3. Select Microsoft Office
Step 4. Click on Microsoft Word.
Question 4. What are different Alignments available in MS Word?
Answer:
The appearance and direction of the paragraph’s edges are determined by alignment. Types of
alignment are:
1. Left Alignment: The text was aligned uniformly along the left margins.
2. Right Alignment: The text was aligned uniformly along the right margins.
3. Center Alignment: The text is aligned evenly with the center of the page.
4. Justified Alignment: The text was aligned evenly with both the left and right margins.
Question 5. How to use Save as option in MS Word?
Answer:
The steps for using Save As :
Step 1. Click on Office button on the left top
Step 2. Choose Save As Option under it.
Step 3. Save As Dialog box pops up
Step 4. Select the location to save as your document & provide a new name
Step 5. Click on Save.
What is a spreadsheet?
A Spreadsheet is a computer application that is designed to add, display, analyze, organize,
and manipulate data arranged in rows and columns. It is the most popular application for
accounting, analytics, data presentation, etc. In other words, spreadsheets are scalable grid-
based files that are used to organize data and perform calculations. People all across the
world use spreadsheets to create tables for personal and business usage.
You can also use the tool’s features and formulas to help you make sense of your data.
For example – You may track data in a spreadsheet and see sums, differences, multiplication,
division, and fill dates automatically, among other things. Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets,
Apache Open Office, LibreOffice, etc. are some spreadsheet software. Among all these
software, Microsoft Excel is the most commonly used spreadsheet tool and it is available for
Windows, macOS, Android, etc.
What is an Excel SpreadSheet?
A collection of spreadsheets is known as a workbook. Every Excel file is called a workbook.
Every time you start a new project in Excel, you’ll need to create a new workbook.
There are several methods for getting started with an Excel workbook. To create a new
worksheet or access an existing one, you can either start from scratch or utilize a pre-
designed template. A single Excel worksheet is a tabular spreadsheet that consists of a matrix
of rectangular cells grouped in rows and columns. It has a total of 1,048,576 rows and 16,384
columns, resulting in 17,179,869,184 cells on a single page of a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet
where you may write, modify, and manage your data.
In the same way as a file or a book is made up of one or more worksheets that contain various
types of related data, an Excel workbook is made up of one or more worksheets. You can also
create and save an endless number of worksheets. The major purpose is to collect all relevant
data in one place but in many categories (worksheet).
Features of spreadsheet
As we know that there are so many spreadsheet applications available in the market. So these
applications provide the following basic features:
Rows and columns:
Rows and columns are two distinct features in a spreadsheet that come together to make a
cell, a range, or a table. In general, columns are the vertical portion of an excel worksheet,
and there can be 256 of them in a worksheet, whereas rows are the horizontal portion, and
there can be 1048576 of them.
The color light green is used to highlight Row 3 while the color green is used to highlight
Column B. Each column has 1048576 rows and each row has 256 columns.
Formulas:
In spreadsheets, formulas process data automatically. It takes data from the specified area of
the spreadsheet as input then processes that data, and then displays the output into the new
area of the spreadsheet according to where the formula is written. In Excel, we can use
formulas simply by typing “=Formula Name(Arguments)” to use predefined Excel formulas.
When you write the first few characters of any formula, Excel displays a drop-down menu of
formulas that match that character sequence. Some of the commonly used formulas are:
 =SUM(Arg1: Arg2): It is used to find the sum of all the numeric data specified in the given
range of numbers.
 =COUNT(Arg1: Arg2): It is used to count all the number of cells(it will count only number)
specified in the given range of numbers.
 =MAX(Arg1: Arg2): It is used to find the maximum number from the given range of numbers.
 =MIN(Arg1: Arg2): It is used to find the minimum number from the given range of numbers.
 =TODAY(): It is used to find today’s date.
 =SQRT(Arg1): It is used to find the square root of the specified cell.
For example, you can use the formula to find the average of the integers in column C from
row 2 to row 7:
= AVERAGE(D2:D7)
The range of values on which you want to average is defined by D2:D6. The formula is
located near the name field on the formula tab.
We wrote =AVERAGE(D2:D6) in cell D9, therefore the average becomes (2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6
+ 7)/6 = 27/6 = 4.5. So you can quickly create a workbook, work on it, browse through it, and
save it in this manner.
Functions of SpreadSheet
In spreadsheets, the function uses a specified formula on the input and generates output. Or in
other words, functions are created to perform complicated math problems in spreadsheets
without using actual formulas. For example, if you want to find the total of the numeric data
present in the column then use the SUM function instead of adding all the values present in
the column.
Text Manipulation:
The spreadsheet provides various types of commands to manipulate the data present in it.
Pivot Tables: It is the most commonly used feature of the spreadsheet. Using this table users
can organize, group, total, or sort data using the toolbar. Or in other words, pivot tables are
used to summarize lots of data. It converts tons of data into a few rows and columns.
Uses of Spreadsheets
The use of Spreadsheets is endless. It is generally used with anything that contains numbers.
Some of the common use of spreadsheets are:
 Finance: Spreadsheets are used for financial data like it is used for checking account
information, taxes, transaction, billing, budgets, etc.
 Forms: A spreadsheet is used to create form templates to manage performance review,
timesheets, surveys, etc.
 School and colleges: Spreadsheets are most commonly used in schools and colleges to
manage student’s data like their attendance, grades, etc.
 Lists: Spreadsheets are also used to create lists like grocery lists, to-do lists, contact detail,
etc.
 Hotels: Spreadsheets are also used in hotels to manage the data of their customers like their
personal information, room numbers, check-in date, check-out date, etc.
Components of Spreadsheets
The basic components of spreadsheets are:
1. TitleBar:
The title bar displays the name of the spreadsheet and application.
2. Toolbar:
It displays all the options or commands available in Excel for use.
3. NameBox:
It displays the address of the current or active cell.
4. Formula Bar:
It is used to display the data entered by us in the active cell. Also, this bar is used to apply
formulas to the data of the spreadsheet.
5. Column Headings:
Every Excel spreadsheet contains 256 columns and each column present in the spreadsheet is
named by letters or a combination of letters.
6. Row Headings:
Every Excel spreadsheet contains 65,536 rows and each row present in the spreadsheet is
named by a number.
7. Cell:
In a spreadsheet, everything like a numeric value, functions, expressions, etc., is recorded in
the cell. Or we can say that an intersection of rows and columns is known as a cell. Every cell
has its own name or address according to its column and rows and when the cursor is present
on the first cell then that cell is known as an active cell.
8. Cell referring:
A cell reference, also known as a cell address, is a way for describing a cell on a worksheet
that combines a column letter and a row number. We can refer to any cell on the worksheet
using cell references (in excel formulae). As shown in the above image the cell in column A
and row 1 is referred to as A1. Such notations can be used in any formula or to duplicate the
value of one cell to another (by using = A1).
9. Navigation buttons:
A spreadsheet contains first, previous, next, and last navigation buttons. These buttons are
used to move from one worksheet to another workbook.
10. Sheet tabs:
As we know that a workbook is a collection of worksheets. So this tab contains all the
worksheets present in the workbook, by default it contains three worksheets but you can add
more according to your requirement.
How to Create a New Spreadsheet or Workbook
To create a new spreadsheet follow the following steps:
Step 1: Click on the top-left, Microsoft Office button and a drop-down menu appear.
Step 2: Now select New from the menu.
Step 3: After selecting the New option a New Workbook dialogue box will appear and then
in Create tab, click on the blank Document.
A new blank worksheet is created and is shown on your screen.

Note: When you open MS Excel on your computer, it creates a new Workbook for you.
Saving The Workbook
In Excel we can save a workbook using the following steps:
Step 1: Click on the top-left, Microsoft office button and we get a drop-down menu:
Step 2: Now Save or Save As are the options to save the workbook, so choose one.
 Save As: To name the spreadsheet and then save it to a specific location. Select Save As if
you wish to save the file for the first time, or if you want to save it with a new name.
 Save: To save your work, select Save/ click ctrl + S if the file has already been named.
So this is how you can save a workbook in Excel.
Inserting text in Spreadsheet
Excel consists of many rows and columns, each rectangular box in a row or column is
referred to as a Cell. So, the combination of a column letter and a row number can be used to
find a cell address on a worksheet or spreadsheet. We can refer to any cell in the worksheet
using these addresses (in excel formulas). The name box on the top left(below the Home tab)
displays the cell’s address whenever you click the cell.
To insert the data into the cell follow the following steps:
Step 1: Go to a cell and click on it
Step 2: By typing something on the keyboard, you can insert your data (In that selected cell).
Whatever text you type displays in the formula bar as well (for that cell).
How to Edit/ Delete Cell Contents in the Spreadsheet
To delete cell content follow the following steps:
Step 1: To alter or delete the text in a cell, first select it.
Step 2: Press the Backspace key on your keyboard to delete and correct text. Alternatively,
hit the Delete key to delete the whole contents of a cell. You can also edit and delete text
using the formula bar. Simply select the cell and move the pointer to the formula bar.
What is Graphics Software
Graphics software is a type of computer program that is used to create and edit images. There is a
wide range of graphics software available on the market, ranging from simple programs that allow
users to create and edit basic images, to complex tools that can be used to create detailed 3D models
and animations. Some of the most popular graphics software programs include Adobe Photoshop,
Corel Painter, and Autodesk Maya.
Characteristics:
 A graphics software program is a computer application used to create digital images.
 Graphics software programs can be used to create both vector and raster images.
 Common features of graphics software programs include the ability to create, edit, and save
images in a variety of formats.
 Some graphics software programs also offer features such as the ability to create animations
or 3D models.
 Popular examples of graphics software programs include Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, and
Inkscape.
Examples:
Some popular graphics software programs are Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, and
CorelDRAW. These programs can be used to create and edit digital images, illustrations, and
logos. They offer a variety of features and tools that allow users to manipulate photos and
graphics to create custom designs.
 Adobe Photoshop is a popular graphics software used by photographers and graphic
designers.
 Adobe Illustrator is another popular graphics software used by graphic designers, especially
for creating vector illustrations.
 CorelDRAW is a graphics software used by both professionals and hobbyists.
 GIMP is a free and open source graphics software with capabilities similar to Photoshop.
 Inkscape is a free and open source vector graphics software used by graphic designers and
illustrators.
What is DBMS?
Database Management Systems (DBMS) are software systems used to store, retrieve, and run
queries on data. A DBMS serves as an interface between an end-user and a database,
allowing users to create, read, update, and delete data in the database.
DBMS manage the data, the database engine, and the database schema, allowing for data to
be manipulated or extracted by users and other programs. This helps provide data security,
data integrity, concurrency, and uniform data administration procedures.
DBMS optimizes the organization of data by following a database schema design technique
called normalization, which splits a large table into smaller tables when any of its attributes
have redundancy in values. DBMS offer many benefits over traditional file systems,
including flexibility and a more complex backup system.
Database management systems can be classified based on a variety of criteria such as the data
model, the database distribution, or user numbers. The most widely used types of DBMS
software are relational, distributed, hierarchical, object-oriented, and network.
Distributed database management system
A distributed DBMS is a set of logically interrelated databases distributed over a network that
is managed by a centralized database application. This type of DBMS synchronizes data
periodically and ensures that any change to data is universally updated in the database.
Hierarchical database management system
Hierarchical databases organize model data in a tree-like structure. Data storage is either a
top-down or bottom-up format and is represented using a parent-child relationship.
Network database management system
The network database model addresses the need for more complex relationships by allowing
each child to have multiple parents. Entities are organized in a graph that can be accessed
through several paths.
Relational database management system
Relational database management systems (RDBMS) are the most popular data model because
of its user-friendly interface. It is based on normalizing data in the rows and columns of the
tables. This is a viable option when you need a data storage system that is scalable, flexible,
and able to manage lots of information.
Object-oriented database management system
Object-oriented models store data in objects instead of rows and columns. It is based on
object-oriented programming (OOP) that allows objects to have members such as fields,
properties, and methods.
Examples of DBMS
There is a wide range of database software solutions, including both enterprise and open
source solutions, available for database management.
Here are some of the most popular database management systems:
Oracle
Oracle Database is a commercial relational database management system. It utilizes
enterprise-scale database technology with a robust set of features right out of the box. It can
be stored in the cloud or on-premises.
Learn how AppDynamics helps with Oracle monitoring
MySQL
MySQL is a relational database management system that is commonly used with open-source
content management systems and large platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Youtube.
Learn how AppDynamics helps with MySQL monitoring
SQL Server
Developed by Microsoft, SQL Server is a relational database management system built on top
of structured query language (SQL), a standardized programming language that allows
database administrators to manage databases and query data.
Learn how AppDynamics helps with SQL server monitoring
Features of Application Software

Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:
 An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks like
word processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
 The application software is easy to design and understand.
 Application software is written in a high-level language in general.
Difference Between System Software and Application Software
Now, let us discuss some difference between system software and application software:
System Software Application Software
It is designed to manage the resources of the
It is designed to fulfill the requirements of
computer system, like memory and process
the user for performing specific tasks.
management, etc.
Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level language.

Less interactive for the users. More interactive for the users.
Application software is not so important for

System software plays vital role for the effective
the functioning of the system, as it is task
functioning of a system.
specific.
It is independent of the application software to

It needs system software to run.
run.

Fit Notes

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SEC/FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Third Generation of Computer (1963 – 1975):

Fourth Generation of Computer (PC 1975 – Current)

PRIMARY OR MAIN MEMORY

The storage area may be designed to store a fixed number of characters

MAGNETIC CORE MEMORY

It is constructed with millions of basic elements known ferrite cores. The

A semiconductor is a bad conductor of electricity, but when arsenic and

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

A read/write memory is called Random Access Memory (RAM).

Dynamic RAM is the more common type. It needs to be refreshed

It is also a volatile storage device. It needs to be refreshed less often,

ii) Serial Access Memory

iii) Direct Access Memory

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

This is a type of semi conductor chip on which a program can be written

ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY (EPROM)

This is a type of semi conductor chip on which the memory can be

ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY

It is a special type of semi conductor chip on which the memory can be

An operating system facility which enables a program to burn in a

The secondary memory is also called external or Auxiliary memory or

Magnetic disk is a flat circular, plate made of aluminium and coated

The magnetic disks are similar to gramophone records. Magnetic disks

Floppy disks are made of magnetic oxide-coated mylar plastic. The

Advantages of Floppy disks

Advantages of Hard Disk

It is a secondary storage made up of mylar plastic coated with

A punch or a combination of punches in a column can represent the

Advantages of Paper Tapes

The magnetic tape is wound on a spool and the tape is transported

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

Disadvantages of Magnetic Tapes

Optical laser disks are used to store huge, volume of data up to 6

 CD-ROM (Cómpact Disk Read Only Memory)

A CD is a small, portable, round medium made of molded polymer for

As originally developed for audio system, the sound signal is sampled at

Advantages of Compact Disk

TYPES OF COMPACT DISK

CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory)

CD-R (Compact Disk- Recordable)

A CD-R disk is recordable with a type of disk drive called CD -R drive.

CD-RW (Compact Disk Rewritable)

DIGITAL VERSATILE DISK (DVD)

It is a type of optical disk technology that holds a minimum of 4.7 GB of

 It is useful to store large data at a cheaper cost

 DVD uses digital compression. Poorly compressed audio or video may be

FEATURES OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

Types of System Software

Step 2: Click on New, a new Document window will pop up.

(vii) Zoom Slider: To zoom in or zoom out your document

A new blank worksheet is created and is shown on your screen.

Features of Application Software

Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level language.

Application software is not so important for

It is independent of the application software to

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