Kabir 2020

Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120536
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Review
Prospects of biopolymer technology as an alternative option for non-

degradable plastics and sustainable management of plastic wastes
Ehsanul Kabir a, 1, Rajnish Kaur b, 1, Jechan Lee c, 1, Ki-Hyun Kim d, *, Eilhann E. Kwon e, **
a
Department of Farm Power and Machinery, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
b
Department of Physics, Panjab University, Sector 14, Chandigarh, 160014, India
c
Department of Environmental and Safety Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon, 16499, Republic of Korea
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea
e
Department of Environment and Energy, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, Republic of Korea
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: As of yet, disposal platforms for synthetic polymers have not matured in an environmentally benign
Received 12 October 2019 manner. Consequently, their wastes tend to remain as sources of pollution that chronically release
Received in revised form hazardous substances. In a strategical sense, biopolymers synthesized from natural (plant/animal or
28 December 2019
microbial) sources are thus recognized as an attractive and alternative option to replace synthetic
Accepted 10 February 2020
polymers in various respects, as demonstrated from their Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). It is found that
Available online 13 February 2020
some biopolymers (e.g., polylactic acid (PLA)) are naturally biodegradable, whereas others (e.g., ones
Handling editor: Kathleen Aviso derived from bioethanol) are not. In light of such limitations, new and innovative ideas and findings have
been proposed to seek for the sustainable use of biopolymers. In this review, the prospects of biopolymer
Keywords: technology were emphasized to address the issues associated with non-degradability of plastics. In this
Biopolymers respect, essential strategies were also discussed further for biopolymers as an alternative option for non-
Plastics degradable plastics to help establish sustainable management plan for plastic wastes based on standards,
Biodegradability certifications, and labeling of biopolymers.
Emerging contaminant
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Sustainability
LCA
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Classification and properties of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Degradation mechanisms of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Hydrolysis of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2. Microbial degradation of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3. Photodegradation of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Drawbacks of biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5. Environmental impacts of using biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.1. Thermoplastic starch (TPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3. Polylactic acid (PLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.4. Polybutylene succinate (PBS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6. The role of biopolymers for sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.-H. Kim), [email protected]
(E.E. Kwon).
1
These authors are co-first authors because they contributed equally to this
work.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120536
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 E. Kabir et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120536
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1. Introduction specifications, e.g., in terms of physicochemical properties and

mechanical functionalities comparable to conventional plastics
To date, synthetic plastics have been employed preferably in (e.g., flexibility, brittleness, and rigidity) (Elsawy et al., 2017). In line
various fields of applications due to their superior physico- with such expectation, the use of biopolymers has been proven to
chemical properties (e.g., availability, flexibility, durability, and have great potential for the conservation of natural ecosystems and
light weight) and economic viabilities (e.g., relative to conventional for the prevention of continued ecological destruction (Hall and
materials like wood, fabric, and metals) (Rendo n-Villalobos et al., Geoghegan, 2018). In these respects, LCA of biopolymers becomes
2016). As most polymers are derived from petroleum, they tend an essential tool for evaluating their long-term environmental
to be resistant to biodegradation (Mercado et al., 2017). Low impacts. In this review, current knowledge on the fundamental
biodegradability is one of the key factors contributing to the aspects of biopolymers was discussed to describe their classifica-
deterioration of ecological conditions if they are disposed of inap- tion, drawbacks, and degradation mechanisms. Finally, strategies
propriately (simply incinerated or dumped into landfills). From are summarized to help effectively replace conventional plastics
1950 to 2015, 8300 Mt of synthetic polymers were produced, with easily degradable products (related to standards, certifica-
roughly half of which (3900 Mt) were produced in the past 13 years tions, and labeling of biopolymers) for sustainable development.
(Fig. 1) (Geyer et al., 2017). Further, 4900 Mt of them were landfilled Standards, certifications, and labeling are regulatory tools to
or dumped into the natural environment (Geyer et al., 2017). support the establishment of a sustainable economy for bio-
A reliable disposal platform for polymeric wastes has not been polymers. Establishment of such criteria is essential for creation of
fully realized despite their short lifetime and potential hazards biopolymer markets, both for the generation of benefits of the
(Fig. 2). Hence, over the past 65 years (1950e2015), 800 and 600 Mt products and for overcoming uncertainties or doubts about their
of polymeric wastes are reported to have been incinerated and reliability. Standards are highly useful in that the existing regula-
recycled, respectively. Although thermal treatment is the only way tory system can adapt technological innovations in the highly un-
to fully break down conventional polymeric wastes, their inciner- certain biopolymer market (Blind et al., 2017). The International
ation leads to the release of toxic pollutants including dioxins, fu- Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines a standard as “a
rans, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Verma et al., 2016). document that provides requirements, specifications, guidelines, or
Hence, in order to mitigate the aforementioned negative environ- characteristics that can be used consistently to ensure that materials,
mental impacts, there have been increased efforts to develop products, processes and services are fit for their purpose”. The Euro-
biodegradable polymers (biopolymers) that can be produced from pean Committee for Standardization (CEN) offered a standardized
diverse natural feedstocks such as vegetables (e.g., starch, zein, program for bio-based products, as mandated by EU M/429, for the
cellulose, and pectin), animals and dairy products (e.g., chitosan, creation of TC 411 (Technical Committee 411) in 2011 (EU, 2015). TC
whey protein, gelatin, and casein), and fermentation products (e.g., 411 covers horizontal aspects such as determination of bio-based
polyhydroxybutyrate and polyhydroxyvalerate) (Vieira et al., 2011). content, application of LCA, a consistent terminology, and guid-
The utilization of a natural feedstock for the production of bio- ance on using existing standards. TC 249 with the EU M/249 is
polymers can be a desirable innovation, if such products show tasked with developing standards for biopolymers. TC 19, TC 276,
enhanced biodegradability while meeting the technical and TC 411 are responsible for the creation of standards for bio-
Fig. 1. Global production, use, and fate of polymer resins, synthetic fibers, and additives (1950e2015; in million metric tons) (Geyer et al., 2017).
E. Kabir et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120536 3
Fig. 2. Product lifetime distributions for the eight industrial sectors using or producing polymers are plotted as log-normal probability distribution functions (Geyer et al., 2017).
lubricants, bio-surfactants, and bio-solvents, respectively. A recent starch, soy protein, gelatin, casein, etc. are suitable for food coating,
review was well organized to offer an overview of the work food packaging, and many other related applications due to their
accomplished by CEN (Ladu and Blind, 2017). harmlessness (Baharuddin et al., 2014). In recent years, consider-
Certification schemes ensure that a product conforms to certain able efforts have hence been put on biopolymer packaging to in-
standards. Most certification schemes were developed for biofuels crease the shelf-life and nutritional value of food products (Stefani
and then adapted for bio-based materials like biopolymers. ASTM et al., 2016).
D-6866 provides a procedure for quantifying the amount of carbon The global biopolymer market is fragmented according to
in a product to help assess bio-based content in the product. products, applications, and regions based on price and quality. Due
Recently, the European bio-based content certification scheme was to stringent regulations and public demand for using biopolymers
also developed based on EN 16785e1, enabling independent eval- to abate the negative environmental impacts from synthetic poly-
uation of claims about bio-based contents (C, H, O, and N) (Ladu and mers, the European Union (EU) is the highest consumer of bio-
Blind, 2017). Biodegradability of biopolymers would be certified polymers in the global market. Steady growth of the biopolymer
based on European standards. A certification process is supposed to market is expected in the Asia-Pacific region due to increasing
generate a label to guarantee the compliance of products with environmental concerns and global pressure to curb pollution.
sustainability requirements. Labels provide information about Various types of biopolymer are commercially available, including
features and characteristics of products. In Europe, no label is yet PLA, PHA, polyethylene furanoate (PEF), thermoplastic starch (TPS),
used to identify bio-based products (e.g., biopolymers). Given that and biodegradable polyesters (Kreyenschulte et al., 2014). Among
labels for biopolymers need to cover a wide range of chemicals and them, PLA is one of the most common biopolymers. It can be made
materials, it would be a challenging task to make labels for bio- from lactic acid through fermentation of dextrose (C6H12O6)
polymers. In this review, the utility of biopolymers has been derived from carbohydrate-rich crops (e.g., potato, tapioca, corn,
described as an alternative option for the proper management of maize, wheat, and rice) (Mallegni et al., 2018). The same (or
non-degradable plastics based on sustainable strategies. different) types of monomers can be joined together in various
forms via different types of microbial fermentation to generate
2. Classification and properties of biopolymers biodegradable materials such as PLAs, polyglycolides (PGAs), and
polycaprolactones (Kalia, 2015).
Biopolymers are produced from carbon-neutral resources PEF from vegetable-derived fructose is considered to be one of
composed largely of bio-polymers such as carbohydrates and pro- the most promising biopolymers as it offers enhanced resistance to
teins, which impart enhanced biodegradability relative to synthetic mechanical and thermal stress (Isikgor et al., 2015). Specifically, PEF
polymers. In general, polymers are generated by repeating a exhibits improved thermal and mechanical properties relative to
building block, namely a monomer, consisting of carbon (C), oxygen polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (the most common thermoplastic
(O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) (Vilela et al., 2014). The polymer), including a higher transition temperature (when a ma-
physico-chemical properties of polymers (e.g., stiffness, resilience, terial changes from one crystal state to another) (Tg) (85 C vs.
conductivity of heat and electricity, resistance to corrosion, trans- 76 C), lower melting temperature (211 C vs. 247 C), and 1.6 times
parency, color, etc.) are determined by the types of monomer, de- higher Young’s modulus (Isikgor et al., 2015). (Young’s modulus is a
gree of polymerization, and bonding pattern/order. Biodegradable measure of elasticity, and is equal to the ratio of the stress acting on
polymers are classified into five categories depending on their a substance to the strain produced.)
fabrication methods and sources: (i) from plants (e.g., starch, cel- Moreover, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) monomer
lulose, zein, pectin, and lipid); (ii) from animals and dairy products (C6H4O5) from fructose presents new opportunities to make an
(e.g., casein, whey protein, gelatin, chitosan, and lipid); (iii) from extensive variety of polymers like poly(ethylene 2,5-
fermenting products or by-products (e.g., polyhydroxybutyrate furandicarboxylate) (PEF), poly(propylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate)
(PHB) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)); (iv) from chemical syn- (PPF), and poly(butylene 2,5-furandicarboxylate) (PBF) that provide
thesis of naturally derived substances (e.g., polylactic acid (PLA)); an effective CO2 barrier with higher glass transition temperature
and (v) from chemical synthesis of fossil resources (e.g., poly- (~87 C) (Wang et al., 2017). These products (i.e., PEF, PPF, and PBF)
caprolactones (PCL) and polyesteramides (PEA)) (Fig. 3) (Vieira can be used as chemical building blocks in diverse industries
et al., 2011). The properties of various biopolymers are summa- including bottling, textiles, food packaging, carpeting, electronics,
rized in Table 1. and automotives, due to their lower CO2, O2 and H2O permeability
Starch-based biopolymers are widely used due to the abun- (Wang et al., 2017). However, biopolymers tend to suffer from the
dance of their raw materials and the ease of processing with lack of mechanical/chemical resistance. In an effort to overcome
existing methods (e.g., synthesis through film extraction and in- such limitation, natural plasticizers and nanoparticles have been
jection moulding) (Oniszczuk et al., 2015). Biopolymers from added (Sanyang et al., 2015). The use of polymer blends is also
Biopolymer sources
Microorganis Chemical synthetization Chemical synthetization

Plants Animals
ms (natural origin ) (fossil resources )
Polyhydroxya Polylactic
Starches Casein Polycaprolactones
lkanoates acid
Polyhydroxyb
Celluloses Whey protein Polyesteramides
utyrate
Pectins Gelatin
Chitosan
Zein
Lipid
Fig. 3. Types of raw feedstocks required for biopolymer synthesis.
another promising alternative for improving biopolymer properties without any environmental side effects. Thus, it is important to
by limiting repulsive forces inside the biopolymers chains understand the diverse degradation mechanisms of biopolymers.
(Sadasivuni et al., 2019). The photo-degradation (e.g., photolysis, Extensive evaluations of the degradation of these materials have
photo-oxidation) process of the biopolymers is accounted for by UV been conducted to address environmental problems such as pollu-
radiation (e.g., UVA (315e400 nm) and UVB (295e315 nm)), tion, accumulation in landfills, and aggregation of persistent organic
whereas their thermal degradation/oxidation by visible radiation pollutants. Degradation is a process by which polymers are frag-
(400e700 nm) and infrared radiation (760e2500 nm) (Siracusa, mented into smaller molecules or elements. Note that not all bio-
2019). As a result of such degradation processes, alterations of polymers are biodegradable. The presence of hydroxyl group makes
boipolymers can take place in terms of physical and optical prop- biopolymers hydrophilic, which expedites the reaction kinetics for
erties, molecular weight, ductility, color, etc. hydrolysis by absorbing water. The degradation process of bio-
Currently, the biopolymer market share is less than 1% of the polymers depends on the origin of the polymer and its chemical/
global polymer industry demand (European Bioplastics, 2017). physical properties (e.g., chemical structure, surface area, crystal-
However, the global biopolymer market is expected to grow rapidly linity, hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, molecular weight, etc.). Recent
to meet government regulations and consumer demand for safe, advances in degradation of biopolymers are reviewed in this section.
eco-friendly packing materials for food items around the world
(Babu et al., 2013). The market of biopolymers is influenced by the 3.1. Hydrolysis of biopolymers
rising demand in the packaging end-use industry (both rigid and
flexible), environmental legislations, government policies, while Hydrolysis is regarded as the major degradation mechanism of
growing interests on bio-based content are increasing the demand biopolymers. Hydrolytic biodegradation of polymers involves hy-
for biopolymers. The market dimension of biopolymers was USD drolytic bond cleavage to form water soluble byproducts that can
6.95 billion in 2018 and is estimated to hit USD 14.92 billion by dissolve in an aqueous environment, giving rise to polymer
2023, at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 16.5% (GLOBE degradation. Degradation of biopolymers via hydrolysis enhances
NEWSWIRE, 2019). Now the biopolymer producers are increasing hydrophilicity via hydrolytic bond cleavage (Machmudah et al.,
their production capabilities as the leading industries of modern 2017). Hydrolysis is initiated from the inside out, turning the
services (e.g., Samsung and Apple) have decided to use biopolymers polymer into a porous matrix with little dimensional change. On
in their products and packaging. Furthermore, increasing rate of the other hand, surface erosion causes mass loss to progress from
beverage consumption and government policies are driving the the outer surface toward the center while maintaining the me-
market demand for bio-PET bottle around the globe. However, high chanical and structural integrity of the polymer. In general, hy-
price is one of the vital restraining factors of biopolymers industry. drolysis of biopolymers involves bond dissociations of the
Hence, shortage of necessary supply chain network at the capacity polymeric backbone in the presence of water, in which dissociated
locations is another challenge in the market. Furthermore, various molecules turn into water soluble monomeric acids via two path-
raw materials are being tested for the optimal production of bio- ways (bulk and surface erosion). In bulk erosion, water molecules
polymers, as the present technology is still in the nascent stage of diffuse quickly into the amorphous sites, causing a rapid loss of
development. strength and structural properties of the biopolymer. In surface
erosion, materials begin to degrade at the exterior surface, while
3. Degradation mechanisms of biopolymers the interior material is degraded last (Burkersroda et al., 2002). In
addition, hydrolysis occurs by breaking larger compounds like
Degradation of biopolymers is receiving significant attention polymers into smaller components, turning the polymer into a
with respect to solid waste accretion (i.e., growth or increase by the porous matrix with little dimensional change (Bagheri et al., 2017).
gradual accumulation of additional layers or matter). Many efforts A graphical presentation of the bulk and surface erosion processes
have been made to transform degradable biomaterials into mono- is provided in Fig. 4. Surface erosion occurs by hydrolyzing the
mers and/or carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) outer surface first, whereas bulk erosion hydrolyses the entire
Table 1
Summary of basic properties of various biopolymers.
Order Name Chemical structure Melting Glass Tensile Application

temperature(Tm) transition strength(MPa)
( C) temperature
(Tg) ( C)
1 Polyhydroxybutyrate 170e180 2e5 40 Medical applications

(PHB)
2 Polycaprolactones (PCL) 60 60 16 Medical applications, drug

delivery device
3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 170e180 5 43 Packaging material, medical

(PHAs) and pharmaceutical
applications
4 Polylactic acid (PLA) 150e160 60e65 16 Medical implants (e.g., anchors,

screws, plates, pins, rods),
packaging material, membrane
gas separation and
pervaporation (PV)
5 Polyethylene 2,5- 211 85 25 Packaging material

furandicarboxylate(PEF)
biopolymer, thereby resulting in the hydrolytic degradation of the

surface and core of the biopolymer. Various factors (including pH,
temperature, hydrophobicity, morphology, crystallinity, and
porosity) affect the degree of hydrolysis. Polyanhydrides and
aliphatic polyesters can be degraded in 182 days in the presence of
water (Ho €glund et al., 2012).
Researchers have studied the effects of thermal treatment of
biopolymers at temperatures from 20 to 50 C to identify the
combined effects of temperature and kinetics on the hydrolysis of
biopolymers. While investigating the degradation kinetics of PLA
and Mg/PLA composite, the impacts of immersion temperature (25,
37, and 50 C) and pressure were examined. This examination
demonstrated that there are well-characterized connections be-
tween the bending strength of the samples and the PLA atomic
weight amid submersion, which are independent of the degrada-
tion temperature and external compression stress. Results of these
investigations could contribute to a numerical model of the re-
Fig. 4. Hydrolysis degradation process of biopolymers: (a) Bulk Erosion and (b) Surface lationships among bending strength, PLA molecular weight, im-
Erosion. mersion time and temperature (Li et al., 2017).
Poly(lactic) acid (PLA) has excellent physico-chemical properties degraded 3e4 times more than neat polylactide (Di et al., 2005).
such as high mechanical strength, high Young’s modulus, biode- Lizundia et al. (2016) proposed the use of nanomaterials such as
gradability, biocompatibility, bio-absorbability, transparency, and zinc oxide (ZnO) to enhance the eco-friendly disposal of polymers.
low toxicity. Nevertheless, PLA exhibits fast reaction kinetics for A poly(L-lactide) (PLLA)/ZnO composite with a pore diameter of
hydrolysis because the oligomeric structure of PLA is water soluble 125e250 mm and porosities of up to 90% was prepared. PLLA/ZnO
(Gupta et al., 2007). nanocomposites with homogeneously distributed nanoparticles
As the ester groups are hydrolytically degraded, the molecular were subjected to thermal and hydrolytic degradation processes to
weight decreases, as dissolvable low-molecular-weight oligomers explore the catalytic effect. The FTIR results demonstrated an in-
and monomers are released. The kinetic model for hydrolysis increase in carboxylic acid groups, which was proportional to ZnO
dicates that the ester bond separation rate is time-dependent. loading due to lattice oxygen vacancies in ZnO. These findings
During hydrolytic degradation, ester bonds in PLA are seldom hy- suggest that progress in eco-friendly disposal of polymeric waste
drolyzed by water atoms, which results in carboxylic and hydroxyl can be achieved through the use of natural materials as catalysts
end gatherings. It was observed that the reaction rate for hydrolysis (Lizundia et al., 2016). As degradation of PLA is already known in
can be expedited by providing additional energy. Specifically, the the presence of water, the effect of organic solvent was also studied.
reaction rate for hydrolysis was higher at 60 C and pH 7.4 than at In detail, the polymer matrix was swelled, increasing chain
37 C and pH 3.7 (Li et al., 2017) Hydrolytic degradation of PLA mobility and inducing solvent-induced crystallization. For instance,
begins after only two days. Franco et al. elucidated concurrent solvent expedites crystallization
High temperature and humidity expedite the reaction kinetics and hydrolytic degradation in water-ethanol solutions. The PLA
for hydrolysis of PLA. Cadori et al. reported the reaction kinetics for films were immersed in water, water: ethanol (50:50) and water:
hydrolysis of PLA at pH of 2 under varied hydrolytic temperatures ethanol (5:95) for three months. Franco et al. compared change in
from 40 to 120 C (Codari et al., 2012). The evolution of PLA olig- molecular weight, water sorption, sorption of ethanol, and lactic
omers (different chain lengths and chirality) as a function of hy- acid release under three different experimental conditions. The
drolytic time was monitored and quantified using HPLC. To do so, immersion of PLA in 50% ethanol showed the faster hydrolysis rate
the reaction kinetics for hydrolysis of PLA were evaluated at a range than in 95% ethanol and pure water). The studies were confirmed
of temperatures as a function of the formation of hydrolytic prod- by NMR spectroscopy showing that PLA experienced solvent-
ucts. Based on the developed kinetic model, the activation energies induced crystallization. The hydrolysis of PLA was associated with
of two PLA oligomers with different chain lengths and chirality the fact that during exposure there is a release of lactic acid, which
were estimated to be 73 and 58 kJ mol1. is a low molecular weight, water-soluble oligomers and monomers.
Tsuji et al. degraded PLA at 37 C and pH of 7.4. Introduction of The hydrolysis of bio-based poly(butylene succinate-co-fur-
alcohols during ring-opening polymerization of lactides results in andicarboxylate) and poly(butylene adipate-co-furandicarbox-
the formation of linear and star-shaped (branching) structures. The ylate) copolyesters were studied at 25 C with a phosphate-
effects of branching architecture and crystallinity on hydrolytic buffered saline (PBS) solution of pH 7.0 (Peng et al., 2017). The
degradation and crystalline morphology changes were examined in authors reported the hydrolysis kinetics for a period of 22 weeks.
detail. The rate of debasement was likewise evaluated based on a The dependence of biopolymer hydrolysis on temperature was
decline in atomic weight, which was higher for crystalline samples correlated with weight reduction and the viscosity-averaged mo-
than for amorphous samples. The glass transition and cold crys- lecular weight decrement using X-Ray Diffraction and AFM analysis
tallization temperatures of originally amorphous and crystalline in a study by Bonartsev et al. A key point from these studies is that
samples demonstrated changes comparable to those recorded for the problem of biodegradation in semicrystalline biopolymers re-
one-armed PLA. Overall, it was observed that molecular weight, mains unresolved. As biodegradable polymers are viewed as an
which is used to quantify the degradation rate, decreases during important solution to ecological issues created by plastic waste, the
this process. The degradation rate was significantly lower with kinetics of their degradation process was estimated through
higher branching architecture as well as a high number of hydroxyl various models. Hydrolytic degradation of polylactic acid (PLA) and
groups per unit mass (Tsuji and Hayashi, 2015). its composites was estimated by Bonartsev et al. (2012). Poly(3-
As degradation of PLA is known to occur in the presence of hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is a standout amongst the most essential
water, the effects of organic solvents also were studied. Swelling of biopolyesters from the group of polyhydroxyalkanoates, which are
the polymer matrix expands chain mobility and induces crystalli- created by microorganisms from renewable resources. Amorphous
zation. For instance, Franco et al. found that solvents expedite PHB films were degraded in aqueous media at various pH values
crystallization and hydrolytic degradation in water-ethanol solu- (13.0, 12.5, 12.0 and 7.0) by Polyak et al. Degradation studies were
tions. They saturated PLA films in pure water, water: ethanol done over different degradation periods (7, 14, 21 and 28 days). The
(50:50) and water: ethanol (5:95) for three months and compared outcomes demonstrated that degradation occurs in the interior of
the change in molecular weight, water sorption, sorption of the samples and not on their surface because degradation does not
ethanol, and lactic acid release under the three different experi- happen randomly, but rather with higher frequency toward the end
mental conditions. Immersion of PLA in 50% ethanol resulted in a of the chains. The rate of degradation increased with increasing pH
faster hydrolysis rate than in 95% ethanol or in pure water. The values (Polya k et al., 2017). Table 2 summarizes factors affecting the
results were confirmed by NMR spectroscopy, which showed that hydrolysis of biopolymers, as discussed in this subsection.
PLA experienced solvent-induced crystallization. The overall
degradation process was associated with changes in mechanical 3.2. Microbial degradation of biopolymers
and thermal properties, molecular weight and morphology of the
polymers (In ~ iguez-Franco et al., 2016). Degradation of biopolymers can be triggered by microbiota (e.g.,
Accelerated hydrolytic degradation of PLA was reported in fungi and bacteria) and/or other factors (e.g., hydrolysis, photolysis,
polymer/clay nanocomposites. In a study of hydrolytic degradation mechanical, and/or thermal stress) (Pathak and Navneet, 2017).
of PLA by Di et al., the molecular weight and the pH of the medium Microbial degradation alters the strength and color of polymeric
were monitored for PLA degradation. The introduction of clay helps material under controlled conditions of aerobic and anaerobic
water diffusion, which further enhances the degradation rate. After surroundings. During this process, microorganisms convert the
observing for six weeks, they concluded that clay-filled PLA insoluble biopolymer into a soluble biopolymer. These compounds
Table 2
Hydrolysis of biopolymers.
Order Biopolymer Factors affecting the rate of Hydrolysis conditions

degradation
1 Polyanhydrides and aliphatic polyesters Dimensions of the polymer 182 days in the presence of
water
2 Poly(DL-lactide) Temperature and pH conditions 60 C at pH 7.4
3 Polylactic acid Temperature and pH conditions 40 to 120 C
4 4-armed poly(L-lactide)s at 37 C and pH 7.4 Temperature and pH conditions 37 C at pH 7.4
5 Polylactic acid Clay nanocomposites 25 and 37 C
6 Polylactic acid Concurrent solvents ethanol and 40 C
water
7 Poly(L-lactide) ZnO NPs e
8 Poly(butylene succinate-cofurandicarboxylate) and poly(butylene adipate-co- PBS buffer solution 25 C at pH 7.0
furandicarboxylate) copolyesters
9 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) pH dependence pH value of 13.0, 12.5, 12.0
and 7.0
Fig. 5. Microbial degradation of biopolymers.
are used by microorganisms in their microbial growth metabo- investigations demonstrated that following 660-day-long stretches
lisms. This explains the degradation of biopolymers in the presence of soil incubation, mineralization occurred for poly-
of microbes showing the by-products of degradation, as shown in hydroxyalkanoate plastics, starch-based plastics and for materials
Fig. 5. produced using manure (Go mez and Michel, 2013).
The microbial degradation process involves excretion of extra- Microcantilever sensors were used for rapid assessment of
cellular enzymes that depolymerize the biopolymers. As extracel- enzyme-based degradation reactions (Bose et al., 2015). Bose et al.
lular enzymes are secreted outside the cell membrane, they allow degraded amorphous poly(D, Lactide) (PDLLA) and estimated the
microbes to derive energy and nutrients from polymers and cata- reverberation frequencies of polymer-covered microcantilevers
lyze the cycling of organic matter. During the depolymerization during debasement. This type of analysis provides a fast measure-
step, the biopolymer is decreased to a size that is water soluble and ment of the biodegradation rate of PDLLA using a minute amount of
ready to be transported through the cell wall. After this it can be sample. When the cantilever is covered with polymer, the reso-
mineralized through microbial metabolic pathways, which involves nance frequency decreases from 33.3 kHz to 30.1 kHz because of
chemical transformation and turnover of naturally occurring bio- the expansion of mass on one side of the cantilever. When the
polymers (Pathak and Navneet, 2017). Fragments of the bio- cantilever is drenched in a proteinase K compound solution, the
polymers (depolymerization) are consumed as carbon substrates, amount of polymer on the cantilever surface declines because of
which form various products such as CO2, CH4, NH3, SO2, H2, water, the beginning of degradation and the frequency begins to increase
salts, and minerals (Emadian et al., 2017). In general, degradation until the point when it approaches the initial resonance frequency
rate is faster under aerobic conditions than under anaerobic con- of the blank cantilever. Meanwhile, Masmoudi et al. (2016) worked
ditions. Microbes such as Fusarium verticillioides, Penicillium on novel biodegradable packaging materials produced from vegetal
roquefort, Amycolatopsis sp., Bacillus brevis, and Rhizopus delemar biomass such as starch and PLA reinforced with cellulose. The
have been identified as responsible for the biodegradation of PLA plasticized starch demonstrated a rapid biodegradation process, in
(Kawai, 2010). contrast to the PLA/cellulose fibers. These new materials were
The biodegradation of diverse plastics (such as traditional/bio- proposed for sustainable development and waste reduction, as al-
based plastics and natural fiber composites (i.e., poly- ternatives to non-degradable plastic materials. In this way, low cost,
hydroxyalkanoate plastics, starch-based plastics, and materials safe, high value biopolymers for food packaging have been pro-
made up of compost)) was investigated (Go mez and Michel, 2013). duced by reinforcing starch and PLA using natural fibers.
These authors determined the extent of biodegradation by esti- Moon et al. also estimated microbial degradation of PLA with
mating the amount of carbon mineralized from these materials anaerobic bacteria from sewage sludge, and the biodegradability
during incubation using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Their was evaluated using the specific gas generation rate. During the
Table 3
Microbial degradation of bioplastics.
Order Biopolymer Type of microbe Factors affecting the rate of degradation
1 Polyhydroxyalkanoate plastics, starch-based plastics e Soil incubation

2 Poly (D, Lactide) Proteinase K enzyme e
3 PLA Bacillus strains Cellulose fibers
4 PLA Anaerobic bacteria from sewage sludge pH of 7.0
5 Starch-glycerol based films Yerba mate extract Ambient conditions
6 Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHAs) Bacillus subtilis e
the photodegradation process (Guillet et al., 1968). The most

effective UV wavelength range for photodegradation of bio-
polymers is 250e340 nm (Yousif and Haddad, 2013). A basic
schematic of the photodegradation process is presented in Fig. 6. To
expedite photolysis activity associated with light wavelengths from
200 to 700 nm, photo-sensitive additives (e.g., TiO2 and ZnO) are
Fig. 6. Photolysis mechanism of biopolymers. added to the polymer. For example, the presence of TiO2 nano-
particles during the photodegradation process was enhanced in
poly(butylene succinate)/titanium dioxide (PBS/TiO2) (Heitmann
degradation of PLA with anaerobic digester sludge, the degree of
et al., 2016). The degradation efficiency was enhanced due to
biodegradation was assessed by examining both gas generation and
unique structural and interfacial interactions between the nano-
by-product development. The degradation occurs at the interface of
composites of nanoparticles and PBS matrix. Due to the high sur-
the polymer exposed to the solution and bacteria. The particular
face area of TiO2 (460 m2 g1), the maximum loading of the
CO2 and CH4 production rates were estimated in light of the total
polymer material can be achieved, while the PBS matrix ensures the
surface area to measure the biodegradability of PLA. The results
dispersion of these particles in the matrix structure (Buasri et al.,
successfully demonstrated a fast biodegradation process that can
2013). The incorporation of NPs increases the crystallinity of the
be controlled to produce ecological polymer materials (Moon et al.,
composite and slightly strengthens the interfacial interactions be-
2016).
tween cavities in the structure. Degradation studies were also done
Researchers also studied biodegradable and edible cassava starch-
by using various nanomaterials as photocatalysts in the presence of
glycerol-based films using different concentrations of yerba mate
UV radiation, as explained in this section. The nanostructured
extract (Jaramillo et al., 2016). The studies revealed the plasticizing
niobium oxyhydroxide (NbO2OH) was dispersed over poly (3-
impact of yerba mate extract as an antioxidant when it was integrated
hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) biopolymer at mass fractions of 1, 2, 3
into the matrix. Thermal degradation and biodegradability of the
and 5 wt% and heated at 55 C for 4 h. The results suggested that
obtained biofilms were analyzed by using various characterization
composite formation modifies the bandgap value (2.53e3 eV),
tools. Kanmani et al. (2016) investigated enzymatic degradation of
which further improves the photocatalysis process (Heitmann
polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), which are a critical class of biode-
et al., 2016). Table 4 summarizes the photodegradation of bio-
gradable polymers, using lipase from Bacillus subtilis. The enzymatic
polymers, as discussed in this subsection.
degradation of PHAs showed a decrease in molecular weight. More-
Photolysis also can be expedited in the presence of combined
over, scanning electron micrographs revealed a change in polymer
mechanical stresses such as shear stress, tension, and compression.
surface morphology. The chromatography studies indicated a 21.3%
Powerful shearing stress mechanically tears the polymer, resulting
molecular weight decrease and a 28.3% weight loss. From TGA studies,
in the formation of fragments with low molecular weight
the degraded sample showed a 45.82% weight loss between 30 and
(21e70 wt % of the polymer). Poly(ester-urethane) films based on
930 C. The melting temperature (Tm) of the polymer also decreased
poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] and poly(ε-caprolactone) blocks also
from 126.22 to 118.18 C, as demonstrated by various scanning calo-
were degraded photo-catalytically by Saad et al. (2010) and changes
rimetry studies. These lipase-catalyzed chain scission responses can
in molecular weight associated with variations in UV irradiation
be utilized to grow low-molecular-weight functional biopolymers for
were observed. It was noticed that, photolysis of examined tests i.e.
sustained drug release in pharmaceutical applications. Table 3 sum-
some synthesized poly(ester-urethane)s based on PHB and PCL
marizes the microbial degradation of biopolymers, as discussed in this
hinders preceding biodegradation increases its degree of degra-
subsection.
dation. The studies were performed using viscosity measurements
coupled to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), which was able
3.3. Photodegradation of biopolymers to explain about crystalline phase. For biodegradation, the film
samples were placed on trays and covered with a standard soil
Ultraviolet (UV) rays, which are electromagnetic radiation with mixture preserved at a moisture level of 22e26%, at pH of 7.5e8.5
wavelengths ranging from 10 to 400 nm, play a critical role during and temperature of 25e30 C. The films were observed after
Table 4
Photodegradation of biopolymers.
Order Biopolymer Factors affecting the rate of degradation Photodegradation conditions
1 Hyaluronic acid Modification with methacrylic anhydride and photopolymerized e

2 Poly(ester-urethane) films Soil burial pH range of 7.5e8.5 and temperature of 25e30 C (254 nm)
3 Chitosan Treatment With H2O2 254 nm
4 Poly(butylene succinate) Titanium dioxide e
5 Poly (3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) Niobium oxyhydroxide Heating at 55 C for 4 h
various time intervals, after which they were washed with DI water intrinsic viscosities, when measured as a function of reaction time
and dried. These co-polymers were treated under UV-irradiation (30 vs. 180 min) in the presence of H2O2 and UV radiation, were 17.2
with a wavelength of 254 nm with different exposure times (3, 6, and 26.4%, respectively. As the cleavage of the CeOeC glycosidic
and 9 h). Increased exposure time of irradiation was supported by bond prompted chain scission, carbonyl groups were created after
increment of the extent of the gel fraction and the reduce of the 30 min of irradiation. According to FTIR studies, the bands at 1602
characteristic viscosity of the soluble fraction of co-polymers. and 599 cm1 become stronger. Further, the peak at 599 cm1 was
The biodegradability of biopolymers when UV-illumination shifted to the higher wavenumbers. The shifting of NeH extending
under soil internment demonstrated that photolysis in air before vibration peak toward the lower wavenumbers is due to weakening
biodegradation expanded the debasement rate (Saad et al., 2010). of intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonds of chitosan.
So, after using UV irradiation in the degradation process, the re- This weakening of bonds and reduced crystallinity should be
searchers also started exploring the effects of adding catalyst ma- accounted for by the degradation of chitosan. This type of analysis
terials to accelerate the rate of photolysis. Other studies included facilitated a fast measurement of the biodegradation process.
the application of mechanical forces as well as heating treatments All the major degradation pathways for biopolymers as
to the biopolymer to increase the degradation rate. To reproduce described above are affected by the physiochemical properties of
the mechanical reuse of the polymer, the initial step is a quickened the materials (e.g., surface area, molecular weight, chemical
ageing process, which includes 40 h of photochemical degradation structure, crystallinity, modulus of elasticity, glass transition tem-
under UVB lights. Additionally, the examples were exposed to perature, and melting temperature of biopolymers). The type of
thermal degradation in a convection oven at 50 C for 20 days. After environmental processes (e.g., erosion, hydrolysis, photo-
ageing, samples were washed with NaOH and a surfactant solution. degradation, and thermo oxidative degradation) and factors (such
Finally, the samples were reprocessed by extrusion and compres- as moisture, temperature, solar radiation, air movement and
sion techniques (Beltran et al., 2017). pressure, precipitation, chemical and by micro and macro-
There was an attempt to degrade chitosan under UV radiation in organisms) play a vital role in efficient degradation process. The
the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Wang et al., 2017). The description of these different components is provided in Fig. 7.
carbonyl groups were found in the chitosan oligomers via diffuse Despite the significance of temperature in such respect, yet rela-
reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) analysis. Moreover, exposure of tively little is known about the thermal treatment of biopolymers at
chitosan to ultraviolet light alone could also crop carbonyl groups low temperature regime (e.g., from 20 to 50 C) to induce or
by the cleavage of the glycosidic bond. When the system was stimulate their degradation (Peelman, 2015). To assess the degra-
exposed to UV light with a wavelength of 254 nm (where H2O2 dation kinetics of pure PLA and Mg/PLA composite, the effect of
absorbs), there is disassociation of the eOeOe peroxide bond fol- various immersion temperature (25, 37, and 50 C) and compres-
lowed by the generation of hydroxyl radical (Eq. (1)). sion stress were studied (Li et al., 2017). These authors tested the
effect of rising immersion temperature in an effort to shorten the
H2O2 þ hʋ / 2 .OH. (1) experimental time. The results on this immersion temperature test
indicated that there are well-defined relationships between the
These hydroxyl radicals can oxidize the glycosidic linkages of bending strength of the specimens and the PLA molecular weight
biopolymer for its degradation. Thus, the overall process involves during immersion, which are independent of the degradation
disassociation of hydrogen peroxide and generation of hydroxyl temperature and/or external compression stress. The outcomes of
radicals, which enhances the reaction kinetics for the photolysis. these studies were helpful in developing a numerical model to
This synergetic effect of combined exposure to UV and hydrogen elucidate the relationships between diverse variables (e.g., bending
peroxide associated with breaking of the glycosidic bond was strength, PLA molecular weight, activation energy, immersion time,
demonstrated by means of viscometry. The decay rates of the and temperature) (Li et al., 2017).
Fig. 7. A list of the major factors influencing the natural degradation of biopolymer.
is the electron acceptor. In contrast, under anaerobic conditions,

nitrate or sulfate can serve as the electron acceptor. As methane gas
is released during anaerobic degradation process, aerobic degra-
dation is a preferable process for degradation of biopolymers
(Fig. 8).
4. Drawbacks of biopolymers
Biodegradation of biopolymers in the natural environment takes

a long time, during which they are considered as pollutants. More
specifically, in a controlled composting environment, it may take
about three months for PLA to break down into its constituent
parts. In contrast, in the field, it may take 100 to 1000 years to
decompose a PLA bottle due to the absence of light and oxygen (Lu
et al., 2014). The breakdown process of biodegradable products
depends on temperature and humidity. At low temperature and
high humidity, the degradation process may not progress efficiently
(Popescu et al., 2017). As most commercial biopolymers are pro-
duced from starch, companies are choosing genetically modified
species for higher crop yields. Some scientists have voiced concerns
about whether genetically modified crops generate or increase al-
lergens, toxins, and anti-nutrients (Arcieri, 2016). Hence, as the
Fig. 8. Comparison of aerobic vs. anaerobic degradation of biopolymers in the pres-
ence of light, temperature, and water. Reprinted from (Batori et al. 2018), Copyrights
origins of biopolymers are more diversified than those of a com-
2019, with permission from Elsevier. parable conventional plastic, they should be treated differently af-
ter use. For example, biopolymers should be treated in composting
facilities, although very few industrial-grade facilities are currently
Further, enormous efforts were put to assess the other factors available. Moreover, it is difficult to separate PLA from PET as the
controlling the degradation of biopolymers such as the application available technology is costly and not commonly used. Further-
of mechanical forces as well as heating treatments to fasten the more, the recycling value of PET products decreases significantly if
degradation. To simulate the effect of mechanical recycling of the they are contaminated with PLA (Qin et al., 2017). That is why many
polymer on its structure and properties, it was subjected to two recyclers are against the use of PLA until proper technology is
recycling processes. The first recycling process consisted of an available to remove the PLA products completely.
accelerated ageing and melt processing step, while the other The European Plastics Recyclers Association addressed that
recycling process involved an accelerated ageing, washing, and a biodegradable plastic bags may “have the potential to do more
second-melt processing step. This photochemical degradation harm to the environment than good.” (Mohapatra et al., 2017).
process involves exposure of biopolymer under UVB lamps for 40 h Although a small amount of metal is contained in some biode-
(Beltran et al., 2017). Further, the samples were exposed to thermal gradable products, high levels of lead and cobalt were detected in
degradation in a convection oven at 50 C for 20 days. After ageing, one brand (Jones and McClements, 2010). This raises questions
samples were washed with NaOH and a surfactant solution. Finally, regarding the toxicity of metal residues on these products. With the
the samples were reprocessed by extrusion and compression growing demand, the expansion of cultivable land area is required
techniques (Beltr an et al., 2017). as the feed stock of the biopolymers will increase. This may have a
Mechanical recycling of PLA filled with cellulose fiber compos- negative impact on the production of food, feed, and pasture. In
ites was investigated by compression moulding (Åkesson et al., 2017, around 0.82 million hectares of land were used globally for
2016). For this, a composite of 30 vol% PLA and 70 vol% cellulose the production of biopolymer feedstock, with the area projected to
fibers were prepared. The recyclability studies were performed by be 1.03 million hectares by 2022 (IfBB, 2018). Another downside of
grinding the material and then using the recyclate as a filler for PLA. biopolymers is their high production cost. In addition, there are
After the formation of composite, they were characterized by ten- quality issues for biopolymers when employed in real situations. In
sile tests, Charpy impact tests, DMTA, and SEM. The results showed comparison to petroleum-based plastics, biopolymers have low
a better stability of the material due to reinforcing effect. The physical, mechanical, and chemical resistance. Furthermore, the
biodegradation of PCL/gelatin and PCL/collagen nanofibers was also brittleness and high permeability to water vapor and oxygen of
studied based on electrospun from different solvent systems some bioplastics make them unsuitable for use in certain consumer
(Dulnik et al., 2016). The biodegradation studies of PCL/gelatin and applications such as food packaging.
PCL/collagen nanofibers were compared to assess the effect of
various solvents used in the process. 5. Environmental impacts of using biopolymers
Further, the degradation of biopolymers is affected by chemical
processes (e.g., dissolution, oxidation, and hydrolysis). In this The environmental impact resulting from the production and
respect, the factors such as reactivity of the material, level of use of biopolymers has always been an important factor to consider
exposure, and the nature of the contaminants also play a vital role in their development and production. Proper assessment of such
(Batori et al., 2018). The efficiency of these processes can also be impacts requires a keen knowledge of the environmental impacts
boosted by heat treatment. As biopolymers are long-chain mole- of biopolymers relative to their petrochemical counterparts. To this
cules, their degradation may proceed in a step by step process. First end, life cycle analysis (LCA) can be used to determine the envi-
the long polymeric chains are broken down to monomers by such ronmental impacts of a material and/or its production process
factors as temperature, water, and sunlight. Further, the biodegra- throughout its production, distribution, use, and disposal. It should,
dation can occur in two ways, aerobically and anaerobically. however, be noted that LCA does not cover social, ethical, and
Biodegradation can occur under aerobic conditions, where oxygen economic aspects. In this section, results from various LCA studies
Table 5
Summary of representative LCA results for TPS, PHAs, PLA, and PBS.
Order Biopolymer Energy demand Greenhouse gas emissions Reference
1 TPS 649 MJ 25 kg CO2 eq. Dinkel et al. (1996)

2 PHAs 31.5 MJ/kg 0.28 kg CO2 eq./kg Kim & Dale (2005)
3 PLA ~480 MJ when distributed by 16-ton truck ~28 kg CO2 eq. when distributed by 16-ton truck Madival et al. (2009)
4 PBS 123.3 MJ/kg 5.5 kg CO2 eq./kg (at stoichiometric scale) Tecchio et al. (2016)
are presented and described for a number of commercially were two options for energy requirements: natural gas or bio-
important biopolymers (e.g., thermoplastic starch (TPS), poly- energy (corn stover used as fuel). A better GHG profile was acquired
hydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polylactic acid (PLA), and polybutylene by the integrated process for PHA production with steam/electricity
succinate (PBS)). Table 5 summarizes the LCA results of the four generation (using bioenergy) than for conventional PE (natural
biopolymers. gas). On the other hand, the production of PHAs, if compared with
integrated steam/electricity generation by natural gas, was not
5.1. Thermoplastic starch (TPS) advantageous over petrochemical PE; its GHG profile was even
worse than that of PE.
TPS is produced by restructuration of starch with particular The energy needs for the production of PHB from different raw
quantities of plasticizers at specific extrusion conditions. TPS is materials (e.g., sugar beet, starch, fossil methane, and fossil meth-
used by itself (i.e., pure TPS) or as blends with petrochemical anol) through bacterial fermentation were compared to those of
polymers, depending on the type of application. An LCA was con- HDPE and PS (Heyde, 1998). The work concluded that the use of
ducted for TPS by comparing TPS with different petrochemical low- renewable feedstock requires the additional use of fossil resources.
density polyethylenes (LDPE) (Patel, 1999). In the study done by In addition, saving resources by employing renewable feedstock
Patel, it was expected that both TPS and LDPE are burned in can be achieved only if the whole process is optimized carefully. A
municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) plants after their use. case study of PHAs derived from no-tillage corn was reported by
The results of the LCA were confined to energy and CO2 emissions. Kim and Dale (Kim and Dale, 2005). In this study, two systems (corn
According to the comparison between TPS and LDPE, TPS has a
savings potential of 55 GJ/t plastic (cradle-to-factory gate energy
use) relative to LDPE. In addition, the former can reduce CO2
emissions by 3.7 t CO2/t plastic compared to LDPE. Note that a
comparative LCA was carried out between TPS and LDPE films
(100 m2 and 150 mm) (Dinkel et al., 1996). The study assumed that
80% of the waste was incinerated, while 20% was landfilled in
Switzerland. The LCA results also showed that TPS film (25 kg CO2
eq.) has less impact on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than LDPE
film (67 kg CO2 eq.). Furthermore, TPS film (649 MJ) was estimated
to require less energy than LDPE film (1340 MJ).
An LCA study was reported for tires containing TPS fillers (Patel
et al., 2002). The biopolymeric filler-containing tires were reported
to have performance-related advantages (e.g., low weight,
improved wet skid performance, reduced rolling resistance, and
controlled stiffness). According to the LCA results, the use of
biopolymer in tires led to low CO2 emissions that are caused not
only by fuel savings due to low rolling resistance but also by the
reduction in cradle-to-factory gate emissions. For example, the
replacement of 20 and 50 wt % carbon black with TPS in tires helped
reduce CO2 emission by 3.53 and 9.52 g CO2/km, respectively,
which corresponds to reductions in the average CO2 emissions per
passenger car of 2 and 5%, respectively.
5.2. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
LCA studies showed that the total fossil energy requirements of

PHAs (e.g., polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and polyhydroxyvalerate
(PHV)) from cradle-to-factory gate can compete with high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), depending on the process of producing PHAs
(Gerngross and Slater, 2000). The minimum energy input for the
production of PHAs via fermentation was estimated to be higher
than that of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), but lower than that
of polystyrene (PS). However, the process energy requirements for
PHAs were estimated to be two to three times higher than those
needed for petrochemical polymers.
A detailed LCA study was conducted about a profile of GHGs that Fig. 9. Environmental impacts of biopolymer (PLA) vs. petrochemical polymer (PET
are potentially emitted from the production of PHAs derived from and PS). Reprinted from (Madival et al., 2009), Copyright 2009, with permission from
genetically modified corn (Kurdikar et al., 2000). In this study, there Elsevier.
grain vs. corn grain/corn stover) were investigated for producing CO2, CH4, and N2O). The production of PBS at pilot scale, for
PHAs. The global warming impact of the former system was example, emitted 36.57 kg CO2 eq./kg (PBS), while the production
1.6e4.1 kg CO2 eq./kg, whereas the latter system was 0.28 of PET emitted 23.98 kg CO2 eq./kg (PET). The results indicated that
to 1.9 kg CO2 eq./kg. These values were dependent on associated environmental burdens for the production of PBS are higher than
fermentation technologies. Overall, the PHA production process those for PET. It was however recognized that the scaling up of the
using both corn grain and corn stover as the feedstock reduced PBS production process should lead to the reduction of CED and
impacts on the environment, compared to that using corn grain as GHG emissions (Tecchio et al., 2016). As such, the scale-up of PBS
the sole feedstock. production is beneficial to make its supply more environmentally
PHAs derived from whey were evaluated through LCA in terms benign.
of sustainable process index (SPI) (Koller et al., 2013). The SPI
assessment was conducted to optimize ecological sustainability of 6. The role of biopolymers for sustainable development
the process for archaebacterial production of PHAs from whey. It
was shown that the production of 1 kg PHA (at 300 L scale) inflicted Sustainable development can be defined as that “which meets
a higher ecological pressure (10,000 m2/kg polymer) than that of the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability
equal amounts of petrochemical polymers (such as PE (~2000 m2/ of future generations to provide their own needs” (Go mez, 2014). If
kg polymer), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (~2000 m2/kg one can manage natural resources properly, the economic and so-
polymer), polypropylene (PP) (<2000 m2/kg polymer), and PS cial goals of sustainable development are not difficult to achieve. To
(<2000 m2/kg polymer)). Accordingly, biopolymers derived from meet these goals, it is important to maintain a list of issues (or
renewable resources are not necessarily more environmentally conditions) such as efficient use/consumption of resources, effec-
friendly than petrochemical polymers if produced without opti- tive recycling, ecological mentality, development (or innovation) of
mization and process development. efficient technologies for renewable resources, ecosystem preser-
vation, and social participation (Izatul et al., 2012).
5.3. Polylactic acid (PLA) Concerns related to conventional polymers have been
increasing because of their non-renewability. Such polymers also
In 2003, an overview of applications of LCA was provided to are known to be responsible for releasing carbon into the atmo-
describe the production of NatureWorks™ PLA manufactured by sphere. The carbon footprint of plastic is around 6 kg CO2/kg plastic
Cargill Dow (Vink et al., 2003). Based on their LCA results, total fossil throughout the life cycle (i.e., production to incineration) (Dormer
energy requirements of PLA were lower than those of petrochemical et al., 2013). Furthermore, the non-degradability of polymers cre-
polymers. Additional fossil energy savings were estimated by using ates environmental pollution that seriously affects ecosystems,
renewable fuel as an energy source for heat and power both by wild and marine life, and/or humans. As biopolymers are derived
integrating the energy required for the PLA unit with that required for from renewable sources, they can be considered as sustainable al-
the lactic acid facility and by optimizing separation of the products. ternatives for conventional plastics. Their neutral carbon lifecycle
There was also a comparative LCA of two diaper systems: (1) one also helps decrease the release of carbon dioxide into the atmo-
based on polyolefins (e.g., PP and PE); and (2) the other based on sphere, reducing the ‘human footprint’ on the environment. Bio-
PLA made from sugar beet, wheat, and maize (Hakala et al., 1997). polymers have low carbon footprint, with less cradle-to-plant-gate
The two diaper systems had comparable environmental impacts for greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuel. As for example cradle-to-
most scenario parameters considered. plant-gate-greenhouse gas emissions of Polyamide 410, is nearly
An LCA analysis for industrial production of PLA was carried out zero (Ashby, 2016). As the amount of carbon dioxide generated
in Thailand as a case study (Groot and Bore n, 2010). The authors during its manufacture is offset by the amount of carbon dioxide
concluded that biopolymers could offset environmental problems absorbed during the growth of its source castor bean plant. Ac-
associated with using petro-derived polymers (e.g., GHG emissions cording to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
and climate change). However, in order to further minimize the biopolymers could make significant contribution by removing up to
environmental impacts of PLA, production procedures for lactic 20 percent of the CO2 to limit global warming by 1.5 C (IPCC, 2018).
acid need to be technologically improved (Groot and Bore n, 2010). Apart from the known sources of biopolymers, scientists around
Likewise, LCA of PLA clamshell containers was compared with that the world are researching, developing, and even in some cases
of PET and PS clamshell containers (Madival et al., 2009). For the commercializing new products from a variety of renewable sources
clamshell containers, the transportation stage of the polymers and and waste materials. Newlight Technology, USA collected concen-
containers was considered as one of the main environmental im- trated methane and air from landfills, farms, and industrial sources
pacts. PLA showed lower global warming emissions (~28 kg CO2 eq. for use in the production of AirCarbon (Power Pallet, 2017). New-
when distributed by 16-ton truck) than PET (~830 kg CO2 eq.) and light’s biocatalyst separates carbon and hydrogen from methane
PS (~520 kg CO2 eq.). In addition, the use of non-renewable energy and oxygen from air in the conversion reactor (Power Pallet, 2017).
was reduced by around 40% when the goods were transported by a The isolated carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules are then
28-ton truck. Refer to Fig. 9 for a visualization of their results. linked together to make a long chain thermopolymer known as
AirCarbon. AirCarbon is compatible with traditional polyethylene
5.4. Polybutylene succinate (PBS) so that it can be used in cast film, blown film, fiber spinning,
thermoforming, etc. (Power Pallet, 2017). Unorthodox raw mate-
The LCA was carried out to meaningfully evaluate the environ- rials from animal sources (e.g., wool (Conzatti et al., 2013), feathers
mental impact of PBS (Tecchio et al., 2016). The environmental (Aranberri et al., 2017), silk (Alam et al., 2011), and horns (Kumar
burden of PBS was compared to that of conventional PET at three et al., 2017)) also are used as fillers for polymers.
different production scales (i.e., pilot, industrial, and stoichio- Poultry feathers consisting of keratin protein with several amino
metric). For all three scales considered, the cumulative energy de- acids can be used to produce biopolymer (Aranberri et al., 2017).
mand (CED) of PBS was higher than that of PET. For instance, at Such polymers can be used to make plastic plates and cups.
industrial scale, the CED of PBS (138.85 MJ/kg (PBS)) was lower than Biodegradable thermoplastic has been produced from bakery waste
that of PET (75.71 MJ/kg (PET)). It was evaluated that the produc- (bread crust, stale bread, and sponge cake) by adding suitable ad-
tion of PBS emitted more quantities of greenhouse gases (such as ditives like natural antioxidants and plasticizers (EU BREAD4PLA
project, 2015). Scientists from the National University of Singapore bioplastics for making trees, bushes, leaves, and other botanical
(NUS), Singapore have developed a biodegradable packaging ma- elements parts (Lego, 2018). Two toy companies, Bio-on and Italeri
terial from grapefruit seed extract and chitosan that was demon- also made proposals to introduce PHA-based toys to the market
strated to double the shelf life of bread relative to conventional oil- (Bioplasticsnews, 2018). Due to the biocompatibility characteristics,
based film packaging (NSUNews, 2016). Researchers from the US biopolymers have become a preferable choice in many membrane
Department of Agriculture successfully made plastic films from the applications (e.g., drug delivery, tissue engineering, hemodialysis,
milk protein casein. Such film packages are considered to be 500 and blood oxygenation) (Galiano et al., 2018). Further, the high
times better than conventional plastics at keeping oxygen away permeability and salt rejection nature of the biopolymers make
from food (ACS, 2016). them suitable for reverse osmosis for water desalination (Lee et al.,
Scientists from the French National Institute for Agricultural 2011). Biopolymers based membrane can also be used for gas
Research were able to make biodegradable food trays from liquid separation, pervaporation, and water filtration (Galiano et al.,
effluent of the dairy and oil industries and dry fractionation of 2018). Biopolymers are using in cellulose fibers as electrode ma-
wheat straw (Europa, 2016). Several startup companies successfully terials as well (Martin et al., 2013). Biopolymers were also applied
designed plastic products (e.g., edible tea bags, seasoning sachets, for the fabrication of dye sensitized solar cells, FTO/TiO2-dye/
food wrappers, water bottles, and cups) from seaweed (Khalil et al., CMKC/CMCE-NH4I þ I2/Pt (Rudhziah et al., 2015). Likewise, they
2017). A research team from AINIA, Spain also successfully acquired have also been used in flexible, biomolecule-based photo-
PHB from whey surplus used in the cheese industry as an alterna- electrochemical cells (Suresh et al., 2016). Metal-based electrodes
tive option for replacing conventional dairy product packaging have low skin-surface interface to cause discomfort to the patients.
materials (Nielsen et al., 2017). However, sustainability of these The use of flexible conductive biopolymer nanocomposite
products depends on their acceptance or widespread use by soci- (CPC) has also been proposed as a fascinating and promising
ety. To accomplish such a goal, it is imperative to have strong so- alternative in biomedical applications. CPCs are made by struc-
cietal commitment towards resource conservation and natural turing a network of conductive nanofillers into an insulating
preservation. biopolymer matrix (Tematio et al., 2017). CPCs also bring new
There are a number of distinctive advantages when using bio- prospects for replacing traditional materials in many energy-
polymers over the non-degradable packaging materials. For related fields such as photo-voltaic application, electronic and
example, biopolymers can be built to offer a much clearer and energy storage devices, transistors, electromagnetic interference
smoother surface, while there is less probability of imparting an shielding materials, light emitting diodes, and more (Tematio
alternate taste to the item contained in conventional plastics et al., 2017).
packaging (Chen, 2014). Nevertheless, biopolymers may have
higher water vapor permeability than the ordinary plastic. How- 7. Conclusions
ever, in some cases (like for freshly baked bread), the use of
biopolymer as packing media may let more steam or vapor diffused It is well known that petroleum-based synthetic polymers have
out. Moreover, biopolymers can be employed in cosmetics pack- exerted numerous adverse environmental impacts, as most of them
aging too as it can feel softer and more tactile (Pilla, 2011). For such end up being dumped at landfills and/or being delivered to oceans
application, it may offer less breakage, better lid adhesion, and and soils. Bridgeable polymers would be a suitable option to
protection during shipping (Coles and Kirwan, 2011). overcome such pollution. Nevertheless, the use of biopolymers as
Although the genuine advantages of biopolymers are well- biofuels has drawn huge interest from researchers to explore this
known, there have been enormous efforts to upgrade their physi- relatively new field. Additionally, biopolymers can be applied
cochemical characteristics, especially with respect to barrier, progressively in surgical and therapeutic applications as well as in
mechanical,and thermal properties. Likewise, the industrial fields drug delivery tools, a conceivable application in nano-medicine.
developed from polymer materials (such as packaging technolo- The market for biopolymers is growing rapidly with increased
gies) should also devise diverse effective methods to maximize societal interest in environmental sustainability. However, the use
their applicabilities (e.g., with respect to marinating the oxygen, of degradable plastics over regular plastics still remains a conten-
moisture,and/or CO2 levels, quality,and health aspects of the tious issue because of the cost involved in their production. More
packaged foods). As such, the producers should keep in mind to research efforts should be focused on producing biopolymers from
meet up the long distribution distances of their products with the biomass feedstock more cost effectively. The biotechnology of mi-
globalization of the markets (Farme, 2013). croorganisms can play a crucial role in the generation of bio-
Note that the current use of the biopolymers is mostly confined polymers to compete with current barriers. Nevertheless, the
to packaging industries. As biopolymers have the great potential to generation of these biopolymers ought to comply with the goal of
reduce cost, energy, and materials for next generations, their po- increasing the sustainability of materials and processes throughout
tential utility is expected to expand in diverse ventures in future the product’s lifetime, without competing with customary food
(e.g., electronics, food technology, nanotechnology, chemistry, sources, while at the same time lessening long-term reliance on
medicine, biotechnology, agriculture, and textile industry) (Mowafi, non-renewable resources. Moreover, the feasibility of biopolymer
2018). In this respect, biomedical application is recognized as one of products at laboratory scale should be validated at pilot-scale prior
the most rapidly growing fields among others (e.g., therapeutic to real-world applications. At present, the high cost of biopolymer
devices, temporary implants, and three-dimensional scaffolds for products remains as the major limitations to gain competitiveness.
tissue engineering) (Song et al., 2018). Recently, a German chemical Continuous development in the technology and innovative efforts
company named Evonik has developed various biodegradable may help reduce this cost barrier to make it a worthy option for the
polymer (medical) devices for sustainable drug release implants industries. Apart from the commodity products, biopolymer has
(Song et al., 2018). Furthermore, some microbes were reported to great prospects to be applied toward various hi-tech fields such as
produce polymers naturally that can be used efficiently in dispos- stem cell sector and photovoltaic application.
able items like sanitary products and diapers (Sinha, 2018). Two
Dutch scientists have developed a type of bioploymer from algae Acknowledgements
which could be used in 3D printers (Skrabania, 2018). Lego com-
pany has also reported their plan to introduce sugarcane-derived This study was supported by a grant from the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT & produce Poly-lactic acid (PLA) Biopolymer from waste products of bakery in-
dustry. http://www.bread4pla-life.eu/index.php accessed 22 April 2019.
Future Planning (No. 2016R1E1A1A01940995). Dr. Rajnish Kaur ~ o, K., Marino, T., Molino, A., Christensen, K.V., Figoli, A., 2018.
Galiano, F., Bricen
acknowledges the SERB-DST, India (Ref No.: PDF/2016/001870) for Advances in biopolymer-based membrane preparation and applications.
her research grant. J. Membr. Sci. 564, 562e586.
Gerngross, T.U., Slater, S.C., 2000. How green are green plastics? Sci. Am. 283 (2),
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Journal of Cleaner Production 258 (2020) 120536

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Prospects of biopolymer technology as an alternative option for non-

1. Introduction speciﬁcations, e.g., in terms of physicochemical properties and

Microorganis Chemical synthetization Chemical synthetization

Fig. 3. Types of raw feedstocks required for biopolymer synthesis.

Order Name Chemical structure Melting Glass Tensile Application

1 Polyhydroxybutyrate 170e180 2e5 40 Medical applications

2 Polycaprolactones (PCL) 60 60 16 Medical applications, drug

3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 170e180 5 43 Packaging material, medical

4 Polylactic acid (PLA) 150e160 60e65 16 Medical implants (e.g., anchors,

5 Polyethylene 2,5- 211 85 25 Packaging material

biopolymer, thereby resulting in the hydrolytic degradation of the

Order Biopolymer Factors affecting the rate of Hydrolysis conditions

Fig. 5. Microbial degradation of biopolymers.

Order Biopolymer Type of microbe Factors affecting the rate of degradation

1 Polyhydroxyalkanoate plastics, starch-based plastics e Soil incubation

the photodegradation process (Guillet et al., 1968). The most

Order Biopolymer Factors affecting the rate of degradation Photodegradation conditions

1 Hyaluronic acid Modiﬁcation with methacrylic anhydride and photopolymerized e

is the electron acceptor. In contrast, under anaerobic conditions,

Biodegradation of biopolymers in the natural environment takes

Order Biopolymer Energy demand Greenhouse gas emissions Reference

1 TPS 649 MJ 25 kg CO2 eq. Dinkel et al. (1996)

5.2. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)

LCA studies showed that the total fossil energy requirements of

138e147. Degrad. Stabil. 140, 1e8.

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