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FOUNDATIONS
OF NURSIN G
E N R O L L E D/
DIVISION 2 NURSES
 Nursing’s response to health care challenges 117 Feedback 142
Nursing’s agenda for health care reform 117 Influences 142
Standardisation of care 117 Methods of communication 142
Advanced practice 118 Verbal communication 142
Public versus private programs 118 Non-verbal communication 143
Public health 118
Influences on communication 144
Community health 119
Age 144
Issues and trends 119 Developmental level 144
Education 144
Chapter 6
Emotions 144
Arenas of care 122 Culture 144
Introduction 123 Language 144
Facility licensure and accreditation 123 Attention 144
Licensure 123 Surroundings 144
Accreditation 123 Congruency of messages 148
Acute care hospital 123 Listening/observing 148
Nursing units 123 Psychosocial aspects of communication 148
Specialised client care units 123 Gestures 148
Surgical units 124 Style 148
Diagnostic departments 124 Meaning of space 149
Therapy departments 124 Meaning of time 150
Support services 124 Cultural values 150
Role of the EN 125 Political correctness 150
Long-term care 125 Therapeutic communication 150
Long-term care facilities 127 Goals of therapeutic communication 150
Subacute care 127 Behaviours/attitudes to enhance communication 151
Continuing care retirement communities 127 Techniques of therapeutic communication 152
Low care 128 Barriers to communication 153
Home and community care 128
Professional boundaries 154
Respite care 128
Role of the EN 128 Nurse–client communication 154
Formal/informal communication 155
Outpatient care 128
Social communication 155
Role of the EN 128
Interactions 155
Home health care 128 Factors affecting nurse–client communication 156
Role of the EN 130
Communicating with the health care team 158
Hospice 130
Oral communication 158
Rehabilitation 132 Shift report 159
The Interdisciplinary Health Care Team (IHCT) 132 Written communication 159
Functional assessment and evaluation for rehabilitation 133 Electronic communication 160
Role of the EN 134
Communicating with yourself 160
Rehabilitation settings 134
Positive self-talk 160
Negative self-talk 160
PART 3 COMMUNICATION 139
Chapter 8
Chapter 7 Client education 163
Communication 140 Introduction 164
Introduction 141 The teaching–learning process 164
Formal teaching 164
Process of communication 141
Informal teaching 164
Sender 141
Learning domains 165
Message 141
Learning principles 165
Channel 141
Prompt feedback facilitates learning style 167
Receiver 141

viii CONTENTS
 Barriers to the teaching–learning process 167 Reporting 208
Teaching methods 169 Summary reports 209
Lifelong learning 170 Walking rounds 209
Children 170 Telephone reports and orders 209
Adolescents 171 Incident reports 210
Older adults 171
Professional responsibilities
PART 4
of teaching 172
DEVELOPMENTAL AND PSYCHOSOCIAL
Self-awareness 172
CONCERNS 213
Documentation 173
Chapter 10
Teaching–learning and
Life span development 214
the nursing process 173
Assessment 173 Introduction 215
Nursing diagnosis 174 Basic concepts of growth and development 215
Planning 174 Principles of growth and development 215
Implementation 175 Factors that influence growth and development 215
Evaluation 176 Dimensions and theories of human development 216
Physiological dimension 216
Chapter 9 Psychosocial dimension 216
Nursing process/documentation/informatics 179 Cognitive dimension 217
Introduction 180 Moral dimension 217
Nursing process history 180 Spiritual dimension 217
The nursing process 180 Holistic framework for nursing 220
Diagnosis 184 Life span stages 220
Planning and outcome identification 186 Prenatal stage 220
Implementation 188 Neonatal stage 221
Evaluation 189 Infancy stage 223
The nursing process and Toddler stage 225
critical thinking 190 Preschool stage 228
The nursing process and decision making 190 School-age stage 230
Preadolescent stage 231
The nursing process and holistic care 191
Adolescent stage 233
Documentation 192 Young adulthood stage 234
Purposes of documentation 192 Middle adulthood stage 236
Effective documentation principles 196 Older adulthood stage 238
Follow the nursing process 196
Effective documentation elements 196 Chapter 11
Systems of documentation 200 Cultural considerations 246
Narrative charting 200 Introduction 247
Source-oriented charting 200 Culture 247
Problem-oriented charting 200 Ethnicity and race 247
PIE charting 201 Cultural diversity 247
Charting by exception 201 Culture’s components 248
Computerised documentation 201 Culture’s characteristics 248
Clinical Pathway 204
Cultural influences on health care beliefs and practices 249
Forms for documentation 204 Definition of health 249
Flow sheets 204 Aetiology 249
Progress notes 204 Health promotion and protection 249
Discharge summary 204 Practitioners and remedies 249
Documentation trends 207 Cultural and racial influences on client care 256
Nursing minimum data set 207 Communication 256
Nursing diagnoses 207 Orientation to space and time 257
Nursing Interventions Classification 208 Social organisation 258
Nursing Outcomes Classification 208

CONTENTS ix
 Spiritual health concepts 263 End-of-life care 306
Biological variation 265 Palliative care 307
Spiritual distress 265 Hospice care 307
Definition 265 Nursing care of the dying client 308
Description 265 Impending death 316
Care after death 317
Cultural aspects and the nursing process 266
Legal aspects 317
Assessment 267
Care of the family 318
Nursing diagnosis 269
Nurse’s self-care 318
Planning/outcome identification 269
Implementation 269
Evaluation 271 PART 5 HEALTH PROMOTION 323
Chapter 12 Chapter 14
Stress, adaptation and anxiety 277
Wellness concepts 324
Introduction 278
Introduction 325
Stress 278
Health 325
Responses to stress 278
Signs and symptoms of stress 280 Wellness 325
Outcomes of stress 280 Emotional wellness 325
Mental wellness 325
Adaptation 280
Intellectual wellness 325
Coping measures 281
Vocational wellness 325
Crisis 283
Social wellness 326
Effects of and on illness 283 Spiritual wellness 326
Change 285 Physical wellness 326
Types of change 285 Health promotion 326
Resistance to change 285 National health priority areas 327
Nurse as change agent 285 2010 National Healthy School Canteens guidelines 328
Nursing process 285 Illness prevention 329
Assessment 286 Types of prevention 329
Nursing diagnosis 286 Prevention health care team 330
Planning/outcome identification 286
Factors affecting health 330
Implementation 287
Genetics and human biology 330
Stress management for yourself 289
Environmental influences 330
Chapter 13 Personal behaviour 331
Health care 333
End-of-life care 295
Making a genogram 335
Introduction 296
Guidelines for healthy living 335
Loss 296
Heart disease 335
Loss of significant other 296
Osteoporosis 335
Loss of aspect of self 296
Cancer 336
Loss of an external object 296
Lower back pain 336
Loss of familiar environment 296
Colds and flu 336
Grief 296 Breast cancer 336
Stages of grief 296 Sexually transmitted infections 337
Types of grief 297 Tuberculosis (especially for health care workers) 337
Factors affecting loss and grief 298 Urinary tract infections 337
Nursing care of the grieving client 301 Sickle cell anaemia and thalassaemia 337
Death 303 Cataracts 337
Legal considerations 304 Glaucoma 337
Ethical considerations 304 Sunburn 337
Stages of dying and death 305 Dental caries and periodontal disease 337
Home safety 337

x CONTENTS
 Work safety 337 Physiology of nutrition 374
Travel safety 337 Ingestion 374
Weight 338 Digestion 374
Stress 338 Absorption 374
Metabolism 374
Chapter 15 Excretion 375
Self-concept 341 Nutrients 376
Introduction 342 Water 376
Components of self-concept 342 Carbohydrates 377
Identity 343 Fats 379
Body image 343 Protein 380
Self-esteem 344 Vitamins 382
Role 345 Minerals 385
Development of self-concept 345 Promoting proper nutrition 388
Erikson’s theory 345 Four food groups (historical) 388
Newborn and infant 345 Healthy Eating Plate 388
Toddler and preschooler 345 Dietary guidelines 391
School age and adolescence 345 Nutrient reference values 391
Adulthood 346 Factors influencing nutrition 392
Factors affecting self-concept 346 Culture 392
Life experiences 346 Religion 393
Heredity and culture 347 Socioeconomics 394
Stress and coping 347 Fads 394
Health status 348 Superstitions 394
Developmental stage 348 Nutritional needs during the life cycle 394
Nursing process 348 Infancy 394
Assessment 348 Childhood 396
Nursing diagnosis 349 Nutritional requirements 397
Planning/outcome identification 349 Adolescence 398
Implementation 349 Young and middle adulthood 398
Evaluation 350 Older adulthood 399
Pregnancy and lactation 399
Chapter 16
Nutrition and health 400
Complementary/alternative therapies 353 Primary nutritional disease 400
Introduction 354 Secondary nutritional disease 400
Legal aspects 354 Weight management 401
Historic foundation 354 Determining kilojoule needs 401
Ancient Greece 354 Overweight 401
The Far East 354 Underweight 402
India 355 Food labelling 402
Current trends 355 Food quality and safety 403
Mind/body research 355 Quality of food 404
Holism and nursing 356 Safety of food 404
Complementary/alternative therapies 357 Foodborne illnesses 405
Mind/body interventions 357 Nursing process 405
Biofeedback 358 Assessment 405
Manipulative and body-based methods 359 Nursing diagnosis 407
Energy therapies 360 Planning/outcome identification 407
Biologically based therapies 363 Implementation 408
Other methodologies 364 Evaluation 411
Chapter 17 Chapter 18
Basic nutrition 373 Rest and sleep 415
Introduction 374 Introduction 416
CONTENTS xi
 Rest and sleep 416 Breaking the chain of infection 460
Physiology of sleep 416 Between agent and reservoir 460
Biological clock 417 Between reservoir and portal of exit 461
Factors affecting rest and sleep 417 Between portal of exit and mode of transmission 462
Sleep pattern alterations 419 Between mode of transmission and portal of entry 462
Nursing process 422 Between portal of entry and host 462
Assessment 422 Between host and agent 462
Nursing diagnosis 423 Body defences 462
Planning/outcome identification 423 Non-specific immune defence 462
Implementation 423 Specific immune defence 464
Evaluation 425 Types and stages of infections 464
Incubation stage 464
Chapter 19
Prodromal stage 464
Safety/hygiene 428 Illness stage 464
Introduction 429 Convalescent stage 464
Safety 429 Hospital-acquired infections 464
Factors affecting safety 429 Nursing process 465
Age 429 Hand hygiene 465
Lifestyle/occupation 430 Gloves 465
Sensory/perceptual changes 430 Mask, eye protection, face shield 465
Mobility 431 Gown 465
Hygiene 431 Client-care equipment 466
Factors influencing hygiene practices 431 Nursing diagnosis 466
Planning/outcome identification 467
Nursing process 432
Implementation 467
Assessment 432
Evaluation 469
Nursing diagnosis 434
Planning/outcome identification 435
Implementation 435 PART 7 FUNDAMENTAL NURSING CARE 473
Evaluation 449
Chapter 21
PART 6 INFECTION CONTROL 453 Fluid, electrolyte and acid–base balance 474
Introduction 475
Chapter 20 Homeostasis 475
Infection control/asepsis 454 Chemical organisation 475
Introduction 455 Elements 475
Historical perspective 455 Atoms 475
Molecules and compounds 477
Flora 455
Ions 478
Pathogenicity and virulence 455
Water 478
Bacteria 455
Viruses 456 Gases 478
Fungi 456 Acids, bases, salts and pH 479
Protozoa 456 Acids 479
Rickettsia 456 Bases 479
Colonisation and infection 456 Salts 479
pH 479
Chain of infection 456
Agent 457 Buffers 480
Reservoir 457 Bicarbonate buffer system 480
Portal of exit 457 Phosphate buffer system 480
Modes of transmission 458 Protein buffers 480
Portal of entry 459 Substance movement 481
Host 459 Passive transport 481
Active transport 483

xii CONTENTS
Fluid and electrolyte balance 483 Drug administration safety 519
Body fluids 483 Guidelines for medication administration 519
Exchange between the extracellular Drug supply and storage 524
and intracellular fluids 484 Medication compliance 525
Regulators of fluid and electrolyte balance 484
Legal aspects of medication administration 525
Disturbances in electrolyte balance 485
Nursing process 526
Sodium 485
Assessment 526
Potassium 488
Nursing diagnosis 527
Calcium 488
Planning/outcome identification 527
Magnesium 489
Implementation 527
Hypomagnesaemia 489
Evaluation 547
Hyperphosphataemia 489
Hypermagnesaemia 489 Chapter 23
Phosphate 489
Assessment 551
Chloride 489
Introduction 552
Acid–base balance 490
Regulators of acid–base balance 490 Health history 552
Diagnostic and laboratory data 490 Demographic information 552
Reason for seeking health care 552
Disturbances in acid–base balance 491
Perception of health status 552
Respiratory acidosis 491
Previous illnesses, hospitalisations and surgeries 552
Respiratory alkalosis 493
Client/family medical history 552
Metabolic acidosis 493
Immunisations/exposure to communicable diseases 552
Metabolic alkalosis 493
Allergies 555
Nursing process 495 Current medications 555
Assessment 495 Developmental level 555
Nursing diagnosis 499 Psychosocial history 555
Planning/outcome identification 500 Sociocultural history 555
Implementation 500 Complementary/alternative therapy use 555
Evaluation 502 Activities of daily living 556
Review of systems 556
Chapter 22
Physical examination 556
Medication administration and IV therapy 507
Inspection 556
Introduction 508 Palpation 556
Drug standards and legislation 508 Percussion 556
Standards 508 Auscultation 557
Legislation 508 Head-to-toe assessment 557
Drug classification 509 General survey 558
Drug action 510 Vital signs 559
Pharmacology 510 Height and weight measurement 563
Pharmacokinetics 512 Head and neck assessment 564
Drug interaction 513 Mental and neurological status and affect 565
Side effects and adverse reactions 513 Skin assessment 565
Food–drug interactions 513 Thoracic assessment 566
Abdominal assessment 568
Factors influencing drug action 514
Musculoskeletal and extremity assessment 569
Medication orders 514
Types of orders 514 Chapter 24
Systems of weight and measure 516 Pain management 573
Metric system 516 Introduction 574
Household system 517
Definitions of pain 574
Approximate equivalents 517
Nature of pain 574
Converting units of weight and volume 517
Dosage calculations 518 Common myths about pain 575

CONTENTS xiii
 Types of pain 575 Urine collection 609
Pain categorised by origin 575 Blood tests 610
Pain categorised by nature 575 Urine tests 626
Purpose of pain 577 Stool tests 629
Culture and sensitivity tests 630
Physiology of pain 577
Papanicolaou test 630
Stimulation of pain 577
The gate control theory 579 Radiological studies 631
Conduction of pain impulses 580 Chest X-ray 635
Computed tomography 635
Factors affecting the pain experience 581
Barium studies 636
Age 581
Angiography 636
Previous pain experiences 581
Arteriography 636
Drug abuse 581
Dye injection studies 636
Cultural norms 581
Ultrasonography 637
The National Pain Strategy 581
Magnetic resonance imaging 638
Nursing process 582
Assessment 582 Nuclear scans 639
Nursing diagnoses 587 Electro-diagnostic studies 640
Planning/outcome identification 588 Electroencephalography 641
Implementation 588 Electrocardiography 641
Evaluation 596 Endoscopy 642
Chapter 25 Aspiration/biopsy 644
Bone marrow aspiration/biopsy 647
Diagnostic tests 601
Paracentesis 647
Introduction 602 Thoracentesis 648
Diagnostic testing 602 Cerebrospinal fluid aspiration 648
Client care 602 Other tests 649
Preparing the client for diagnostic testing 602
Care of the client after diagnostic testing 605
Appendix A: List of essential clinical skills 656
Laboratory tests 607 Appendix B: NANDA-I Nursing Diagnoses 2015–2017 659
Specimen collection 607 Appendix C: National Immunisation Schedule
Venepuncture 607 (From 20 April, 2015) 662
Arterial puncture 607 Appendix D: Abbreviations, acronyms and symbols and
Capillary puncture 608 Standard Precautions 664
Central lines 608 Glossary 672
Implanted port 608 Index 683

xiv CONTENTS
 PREFACE

Foundations of Nursing: Enrolled Division 2 Nurses, foundation for the entire nursing process, presented
Australian and New Zealand edition, is designed in great detail and incorporating current NANDA
for the Diploma of Nursing program. It includes International diagnoses and NIC/NOC references.
information on student nurse skills for success, The student is provided with opportunities to
microbiology, infection control, growth and demonstrate knowledge and develop critical thinking
development, legal and ethical issues, communication, skills by completing case studies included in many
documentation, nursing process, client teaching, of the chapters. Concept maps and concept care
cultural aspects, complementary/alternative therapies, maps challenge the student to incorporate the
wellness concepts, stress/anxiety, end-of-life care, rest/ interrelatedness of nursing concepts in preparation
sleep, safety/hygiene, nutrition, fluid/electrolyte/acid– for clinical practice. The student has the opportunity
base balance, medication administration, IV therapy, to assess knowledge and critical thinking of essential
assessment, pain management and diagnostic tests. nursing concepts by answering review questions at the
There is a strong emphasis on life span development, end of each chapter.
older adult needs and professional adjustments. Health care settings are changing, multifaceted,
Chapters on spirituality and self-concept enhance the challenging and rewarding. Critical thinking and
student’s learning of current nursing issues. sound nursing judgements are essential in the present
Although a systems approach is presented, the health care environment. Enrolled nursing students
concept of holistic care is fundamental to this text. confront and adapt to changes in technology,
Throughout the book, boxes highlight special topics information and resources by building a solid
regarding critical thinking questions, memory tricks, foundation of accurate, essential information. A
life span development, client education, cultural firm knowledge base also allows nurses to meet the
considerations, professional tips, community/home changing needs of clients. This text was written to
health care, and health and safety. Pharmacology equip the Enrolled Nurse with current knowledge, and
basics, medication administration and diagnostic basic problem solving and critical thinking skills to
testing are presented. The concept of critical successfully meet the demanding challenges of today’s
thinking, presented in the first chapter, lays the health care.

xv
 ORGANISATION ++ Part 5: Health promotion – addresses self-concept
and complementary/alternative therapies.
Foundations of Nursing: Enrolled Division 2 Nurses, Wellness concepts, basic nutrition, rest and sleep,
Australian and New Zealand edition, consists of and safety/hygiene are presented as methods of
25 chapters grouped into seven parts. The book is promoting health.
referenced throughout to the third edition of Essential ++ Part 6: Infection control – presents the chain of
Clinical Skills. infection, describes various types of pathogenic
++ Part 1: Foundations – discusses student nurse microorganisms, and presents the concepts of
skills for success (including critical thinking, time asepsis and aseptic technique.
management, study skills and life-organising ++ Part 7: Fundamental nursing care – discusses
skills); holistic care; nursing history, education and fluid, electrolyte and acid–base balance. Medication
organisations; and legal and ethical responsibilities. administration and IV therapy are presented in
++ Part 2: The health care environment – describes the nursing process format. Also included are
the health care delivery system and arenas of care, legal considerations, dose equivalents and dosage
focusing on the various settings in which Enrolled calculations. Assessment is covered in great
Nurses practice. detail, including head-to-toe physical assessment,
++ Part 3: Communication – addresses the process nursing history and functional assessment.
of communication, how communication is used Pain management is detailed in causes of pain,
in the nurse–client relationship; generational transmission and perception, assessment methods,
differences; and technical and legal aspects of and nursing interventions for pain relief. Nursing
documentation. Each component of the nursing care for a client encountering diagnostic tests is
process is explained in a clear, concise manner. thoroughly covered. The most commonly ordered
Electronic medical records and technological diagnostic tests are presented in tables that provide
information is incorporated throughout the the normal results and nursing considerations.
chapters. The client education process is presented
as a major nursing intervention for clients
throughout the life span.
++ Part 4: Developmental and psychosocial
concerns – describes the growth and development
changes throughout the life span; cultural aspects
and considerations; stress, adaptation and anxiety;
and grief and end-of-life care.

xvi PREFACE
 Guide to the text
As you read this text you will find a number of features in every chapter to enhance your173 study of C l I E N T E d U C AT I O N

the foundations of nursing and help you understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
Knowledge base
Many different approaches are used to document

CHAPTER
It is impossible for nurses to teach if they lack the client education. Some facilities have specific forms

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

knowledge or skills that are to be taught. Staying commenced at admission to gauge the clients need
both current in knowledge and proficient in skills is for education while others simply record progress
the first step to maintaining efficacy and credibility in the nursing notes. See ECS3 Clinical

08
as a teacher. Although it is impossible for you to be Skill 2.1: Documentation.
an expert in every area of nursing, knowing when to Regardless of how it is recorded, client education is
refer the client to others for teaching is an important an essential component of nursing practice and each

CHAPTER OPENING ESSENTIAL CLINICAL SKILLS

critical-thinking skill. nurse must document the teaching interventions used
and the client’s response. Elements to be documented
Interpersonal skills in all practice settings include:
Effective teaching is based on your ability to establish • content
The Making a connection section at the start of rapport with the client. Be empathetic and show • teaching methods
Link theory to key clinical skills with the
sensitivity to the client’s needs and preferences. • learner(s) or participant(s) (e.g. client, family
each chapter shows you how content relates to An atmosphere in which the client feels free to ask
Essential Clinical Skills (ECS) icon throughout
member, other caretaker)
other chapters. Learning objectives give you a questions promotes learning. Activities that help
establish an environment conducive to learning are:
• client/family response to teaching activities.
relevant chapters. These ECS icons direct you to
clear sense of what topics each chapter will cover • showing genuine interest in the client
corresponding clinical skills
TEACHING–LEARNING AND in covered in more
• including the client in every step of the teaching–
and what you should be able to do after reading learning process THE NURSING PROCESS
detail in Essential Clinical Skills, 3rd edition by
the chapter. • employing a non-judgemental approach
• communicating at the client’s level of
The teaching–learning process and the nursing process
JoanneareTollefson, Gayle Watson, Eugenie Jelly
interdependent. Both are dynamic and comprise
understanding.
and Karen Tambree.
02
the same phases: assessment, diagnosis, planning,
156 C O m m U N I C AT I O N implementation and evaluation.
CHAPTER
CRITICAL THINKING Assessment
HOLISTIC CARE Teaching ethics Primary (client) and secondary (family or significant
may ask whether Is it ethicalthe client
for you has any
to attempt questions
to change about
a client’s beliefs other) sources are used by nurses to assess learning
03

MAKING THE CONNECTION the topic discussed.under the guise Summarising

Express
the topic
of teaching? Should is another
you ‘teach’ a client needs. See ECS3 Clinical Skill 2.4: Health
PROFESSIONAL
teaching. Communication TIP is the
good way for you to indicate closure.
Refer to the following chapters to increase your understanding of holistic care:
the ‘right’ attitude or belief?
PA R T

Bring your learning to life with

4 Legal and ethical responsibilities 16 Complementary/alternative therapies interactive learning, study,
foundation of assessment related to learning. Factors
10 Life span development 17 Basic nutrition and exam preparation tools
that support the printed Caring for the client who is hearing
11 Cultural considerations 18 Rest and sleep
to be considered include:
Factors affecting nurse–client communication
textbook. CourseMate
12
15
Stress, adaptation and anxiety
Self-concept
19
21
Safety/hygiene
Fluid, electrolyte and acid–base balance
Express includes revision
quizzes, games, flashcards,
videos and more!
impaired
• actual learning needs
As mentioned previously,TIP
PROFESSIONAL factors such as age, • * potential
Check tolearning
see whether
needsthe client wears a hearing aid.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
156 education, emotions,
C O m m U N I C AT ION culture, language, attention and Be sure
• ability anditreadiness
is in working order and turned on.
to learn
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
Medical jargon and teaching
• define key terms
• define health as it relates to the whole person
surroundings affect both parties in a communication. • * client
Make strengths and to
every effort limitations
move the client to a setting with
Consider the language used by most nurses; think of the • previous experiences.
• list and discuss the five aspects of total wellness
• list and discuss Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
In nurse–client communications, additional factors minimal background noise.
terms you take for granted. When a client is asked to ‘void’,
• describe self-awareness and why it is important to nurses
relating toforboth you andthethe client also come into
* Always faceneeds
the client.
• describe self-concept
may example, doesclientclient understand Actual
what is meant? learning
play. ask
Youwhether
• discuss the concept of personal responsibility for one’s own illness
must bethe sensitive hasthese
to any factors
questions andabout
avoid
03

NURSING HIGHLIGHT These frequently

• discover personal attitudes about health and illness and take responsibility for personal
used termsthe
cantopic
easily be Everyone
* Speak who
in areceives
normal health
tone and careatservices
a normalhas some
pace.
the topic discussed. Summarising is another
personal biases in order to provide appropriate PROFESSIONAL
ambulate, nursing TIPeducation may be indicated
wellbeing

LIFE SPAN CONSIDERATION

misunderstood by clients and families: need for learning. Client
• identify the components of a healthy lifestyle.
good way for you to indicate closure. * Determine whether the client uses sign language. If
PA R T

care. defecate, FBC, vital signs and contra-indicated. when a client:

• Caring
asks forfor
signing istheused,
information client to who
enlist is hearing
the assistance
make decisions of an interpreter.
How can you communicate without using professional
Factors
Nurse affecting nurse–client communication • impaired
* requires
Pay particular attention to the non-verbal cues of the
Learn key information and
As issues
mentioned
Many
in
jargon? nursing
previously,tofactors
factors pertaining
with
suchcan
the nurse as age,
influence Understand clientthe
• * desires
Check to
new skills
and
tomake tovarying
see your own the
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whether needs
non-verbal
changes ofa hearing
client
behaviour.
client wears aid. care
the Nursing Highlight boxes.
education,
nurse–clientemotions, culture, language,
communication. Your state attention
of health,and • * is Be
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Provide
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about the content the Lifespan
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Documentation
surroundings
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workload, in a communication.
staff relations and past * ifMakenecessary.
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In The standard
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additional client
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both you and the client
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into * TheAlways face
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learning needs can be determined in a
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you sendto andthese factors
receive and avoid
messages. variety of ways, including:
* Speak in aCONSIDERATIONS
normal tone and at a normal pace.
• LIFE SPAN
never occurred. Documentation of teaching facilitates
personal biases(an
Self-awareness in order to provide
awareness of all appropriate
these factors) nursing
is asking the client directly
accurate communication to other health care * observing
Determine whether the client uses sign language. If
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state of illness.
person is
CRITICAL THINKING
Communication
personal
* Why
dignity. and the unconscious client
should you communicate with an unconscious
than from trying to be You should With children
authors by using the Professional Tip boxes. able the
face to read,
clientwriting may be
and speak the easiest
slowly method of
and deliberately client?
* Be at eye level with the child.
communication;
using
people have
however,Gesturing
clear enunciation.
learned to whether
many hearing-impaired
speech read
can also be very Critical Thinking boxes help you to check your
** Use
Howvocabulary
can you communicate
appropriatewith an child’s
for the unconscious
level of
effective. Check to see theat least has
client to some
a client?
degree. This
hearing was formerly
aid and, known as
if so, encourage itslip-reading.
use during the understanding of key concepts in the chapter
development.
Communicating with a client who is hearing impaired
communication.
requires time and patience. The person with dysphasia has difficulty
Speech ability: Dysphasia is the impairment of
The and
client may experience frustration when putting thoughts and feelings into words and
speech aphasia is the absence of speech. These CRITICAL THINKING
communicating. Such frustration generally stems sending messages. It should be noted, however,
are most commonly seen as the result of a stroke,
more from trying Communication
that seldom does the andperson
the unconscious
with dysphasiaclient
have
although both canto understand
result others
from a brain ratherOther
lesion.
than from trying to besuchunderstood. You should difficulty
* Why receiving
should youand interpreting
communicate with messages; thus,
an unconscious
neurological diseases, as Parkinson’s disease,
face explanations
client? should be given before doing anything.
may the
alsoclient
cause and speak slowly
dysphasia. and deliberately
A dysfunction of the
using clear enunciation. If the client
cancan
youwrite, paper and
withpencil can be used
muscles used for speech isGesturing can also, which
termed dysarthria be very * How communicate an unconscious
effective. Check to see whether for communication. A picture board, word board,
makes a person’s speech difficult,the client
slow and has
harda to client?
hearing aid and, if so, encourage its dysarthria
use duringcreate
the letter board or computer (such as an iPad) may also
understand. Dysphasia, aphasia and
communication. be employed. A person with speech impairments may
communication problems.
Speech ability: Dysphasia is the impairment of feelThe personand
frustrated withhelpless.
dysphasia has difficulty
Establishing some method xvii
putting thoughts and feelings into words and
speech and aphasia is the absence of speech. These
sending messages. It should be noted, however,
are most commonly seen as the result of a stroke,
that seldom does the person with dysphasia have
although both can result from a brain lesion. Other
 CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS CLIENT EDUCATION
Consider approaches to respectful care for Learn how to affectively educate your client
clients from diverse cultural backgrounds with about their specific disorders and conditions
the Cultural Considerations box. using the Client Education boxes.

COMMUNITY/HOME HEALTH CARE

HEALTH AND SAFETY
Learn how to apply the theory you have
learnt to various real-life settings with the Identify important client health and safety
Community/Home Health Care boxes. issues and the appropriate response to critical
situations with the Health and Safety boxes.

CASE STUDY

Case study boxes present the opportunity to

MEMORY TRICK link the theory to real-world situations.
LEgAL AND E THICAL RESPONSIbILITIES 97

CHAPTER

Memory Trick boxes provide mnemonic CASE STUDY

devices to help you learn and memorise the

An alert and oriented 62-year-old client was diagnosed with He then stopped by the nurses’ desk and asked that the client
colon cancer. Surgery was recommended, and she agreed be prepped for surgery.
04

to surgical excision of the tumour. Post-operatively, she 1 Identify three elements needed to ensure informed

correct steps and proper order of information experienced serious complications and remained in the
surgical intensive care unit for two months. During that time,
consent.
2 Did this client give informed consent?

when working with clients.

she experienced cardiac failure, temporary respiratory failure
and renal failure, and required multiple surgical procedures. 3 Identify which of the elements of informed consent were
One day she was asked to sign a consent form for surgical met or not met. Be sure to include the rationale.
revision of her colostomy. She refused, stating that she could 4 What type of ethical dilemma does this case study
no longer tolerate any procedures and that she was ready to present?
die a peaceful death. You informed the junior medical resident 5 Which ethical principle pertains to this situation?
of the client’s decision. The resident called the consultant,
6 Explain the deontological view of this ethical dilemma.
who ordered a stat dose of Valium 10 mg IM for the client.

SUMMARY 2 You enter the room and tell the client that he has to take the medication,
including an injection. The client refuses the medication, but you continue
+ Laws are rules that guide personal interaction. They are derived from to administer the medications. This action is an example of the intentional
several sources and can be classified as criminal or civil. tort of:
+ In Australia, the Health Practitioner Regulation National Law Acts indicate a battery
the scope of practice for nurses. Standards have been developed to guide b invasion of privacy
nursing practice. c libel
+ You must be familiar with client rights. Care must be taken not to falsely d malpractice
imprison a client or violate the client’s right to privacy. 3 You find a client obnoxious and totally disapprove of the client’s behaviour.
+ The client’s chart is a legal document and should accurately reflect client You write on the chart that the client ‘is obnoxious and leads an immoral
status and care. Entries should be neat and timely. lifestyle, which has resulted in hospitalisation’. This is referred to as:
+ Informed consent is more than just signing a form. It requires a competent a assault
client understanding of the risks, benefits and alternatives to treatment. b slander
+ Whether to purchase liability insurance is a personal decision, but having your c libel
own policy provides both coverage off the job and individual legal counsel. d a supported statement
+ Incident reports are a risk management tool. They are not meant to be used 4 Even though you may obtain the client’s signature on a form, obtaining
for punitive purposes. informed consent for a medical treatment is the responsibility of the:
+ Advance directives are instructions about health care preferences. They both a client
protect the rights of the client and guide the family through difficult decisions. b doctor
+ Ethics examines human behaviour – those things that people do under a c student nurse
given set of circumstances. d supervising nurse
+ There is a connection between acts that are legal and acts that are ethical. 5 You are working the night shift with a colleague who has been your
Nursing actions should be both legal and ethical. friend for several years. You discover that your colleague is dealing drugs
+ Ethical decisions are based on principles such as autonomy, regularly and is taking them herself. When confronted, the colleague
non-maleficence, beneficence, justice, veracity and fidelity. tells you that she needs the drugs to cope and that she cannot lose her
+ Ethics and values are closely associated, so nurses must explore their own job because she is a single parent of two young children. Which of the
values in order to acknowledge the value systems of their clients. following is the most appropriate action for you to take?
+ Ethical codes that have been developed by nursing organisations establish a Tell the colleague, ‘It will be alright. I can get help for you.’
guidelines for the ethical conduct of nurses with clients, co-workers, b Ask the colleague if they would like to talk about things.
society and the nursing profession. c Ask the colleague how long they have had a problem with drugs.
+ The roles of client advocate and whistleblower enable nurses to protect d Report the issue to the supervisor as this is illegal behaviour.
their clients’ rights and ensure the ethical and competent actions of their 6 A nursing student is learning about client rights. Which of the following

xviii
peers within the nursing profession. statements made by the student nurse indicates that further teaching is
required?
a ‘My client can make her own decisions regarding her care.’
REVIEW QUESTIONS b ‘I need to treat clients with dignity and respect.’
1 You are providing care for a 25-year-old male client. His health is c ‘I should do as much as possible for the client regardless of their wishes.’
deteriorating, but he remains alert and oriented. His sister, an RN, asks to d ‘My client should be informed of the side effects of new medication.’
see his chart. What should you do initially? 7 A client is at risk for invasion of privacy when which of the following actions
a Ask the client’s permission occur (select all that apply)?
SAMPLE NURSING CARE PLAN

Follow an individual person’s case and the process of planning care, identifying problems, performing
interventions and evaluating outcomes for that person with the detailed Sample Nursing Care Plans
and associated visual Concept Care Maps.

S T R E S S , A D A P TAT I O N A N D A N x I E T Y 291 292 D E V E L O P M E N TA L A N D P S Y C H O S O C I A L C O N C E R N S

Concept care map 12.1 Ineffective coping

SAMPLE NURSING CARE PLAN

CHAPTER

04
NURSING DIAGNOSIS

PA R T
THE FAMILY WITH INEFFECTIVE COPING
NOC Outcomes: Coping; Decision Making, Information Processing
Sarah is a 38-year-old female in the emergency department of states, ‘I feel like I’m going crazy! My heart is racing and I NIC Intervention: Coping Enhancement

12
the local hospital. She paces, wrings her hands and is tearful. can’t sit still.’
She says she has chest pressure, palpitations and shortness Assessment reveals autonomic hyperactivity (rapid
of breath. She is diaphoretic and her hands are trembling. Her pulse and respirations, elevated blood pressure), verbalised
blood pressure is 140/90, pulse 110 and respirations 30 and feelings of apprehension, restlessness and ‘going crazy’.
shallow. She says that her husband left her a month ago. She CLIENT GOAL
Client will demonstrate adequate coping
strategies.
NURSING DIAGNOSIS Nursing Outcomes Nursing Interventions
Anxiety related to situational crisis, threat to self-concept and Classification (NOC) Classification (NIC)
change in role status as evidenced by the statement ‘I feel like I’m Anxiety Control Anxiety Reduction
going crazy’ and the fact that her husband left her a month ago.
Coping Coping Enhancement
NURSING INTERVENTIONS SCIENTIFIC RATIONALES
Psychosocial Adjustment: Simple Relaxation Therapy 1. Involve client in planning their care. 1. Helping client learn to cope successfully
Life Change is part of the empowerment process.
2. Encourage client to verbalise feelings.
3. Teach client methods of stress 2. Education gives clients options.
PLANNING/OUTCOMES NURSING INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE management. 3. Verbalisation of feelings is helpful in
Sarah will identify effective • Establish a trusting relationship. • Reduces anxiety. 4. Minimise environmental stimuli. decreasing anxiety.
coping mechanisms. • Have Sarah identify and describe • Is the first step in coping with anxiety. 4. Promotes a calm environment to help
physical and emotional feelings. reduce the client’s anxiety and stress.
• Help Sarah relate cause-and-effect • Enhances Sarah’s sense of power and
relationship between stressors and control over the situation.
anxiety.
• Encourage Sarah to use previously • Builds confidence in own coping abilities.
EVALUATION
successful coping mechanisms.
Did the client demonstrate adequate
coping strategies?
Client demonstrated adequate coping
strategies.

Sarah will report that anxiety has • Using therapeutic communication • Clarifies situation by talking about it.
lessened and is manageable. techniques encourage Sarah to talk
about what has been happening in
her life.
Sarah will demonstrate • Teach Sarah relaxation techniques • Counters the physiological effects of the
relaxation skills. (such as cognitive reframing and stress response (lower blood pressure,
imagery). decreased heart rate and respirations).

EVALUATION
Sarah looks relaxed. Vital signs are within normal limits. Sarah verbalises that she feels calmer and is no longer afraid that she
is ‘going crazy’.

BK-CLA-CLARKE_1E-150146-Chp12.indd 291 08/07/15 1:11 PM BK-CLA-CLARKE_1E-150146-Chp12.indd 292 08/07/15 1:11 PM

END OF CHAPTER FEATURES:

At the end of each chapter you’ll find several tools to help you to review,
practice and extend your knowledge of the key learning outcomes.
C l I E N T E d U C AT I O N 177

• The Chapter Summary highlights important SUMMARY

8 A 76-year-old female is discharged home from a subacute nursing facility.

CHAPTER
She has a history of osteoarthritis and underwent a right-knee replacement

concepts covered in the chapter for your quick + The teaching–learning process is a planned interaction that promotes
behavioural change that is not a result of maturation or coincidence.
about two weeks ago. Your teaching goal at discharge is that the client will
gradually increase weight bearing to the right knee to the point that she
is able to support her full weight in three weeks. What client statement

revision.
+ Learning is the process of assimilating information that results in
indicates that the teaching goal is met?
behavioural change.
08

a ‘Until the pain improves, I will take it easy on my knee.’

+ The three domains of learning are: cognitive (intellectual), affective
b ‘I can’t wait to get home so I can walk without this walker.’
(emotional) and the psychomotor (motor skills).
c ‘I will increase the weight on my knee a little each day while

• End-of-chapter Review Questions give you

+ Learning readiness is affected by developmental and sociocultural factors.
continuing to use my walker.’
+ Elements of documenting client education include the content taught, the
d ‘Exercise is not helpful in my rehabilitation.’
teaching methods used, the participants and the learner’s response

the opportunity to test your knowledge and + Evaluation of the teaching–learning process involves determining what the
client has learned and assessing teacher efficacy. WEBLINKS

consolidate your learning.

The Learning Web, http://www.thelearningweb.net
REVIEW QUESTIONS VARK, a guide to learning styles, http://www.vark-learn.com

1 Bloom identified three areas wherein learning occurs: the psychomotor

domain, the affective domain and the: SUGGESTED READINGS
• Weblinks and Suggested Readings help you a
b
attitude domain
cognitive domain
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Beare, P., & Myers, J. (1998). Principles and practice of adult health nursing

extend your understanding of the key points

c emotional domain
(3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
d knowledge domain
Cherry, K. (2013). What is motivation? Retrieved 13 December, 2014, from http://
2 A clinical example of psychomotor learning is when a client:

through wider research.

psychology.about.com/od/mindex/g/motivation-definition.htm
a changes the dressing on a leg ulcer
Crisp, J., & Taylor, C. (2005). Potter & Perry’s fundamentals of nursing (2nd ed.).
b states an acceptance of a chronic illness
Sydney: Elsevier Australia.
c states the name and purpose of a medication
Dymock, D. (2007). Engaging adult learners. Canberra: Adult Learning Australia
d chooses to change the type of exercise performed
Healthways Australia. (2013). Hospital discharge management. Retrieved
3 When teaching a client, you are aware that learning needs:
12 December, 2014, from http://www.healthwaysaustralia.com.au/
a change daily
what-we-do/our-programs/hospital-discharge-management
b are the same for everyone
Health Workforce Australia. (2013). Nurses in focus. Retrieved 13 December,
c change throughout the life span
2014, from http://www.hwa.gov.au/sites/uploads/Nurses-in-Focus-FINAL.pdf
d change as teaching approaches are modified
Hunt, R. (2001). Community based nursing (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott.
4 Age is not synonymous with developmental level and therefore when
Knowles, M., Holton, E., & Swanson, R. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive
preparing to teach a client, you must:
classic in adult education and human resource development (6th ed.).
a teach everyone the same way
St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Science and Technology Books.
b set the goals for the client
Mayer, G., & Rushton, N. (2002). Writing easy-to-read teaching aids. Nursing
c observe the client’s behaviour
2002, 32 (3), 48–49.
d ask the client about self-efficacy
Ruholl, L. (2003). Tips for teaching the elderly. RN, 66 (5), 48–52.
5 You are providing discharge teaching to a 65-year-old male who is newly
Seley, J. (1994). 10 strategies for successful patient teaching. American Journal
diagnosed with diabetes. He is being discharged with oral hypoglycemic
of Nursing, 94 (11), 63–65.
medications and will need to do blood glucose checks four times a day
Smith, R. (2008). Teaching the client and family. Manuscript submitted for
using a glucometer. What learning domain are you addressing when
publication.
teaching the client how to perform blood glucose checks?
Sodeman, W., Jr., & Sodeman, T. (2005). Instructions for geriatric patients
a affective
(3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Health Sciences.
b psychomotor
South Australia Department of Health. (2009). Health service framework for older
c cognitive
people 2009–2016: Improving health & wellbeing together. Retrieved
d social
12 December, 2014, from http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/
6 You are teaching a 48-year-old female who has been recently diagnosed
cd478e804278955d8b07ab182b8de443/hsframeworkolderpeople09-16-
with breast cancer. While in hospital, you observe that she is an avid reader.
clinicalnetworks-sahealth-0905.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=
What teaching strategies would be most effective in helping her understand
cd478e804278955d8b07ab182b8de443
her disease and the treatment process?
a
b
pamphlets, pictures and written materials
support group, discussion and audiotapes
Thomacos, N. (2011). Health literacy resources. Retrieved 13 December,
2014, from http://www.chpcp.org/servicecoord/chronicdisease/ xix
HealthLit/SynopsisHealthLiteracyResourcesProvidedbyDr%20
c videos, role modelling and games
NikosThomacosDec2012.pdf
d examples, discovery and explanation
VARK, a Guide to Learning Styles. (2009). Research and statistics. Retrieved June
7 You are providing care to a 15-year-old female who is a newly diagnosed
20, 2009, from http://www.vark-learn.com/english/page.asp?p=research
diabetic. When planning diabetic teaching for this client, what developmental
Weissman, M., & Jasovsky, D. (1998). Discharge teaching for today’s times. RN,
 Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
Cengage Learning is pleased to provide you with a selection of
resources that will help you prepare your lectures and assessments.
These teaching tools are accessible via http://login.cengage.com.

INSTRUCTOR’S TEST BANK

MANUAL A test bank of questions, which covers the
The Instructor’s Manual includes: learning objectives and key topics, has been
• student learning activities prepared for your use. These are available
• web activities in Word file format and can be uploaded
• answers to case studies directly into your Learning Management
• answers to Review Questions. System. They can be customised to meet
your students’ learning requirements.

POWERPOINTTM ARTWORK
PRESENTATIONS FROM THE TEXT
Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint files Add the digital files of graphs, pictures and
to enhance your lecture presentations and flowcharts into your course management
handouts, and to reinforce the key principles of system, use them within student handouts
your subject. or copy them into lecture presentations.

xx
 COMPETENCY CASES WITH
MAPPING GRID ANSWERS
The competency mapping grid shows Additional cases with answers have
you how the core competencies for the been provided to set these as classroom
Diploma of Enrolled Nursing in discussion or as homework for your
the nursing environment are covered in students.
this book.

FOR THE STUDENT

New copies of this text come with an access code that gives you a 24-month
subscription to the CourseMate Express website and Search me! nursing.
Visit http://login.cengagebrain.com and log in using the code card.

Express

The CourseMate Express website for students Expand your knowledge with Search me!
includes a suite of interactive resources nursing. Fast and convenient, this resource
designed to support your learning, revision provides you with 24-hour access to full-text
and further research. articles from hundreds of scholarly and
popular journals and newspapers,
Includes: including The Australian and The New York
• Videos and Animations Times. Search me! allows you to explore topics
• Audio library of medical terminology: further and find current references.
heart and lung sounds
• Revision quizzes
• Glossary and Flashcards.

xxi
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Lyn Clarke has taught, governed and evaluated the Gena Duncan has worked as an RN for 36 years in the
Diploma of Nursing nationally. Lyn has gained a clinical, community health and educational arenas.
wealth of knowledge and experience during her 30 During her professional career, Mrs Duncan served
years of nursing in clinical, management, leadership as a staff nurse, an assistant head nurse of a medical-
and educational roles. This broad experience and a surgical unit, a continuing education instructor, an
lifelong passion for nursing has led a commitment to associate professor in an LPN program, and director
educate, support and mentor the nurses of the future. of an Associate degree nursing program. As a faculty
member, she taught many nursing courses and served
Susie Gray is currently the National Program Manager on a statewide curriculum committee for a state
for the Diploma of Nursing with Careers Australia college. As director of an Associate degree nursing
Education Institute. She has spent 30 years as a program, she was instrumental in starting and
clinician, educator and manager and has always found obtaining state board approval of an LPN-RN nursing
immense fulfilment in assisting the nurses of our program.
future to discover the value of empathy, holistic care
and pride in their chosen fields. Wendy Baumle is currently a nursing instructor at
James A. Rhodes State College in Ohio. She has spent
Lois White has taught at Del Mar College, Corpus 19 years as a clinician, educator, school district health
Christi, Texas, in both the Associate Degree Nursing coordinator and academician. Mrs Baumle has taught
program and the Vocational Nursing program. For fundamentals of nursing, medical-surgical nursing,
14 years, she was also chairperson of the Department pediatrics, obstetrics, pharmacology, anatomy and
of Vocational Nurse Education. Dr White has taught physiology, and ethics in health care in practical
fundamentals of nursing, mental health/mental nursing and Associate nursing degree programs.
illness, medical-surgical nursing and maternal/
pediatric nursing. Her professional career has also
included 15 years of clinical practice.

xxii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Lyn Clarke
To my husband, David, and my children Tyler and
Maddison for their love and patience.
To Susie Gray for her hard work, support and
friendship in developing this textbook.
To the nurses of the future.

Susie Gray
Thank you to my family for allowing me the time to
develop this text.
To my beloved Dad, who instilled a passion for all
things correct and just in his three children, and
taught us the value of respect, compassion and
empathy.
To Lyn Clarke, who provided the trust and friendship
required to ensure we were proud of our product.
The authors and Cengage Learning would like to
thank the following reviewers for their constructive
and valued feedback:

++ Ruth Phillips – South West Regional College of

TAFE
++ Jenny Hawkins – TAFE Queensland
++ Vicki Smith – Gold Coast Institute of TAFE
++ Cheryl Alexander – Gold Coast Institute of TAFE
++ Anissa Yttrup – Gordon TAFE
++ Fiona Louis – TAFE Brisbane
++ Ali Moloney – Gold Coast Institute of TAFE
++ Sacha Carroll – Durak Institute of Technology
++ Clare Bock – TAFE Gold Coast
++ Liz Shipsey-Eldridge – Industry
++ Lynette Jackson – Canberra Institute of Technology
(CIT)
++ Maree Le Fevre – Metropolitan South Institute of
TAFE
++ Claire Bowles – Southbank Institute of Technology
++ Gale Cowled – Riverina Institute of TAFE
++ Elizabeth Shuttle – Western Institute of TAFE.

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge

copyright. However, if any infringement has occurred,
the publishers tender their apologies and invite the
copyright holders to contact them.

xxiii
 PART 01
FOUNDATIONS

CHAPTER 01 STUDENT NURSE SKILLS FOR SUCCESS 2

CHAPTER 02 HOLISTIC CARE 35

CHAPTER 03 NURSING HISTORY, EDUCATION AND ORGANISATIONS 48

CHAPTER 04 LEGAL AND ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 75

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The best part of the kangaroo is its tail. Talk of ox-tail soup, ye
metropolitan gourmands! Commend us to the superb kangaroo-tail
soup of Australia, made from the tail weighing some 10 or 12 lbs., if
a full-grown forester.
The pademelon, a smaller species of kangaroo, weighs about 9 or
10 lbs., and when cooked like a hare, affords a dish with which the
most fastidious gourmand might be satisfied.
The following is the native mode of cooking a kangaroo steak:—It is
placed in a scooped out stone, which is readily found in the streams,
and pressed down by heavy stones on the top of it; the heat is
applied beneath and round the first top stone; at the critical moment
the stones are quickly removed, and the steak appears in its most
savoury state.
The aborigines of Australia always roast their food; they have no
means of boiling, except when they procure the service of an old
European saucepan or tin pot. ‘It is a very remarkable fact’ (remarks
Mr. Moore) ‘in the history of mankind, that a people should be found
now to exist, without any means of heating water, or cooking liquid
food; or, in short, without any culinary utensil or device of any sort.
The only mode of cooking was to put the food into the fire, or roast it
in the embers or hot ashes; small fish or frogs being sometimes first
wrapped in a piece of paper-tree bark. Such was their state when
Europeans first came among them. They are now extremely fond of
soup and tea.’
A native will not eat tainted meat, although he cannot be said to be
very nice in his food, according to our ideas. Their meat is cooked
almost as soon as killed, and eaten immediately.
The parts of the kangaroo most esteemed for eating are the loins
and the tail, which abound in gelatine, and furnish an excellent and
nourishing soup; the hind legs are coarse, and usually fall to the
share of the dogs. The natives (if they can be said to have a choice)
give a preference to the head. The flesh of the full-grown animal may
be compared to lean beef, and that of the young to veal; they are
destitute of fat, if we except a little being occasionally seen between
the muscles and integuments of the tail. The colonial dish, called a
steamer, consists of the flesh of the animal dressed, with slices of
ham. The liver when cooked is crisp and dry, and is considered a
substitute for bread; but I cannot coincide in this opinion.
The goto, or long bag of kangaroo skin, about two feet deep, and a
foot and a half broad, carried by the native females in Australia, is
the common receptacle for every small article which the wife or
husband may require or take a fancy to, whatever its nature or
condition may be. Fish just caught, or dry bread, frogs, roots, and
clay, are all mingled together.
Mr. George Bennett (Wanderings in New South Wales) thus speaks
of Australian native cookery:—
‘After wet weather they track game with much facility; and from the
late rains the hunting expeditions had been very successful; game
was, therefore, very abundant at the camp, which consisted of
opossums, flying squirrels, bandicoots, snakes, &c.
‘One of the opossums among the game was a female, which had
two large-sized young ones in her pouch; these delicate morsels
were at this time broiling, unskinned and undrawn, upon the fire,
whilst the old mother was lying yet unflayed in the basket.
‘It was amusing to see with what rapidity and expertness the animals
were skinned and embowelled by the blacks. The offal was thrown to
the dogs; but, as such a waste on the part of the natives does not
often take place, we can only presume it is when game, as it was at
present, is very abundant. The dogs are usually in poor condition,
from getting a very precarious supply of provender. The liver being
extracted, and gall-bladder removed, a stick was thrust through the
animal, which was either thrown upon the ashes to broil, or placed
upon a wooden spit before the fire to roast. Whether the food was
removed from the fire cooked, or only half dressed, depended
entirely on the state of their appetites. The flesh of the animals at this
time preparing for dinner, by our tawny friends, appeared delicate,
and was no doubt excellent eating, as the diet of the animals was in
most instances vegetable.’
Another traveller in the Bush thus describes the aboriginal practices
and food:—‘We had scarcely finished the snake, when Tomboor-
rowa and little Sydney returned again. They had been more
successful this time, having shot two wallabies or brush kangaroos
and another carpet-snake of six feet in length. A bundle of rotten
branches was instantly gathered and thrown upon the expiring
embers of our former fire, and both the wallabies and the snake were
thrown into the flame. One of the wallabies had been a female, and
as it lay dead on the grass, a young one, four or five inches long,
crept out of its pouch. I took up the little creature, and, presenting it
to the pouch, it crept in again. Having turned round, however, for a
minute or two, Gnunnumbah had taken it up and thrown it alive into
the fire; for, when I happened to look towards the fire, I saw it in the
flames in the agony of death. In a minute or two the young wallaby
being sufficiently done, Gnunnumbah drew it out of the fire with a
stick, and eat its hind-quarters without further preparation, throwing
the rest of it away.
‘It is the etiquette among the black natives for the person who takes
the game to conduct the cooking of it. As soon, therefore, as the
skins of the wallabies had become stiff and distended from the
expansion of the gases in the cavity of their bodies, Tomboor-rowa
and Sydney each pulled one of them from the fire, and scraping off
the singed hair roughly with the hand, cut up the belly and pulled out
the entrails. They then cleaned out the entrails, not very carefully by
any means, rubbing them roughly on the grass or on the bushes,
and then threw them again upon the fire. When they considered
them sufficiently done, the two eat them, a considerable quantity of
their original contents remaining to serve as a sort of condiment or
sauce. The tails and lower limbs of the two wallabies, when the latter
were supposed to be done enough, were twisted off and eaten by
the other two natives (from one of whom I got one of the vertebræ of
the tail and found it delicious); the rest of the carcases, with the large
snake, being packed up in a number of the Sydney Herald, to serve
as a mess for the whole camp at Brisbane. The black fellows were
evidently quite delighted with the excursion; and, on our return to the
Settlement, they asked Mr. Wade if he was not going again to-
morrow.’
The kangaroo rat, an animal nearly as large as a wild rabbit, is
tolerably abundant, and very good eating, when cooked in the same
manner. The natives take them by driving a spear into the nest,
sometimes transfixing two at once, or by jumping upon the nest,
which is formed of leaves and grass upon the ground.
It is less sought for than its larger relatives, except by thorough
bushmen, owing to the prejudice excited by the unfortunate name
which has been bestowed upon it. Those who have once tried it
usually become fond of it; and to the sawyers and splitters these
animals yield many a fresh meal, during their sojourn amidst the
heavily timbered flats and ranges of Victoria and New South Wales.
The animal is not of the rat species, but a perfect kangaroo in
miniature.
The flesh of the phalangers is of delicate flavor. The large grey
opossum (Phalangista vulpina) forms a great resource for food to the
natives of Australia, who climb the tallest trees in search of them,
and take them from the hollow branches. The flesh is very good,
though not much used by the settlers, the carcase being thrown to
the dogs, while the sportsman contents himself with the skin.
The common opossum (Didelphys Virginiana) is eaten in some of
the states and territories of America; it is very much like a large rat,
and is classed among the ‘vermin’ by the Americans. Their flesh is,
however, white and well-tasted; but their ugly tail puts one out of
conceit with the fare.
The wombat, a bear-like marsupial quadruped of Australia, (the
Phascolomys wombat,) is eaten in New South Wales and other parts
of the Australian Continent. In size it often equals a sheep, some of
the largest weighing 140 lbs.; and the flesh is said by some to be not
unlike venison, and by others to resemble lean mutton. As it is of
such considerable size, attaining the length of three feet, it has been
suggested that it might be worth naturalizing here.

RODENTIA.
Passing now to the rodents or gnawing animals, we find that the
large grey squirrel (Sciurus cinereus, Desm.) is very good eating.
The flesh of the squirrel is much valued by the Dyaks, and it will,
doubtless, hereafter be prized for the table of Europeans.
The marmot (Arctomys Marmotta), in its fat state, when it first retires
to its winter quarters, is in very good condition, and is then killed and
eaten in great numbers, although we may affect to despise it.
The mouse, to the Esquimaux epicures, is a real bonne bouche, and
if they can catch half-a-dozen at a time, they run a piece of horn or
twig through them, in the same manner as the London poulterers
prepare larks for the table; and without stopping to skin them, or
divest them of their entrails, broil them over the fire; and although
some of the mice may have belonged to the aborigines of the race,
yet so strong is the mastication of the natives, that the bones of the
animal yield to its power as easily as the bones of a rabbit would to a
shark.
There is a very large species of rat spoken of as found in the island
of Martinique, nearly four times the size of the ordinary rat. It is black
on the back, with a white belly, and is called, locally, the piloris or
musk rat, as it perfumes the air around. The inhabitants eat them;
but then they are obliged, after they are skinned, to expose them a
whole night to the air; and they likewise throw away the first water
they are boiled in, because it smells so strongly of musk.
The flesh of the musk rat is not bad, except in rutting time, for then it
is impossible to deprive it of the musky smell and flavour.
So fat and sleek do the rats become in the West Indies, from feeding
on the sugar cane in the cane fields, that some of the negroes find
them an object of value, and, with the addition of peppers and similar
spiceries, prepare from them a delicate fricassée not to be
surpassed by a dish of French frogs.
There is a professional rat-catcher employed on each sugar
plantation, and he is paid so much a dozen for the tails he brings in
to the overseer. Father Labat tells us that he made his hunters bring
the whole rat to him, for if the heads or tails only came, the bodies
were eaten by the negroes, which he wished to prevent, as he
thought that this food brought on consumption! The health of the
negroes was then a matter of moment, considering the money value
at which they were estimated and sold. A rat hunt in a cane field
affords glorious sport. In cutting down the canes, one small patch is
reserved standing, into which all the rats congregate, and the
negroes, surrounding the preserve, with their clubs and bill-hooks
speedily despatch the rats, and many are soon skinned and cooked.
The negroes in Brazil, too, eat every rat which they can catch; and I
do not see why they should not be well-tasted and wholesome meat,
seeing that their food is entirely vegetable, and that they are clean,
sleek, and plump. The Australian aborigines eat mice and rats
whenever they can catch them.
Scinde is so infested with rats, that the price of grain has risen 25
per cent. from the destruction caused to the standing crops by them.
The government commissioner has recently issued a proclamation
granting head-money on all rats and mice killed in the province. The
rate is to be 3d. a dozen, the slayer having the privilege of keeping
the body and presenting the tail.
In China, rat soup is considered equal to ox-tail soup, and a dozen
fine rats will realize two dollars, or eight or nine shillings.
Besides the attractions of the gold-fields for the Chinese, California
is so abundantly supplied with rats, that they can live like Celestial
emperors, and pay very little for their board. The rats of California
exceed the rats of the older American States, just as nature on that
side of the continent exceeds in bountifulness of mineral wealth. The
California rats are incredibly large, highly flavoured, and very
abundant. The most refined Chinese in California have no hesitation
in publicly expressing their opinion of ‘them rats.’ Their professed
cooks, we are told, serve up rats’ brains in a much superior style to
the Roman dish of nightingales’ and peacocks’ tongues. The sauce
used is garlic, aromatic seeds, and camphor.
Chinese dishes and Chinese cooking have lately been popularly
described by the fluent pen of Mr. Wingrove Cooke, the Times’
correspondent in China, but he has by no means exhausted the
subject. Chinese eating saloons have been opened in California and
Australia, for the accommodation of the Celestials who now throng
the gold-diggings, despite the heavy poll-tax to which they have
been subjected.
Mr. Albert Smith, writing home from China, August 22, 1858, his first
impressions, says:—
‘The filth they eat in the eating houses far surpasses that cooked at
that old trattoria at Genoa. It consists for the most part of rats, bats,
snails, bad eggs, and hideous fish, dried in the most frightful
attitudes. Some of the restaurateurs carry their cook-shops about
with them on long poles, with the kitchen at one end, and the salle-à-
manger at the other. These are celebrated for a soup made, I should
think, from large caterpillars boiled in a thin gravy, with onions.’
The following is an extract from the bill of fare of one of the San
Francisco eating houses—
Grimalkin steaks 25 cents.
Bow-wow soup 12 ”
Roasted bow-wow 18 ”
Bow-wow pie 6 ”
Stews ratified 6 ”
The latter dish is rather dubious. What is meant by stews rat-ified?
Can it be another name for rat pie? Give us light, but no pie.
The San Francisco Whig furnishes the following description of a
Chinese feast in that city:—‘We were yesterday invited, with three
other gentlemen, to partake of a dinner à la Chinese. At three o’clock
we were waited upon by our hosts, Keychong, and his partner in
Sacramento-street, Peter Anderson, now a naturalized citizen of the
United States, and Acou, and escorted to the crack Chinese
restaurant in Dupont-street, called Hong-fo-la, where a circular table
was set out in fine style:—
‘Course No. 1.—Tea, hung-yos (burnt almonds), ton-kens (dry
ginger), sung-wos (preserved orange).
‘Course No 2.—Won-fo (a dish oblivious to us, and not mentioned in
the cookery-book).
‘No. 3.—Ton-song (ditto likewise).
‘No. 4.—Tap-fau (another quien sabe).
‘No. 5.—Ko-yo (a conglomerate of fish, flesh, and fowl).
‘No. 6.—Suei-chon (a species of fish ball).
‘Here a kind of liquor was introduced, served up in small cups,
holding about a thimbleful, which politeness required we should
empty between every course, first touching cups and salaaming.
‘No. 7.—Beche-le-mer (a dried sea-slug, resembling India rubber,
worth one dollar per pound).
‘No. 8—Moisum. (Have some?)
‘No. 9.—Su-Yum (small balls, as bills of lading remark, ‘contents
unknown’).
‘No. 10.—Hoisuigo (a kind of dried oyster).
‘No. 11.—Songhai (China lobster).
‘No. 12.—Chung-so (small ducks in oil).
‘No. 13.—Tong-chou (mushrooms, worth three dollars per pound).
‘No. 14.—Sum-yoi (birds’ nests, worth 60 dollars per pound).
‘And some ten or twelve more courses, consisting of stewed acorns,
chestnuts, sausages, dried ducks, stuffed oysters, shrimps,
periwinkles, and ending with tea—each course being served up with
small china bowls and plates, in the handiest and neatest manner;
and we have dined in many a crack restaurant, where it would be a
decided improvement to copy from our Chinese friends. The most
difficult feat for us was the handling of the chop sticks, which mode
of carrying to the mouth is a practical illustration of the old proverb,
‘many a slip ’twixt the cup and lip.’ We came away, after a three
hours’ sitting, fully convinced that a China dinner is a very costly and
elaborate affair, worthy the attention of epicures. From this time,
henceforth, we are in the field for China, against any insinuations on
the question of diet à la rat, which we pronounce a tale of untruth.
We beg leave to return thanks to our host, Keychong, for his elegant
entertainment, which one conversant with the Chinese bill of fare
informs us, must have cost over 100 dollars. Vive la China!’
Mr. Cooke, in his graphic letters from China, speaks of the fatness
and fertility of the rats of our colony of Hong Kong. He adds: ‘When
Minutius, the dictator, was swearing Flaminius in as his Master of the
Horse, we are told by Plutarch that a rat chanced to squeak, and the
superstitious people compelled both officers to resign their posts.
Office would be held with great uncertainty in Hong Kong if a similar
superstition prevailed. Sir John Bowring has just been swearing in
General Ashburnham as member of the Colonial Council, and if the
rats were silent, they showed unusual modesty. They have forced
themselves, however, into a state paper. Two hundred rats are
destroyed every night in the gaol. Each morning the Chinese
prisoners see, with tearful eyes and watering mouths, a pile of these
delicacies cast out in waste. It is as if Christian prisoners were to see
scores of white sucking pigs tossed forth to the dogs by
Mahommedan gaolers. At last they could refrain no longer. Daring
the punishment of tail-cutting, which follows any infraction of prison
discipline, they first attempted to abstract the delicacies. Foiled in
this, they took the more manly course. They indited a petition in good
Chinese, proving from Confucius that it is sinful to cast away the
food of man, and praying that the meat might be handed over to
them to cook and eat. This is a fact, and if General Thompson
doubts it, I recommend him to move for a copy of the
correspondence.’
A new article of traffic is about to be introduced into the China
market from India, namely, salted rats! The genius with whom the
idea originated, it would appear, is sanguine; so much so, that he
considers himself ‘on the fair road to fortune.’ The speculation
deserves success, if for nothing else than its originality. I have not,
as yet however, observed the price that rules in Whampoa and Hong
Kong nor the commodity quoted in any of the merchants’ circulars,
though it will, doubtless, soon find its place in them as a regular
article of import.
A correspondent of the Calcutta Citizen, writing from Kurrachee, the
chief town of the before mentioned rat infested province of Scinde,
declares that he is determined to export 120,000 salted rats to
China. The Chinese eat rats, and he thinks they may sell. He says:
—‘I have to pay one pice a dozen, and the gutting, salting, pressing,
and packing in casks, raises the price to six pice a dozen (about
three farthings), and if I succeed in obtaining anything like the price
that rules in Whampoa and Canton for corn-grown rats, my fortune is
made, or rather, I will be on the fair road to it, and will open a fine
field of enterprise to Scinde.’
Rats may enter into consumption in other quarters, and among other
people, than those named, when we find such an advertisement as
the following in a recent daily paper at Sydney:—
‘Rats! Rats! Rats!—To-night at 8 o’clock, rattling sport; 200
rats to be entered at G. W. Parker’s Family Hotel.’
Query.—What ultimately becomes of these rats, and who are the
persons who locate and take their meals at this ‘Family Hotel?’
Probably they are of the rough lot whose stomachs are remarkably
strong.
Some classes of the Malabars are very fond of the bandicoot, or pig
rat (Perameles nasuta, Geoff. Desm.), which measures about
fourteen inches in length from head to tail, the tail being nearly as
long as the body. They are much sought after by the coolies, on the
coffee estates in Ceylon, who eat them roasted. They also eat the
coffee rat (Golunda Ellioti of Gray), roasted or fried in oil, which is
much smaller, the head and body only measuring about four or five
inches. These animals are migratory, and commit great damages on
the coffee tree, as many as a thousand having been killed in a day
on one estate. The planters offer a reward for the destruction of
these rodents, which brings grist to the mill in two ways to the coolies
who hunt or entrap them, namely, in money and food.
The fat dormouse (Myoxus glis, Desm.) is used for food in Italy, as it
was by the ancient Romans, who fattened them for the table in
receptacles called Gliraria.
Dr. Rae, in his last arctic exploring expedition, states, that the
principal food of his party was geese, partridges, and lemmings
(Arvicola Hudsonia). These little animals were migrating northward,
and were so numerous that their dogs, as they trotted on, killed as
many as supported them all, without any other food.
There is another singular little animal, termed by naturalists the
vaulting rat, or jerboa. On an Australian species, the Dipus Mitchelli,
the natives of the country between Lake Torrens and the Great
Creek, in Australia seem chiefly to subsist. It is a little larger than a
mouse, and the hind legs are similar to those of the kangaroo.
Captain Sturt and his exploring party once witnessed a curious
scene. They came to a native who had been eating jerboas, and
after they met him they saw him eat one hundred of them. His mode
of cooking was quite unique. He placed a quantity, for a few
seconds, under the ashes of the fire, and then, with the hair only
partially burnt off, took them by the tail, put the body in his mouth,
and bit the tail off with his teeth. After he had eaten a dozen bodies,
he took the dozen tails, and stuffed them into his mouth.
The flesh of the beaver is looked upon as very delicate food by the
North American hunters, but the tail is the choicest dainty, and in
great request. It is much prized by the Indians and trappers,
especially when it is roasted in the skin, after the hair has been
singed off; and in some districts it requires all the influence of the fur-
traders to restrain the hunters from sacrificing a considerable
quantity of beaver fur every year to secure the enjoyment of this
luxury. The Indians of note have generally one or two feasts in a
season, wherein a roasted beaver is the prime dish. It resembles
pork in its flavour, but it requires a strong stomach to sustain a full
meal of it. The flesh is always in high estimation, except when they
have fed upon the fleshy root of a large water lily, which imparts a
rank taste to it.
The flesh of a young porcupine is said to be excellent eating, and
very nutritious. The flavour is something between pork and fowl. To
be cooked properly, it should be boiled first, and afterwards roasted.
This is necessary to soften the thick, gristly skin, which is the best
part of the animal. The flesh of the porcupine is said to be used by
the Italians as a stimulant; but, never having tasted it myself, I
cannot speak from experience as to the virtue of this kind of food.
The Dutch and the Hottentots are very fond of it; and when skinned
and embowelled, the body will sometimes weigh 20 lbs. The flesh is
said to eat better when it has been hung in the smoke of a chimney
for a couple of days.
The flesh of the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) is good and very
agreeable eating. Some of the Hudson Bay trappers used to depend
upon the Hystrix dorsata for food at some seasons of the year.
Rabbits, which form so large an article of consumption with us, are
not much esteemed as an article of food by the negroes in the West
Indies, resembling, in their idea, the cat. Thus, a black who is
solicited to buy a rabbit by an itinerant vendor, would indignantly
exclaim, ‘Rabbit? I should just like to no war you take me for,
ma’am? You tink me go buy rabbit? No, ma’am, me no cum to dat
yet; for me always did say, an me always will say, dat dem who eat
rabbit eat pussy, an dem who eat pussy eat rabbit. Get out wid you,
and your rabbit?’
And yet, with all this mighty indignation against rabbits, they do not
object, as we have seen, to a less dainty animal in the shape of the
rat.
Although the negroes in the West Indies do not care for rabbits, yet
their brethren in the American States are by no means averse to
them. A field slave one day found a plump rabbit in his trap. He took
him out alive, held him under his arm, patted him, and began to
speculate on his qualities. ‘Oh, how fat. Berry fat. The fattest I eber
did see. Let me see how I’ll cook him. I’ll broil him. No, he is so fat he
lose all de grease. I fry him. Ah yes. He so berry fat he fry hisself.
Golly, how fat he be. No, I won’t fry him—I stew him.’ The thought of
the savory stew made the negro forget himself, and in spreading out
the feast in his imagination, his arms relaxed, when off hopped the
rabbit, and squatting at a goodly distance, he eyed his late owner
with cool composure. The negro knew there was an end of the stew,
and summoning up all his philosophy, he thus addressed the rabbit,
at the same time shaking his fist at him, ‘You long-eared, white-
whiskered rascal, you not so berry fat arter all.’
I need not here touch upon hare soup, jugged hare, or roasted hare,
from the flesh of our own rodent; but the Arctic hare (Lepus glacialis)
differs considerably from the English in the colour and quality of its
flesh, being less dry, whiter, and more delicately tasted; it may be
dressed in any way. When in good condition it weighs upwards of 10
lbs.
The capybara, or water hog (Hydrochœrus capybara), an ugly-
looking, tailless rodent, the largest of the family, is hunted for its flesh
in South America, and is said to be remarkably good eating. It grows
to the size of a hog two years old.
The flesh of the guinea pig (Cavia cobaya, Desm.) is eaten in South
America, and is said to be not unlike pork. When he is dressed for
the table his skin is not taken off as in other animals, but the hair is
scalded and scraped off in the same manner as it is in a hog.
The white and tender flesh of the agouti (Dasyprocta Acuti, Desm.),
when fat and well dressed, is by no means unpalatable food, but
very delicate and digestible. It is met with in Brazil, Guiana, and in
Trinidad. The manner of dressing them in the West Indies used to be
to roast them with a pudding in their bellies. Their skin is white, as
well as the flesh.
The flesh of the brown paca (Cœlogenus subniger, Desm.), a nearly
allied animal, is generally very fat, and also accounted a great
delicacy in Brazil.
Another South American rodent, the bizcacha, or viscascha
(Lagostomus trichodactylus), is eaten for food. It somewhat
resembles a rabbit, but has larger gnawing teeth, and a long tail. The
flesh, when cooked, is very white and good.

EDENTATA, OR TOOTHLESS ANIMALS.

Wallace, in his travels on the Amazon, tells us that the Indians
stewed a sloth for their dinner, and as they considered the meat a
great delicacy, he tasted it, and found it tender and very palatable.
Among other extraordinary animals for which Australia is proverbial,
is the Echidna hystrix, or native porcupine, which is eaten by the
aborigines, who declare it to be ‘cobbong budgeree (very good), and,
like pig, very fat.’ Europeans who have eaten of them confirm this
opinion, and observe that they taste similar to a sucking pig. There
appear to be two species of this animal, the spiny echidna and the
bristly echidna; the first attains a large size, equalling the ordinary
hedgehog. It has the external coating and general appearance of the
porcupine, with the mouth and peculiar generic character of the ant-
eater.
The flesh of the great ant-eater (Myrmecophaga jubata, Linn.) is
esteemed a delicacy by the Indians and negro slaves in Brazil, and,
though black and of a strong musky flavour, is sometimes even met
with at the tables of Europeans.
The armadillo, remarkable for its laminated shell, when baked in its
scaly coat is a good treat, the flesh being considered delicate eating,
somewhat like a rabbit in taste and colour. The flesh of the large
twelve-banded Brazilian one (Dasypus Tatouay) is said to be the
best of all. In South America there are several species of armadillo,
all of which are used for food when met with.
Mr. Gosse states, that this animal feeds upon soft ground fruits and
roots, and also on carrion, whenever it can find it; and a large
proportion of the sustenance of this, as well as of other species, is
derived from the numberless wild cattle which are caught and
slaughtered on the Pampas for the sake of their hides and tallow, the
carcases being left as valueless to decay, or to become the prey of
wild animals. Notwithstanding the filthy nature of their food, the
armadillos, being very fat, are eagerly sought for by the inhabitants
of European descent, as well as by the Indians. The animal is
roasted in its shell, and is esteemed one of the greatest delicacies of
the country; the flesh is said to resemble that of a sucking pig.
PACHYDERMATA, OR THICK-SKINNED
ANIMALS.
What do our African brethren consider tit-bits? Ask Gordon
Cumming. He will enumerate a list longer than you can remember.
Study his ‘Adventures,’ and you will become learned in the mystery
of African culinary operations. What are sheep’s-trotters and insipid
boiled calves’ feet compared to baked elephants’ paws?
Listen to his description of the whole art and mystery of the process
of preparing them:—
‘The four feet are amputated at the fetlock joint, and the trunk, which
at the base is about two feet in thickness, is cut into convenient
lengths. Trunk and feet are then baked, preparatory to their removal
to headquarters. The manner in which this is done is as follows:—A
party, provided with sharp-pointed sticks, dig a hole in the ground for
each foot and a portion of the trunk. These holes are about two feet
deep and a yard in width; the excavated earth is embanked around
the margin of the holes. This work being completed, they next collect
an immense quantity of dry branches and trunks of trees, of which
there is always a profusion scattered around, having been broken by
the elephants in former years. These they pile above the holes to the
height of eight or nine feet, and then set fire to the heap. When these
strong fires have burnt down, and the whole of the wood is reduced
to ashes, the holes and the surrounding earth are heated to a high
degree. Ten or twelve men then stand round the pit and take out the
ashes with a pole about sixteen feet in length, having a hook at the
end. They relieve one another in quick succession, each man
running in and raking the ashes for a few seconds, and then pitching
the pole to his comrade, and retreating, since the heat is so intense
that it is scarcely to be endured. When all the ashes are thus raked
out beyond the surrounding bank of earth, each elephant’s foot and
portion of the trunk is lifted by two athletic men, standing side by
side, who place it on their shoulders, and, approaching the pit
together, they heave it into it. The long pole is now again resumed,
and with it they shove in the heated bank of earth upon the foot,
shoving and raking until it is completely buried in the earth. The hot
embers, of which there is always a great supply, are then raked into
a heap above the foot, and another bonfire is kindled over each,
which is allowed to burn down and die a natural death; by which time
the enormous foot or trunk will be found to be equally baked
throughout its inmost parts. When the foot is supposed to be ready, it
is taken out of the ground with pointed sticks, and is first well beaten,
and then scraped with an assagai, whereby adhering particles of
sand are got rid of. The outside is then pared off, and it is transfixed
with a sharp stake for facility of carriage. The feet thus cooked are
excellent, as is also the trunk, which very much resembles buffalo’s
tongue.’
Elephants’ petit(?) toes, pickled in strong toddy vinegar and cayenne
pepper, are considered in Ceylon an Apician luxury. As soon as it is
known that an elephant has been killed in Africa, every man in the
neighbourhood sets off with his knife and basket for the place, and
takes home as much of the carcase as he can manage to carry. The
flesh is not only eaten when fresh, but is dried and kept for months,
and is then highly esteemed.
The manner in which the elephant is cut up is thus described by the
author and sportsman I have already quoted:—‘The rough outer skin
is first removed, in large sheets, from the side which lies uppermost.
Several coats of an under skin are then met with. The skin is of a
tough and pliant nature, and is used by the natives for making water-
bags, in which they convey supplies of water from the nearest vey,
or fountain (which is often ten miles distant), to the elephant. They
remove this inner skin with caution, taking care not to cut it with the
assagai; and it is formed into water bags by gathering the corners
and edges, and transfixing the whole on a pointed wand. The flesh is
then removed in enormous sheets from the ribs, when the hatchets
come into play, with which they chop through and remove
individually each colossal rib. The bowels are thus laid bare; and in
the removal of these the leading men take a lively interest and active
part, for it is throughout and around the bowels that the fat of the
elephant is mainly found. There are few things which a Bechuana
prizes so highly as fat of any description; they will go an amazing
distance for a small portion of it. They use it principally in cooking
their sun-dried biltongue, and they also eat it with their corn. The fat
of the elephant lies in extensive layers and sheets in his inside, and
the quantity which is obtained from a full-grown bull, in high
condition, is very great. Before it can be obtained, the greater part of
the bowels must be removed. To accomplish this, several men
eventually enter the immense cavity of his inside, where they
continue mining away with their assagais, and handing the fat to
their comrades outside till all is bare. While this is transpiring with the
sides and bowels, other parties are equally active in removing the
skin and flesh from the remaining parts of the carcase.
‘In Northern Cachar, India, the flesh of the elephant is generally
eaten. The Kookies encamp in the neighbourhood of the carcase
until they have entirely consumed it, or are driven away by the
effluvia of decomposition. Portions of the flesh that they cannot
immediately eat are dried and smoked to be kept for future
consumption.
‘Fat of any kind is a complete godsend to the Bechuana and other
tribes of Southern Africa; and the slaughter of an elephant affords
them a rich harvest in disembowelling the carcase, and mining their
way into the interior of the huge cavity to remove the immense layers
furnished by such a large animal if in good condition.’
Galton, the African traveller, in his hints for bush cooking, tells us:—
‘The dish called beatee is handy to make. It is a kind of haggis made
with blood, a good quantity of fat shred small, some of the tenderest
of the flesh, together with the heart and lungs of the animal, cut or
torn into small shivers, all of which is put into the stomach and
roasted, by being suspended before the fire with a string. Care must
be taken that it does not get too much heat at first, or it will burst. It is
a most delicious morsel, even without pepper, salt, or any
seasoning.’
In all the large rivers of Southern Africa, and especially towards the
mouths, the hippopotami abound. The colonists give them the name
of sea-cows. The capture of one of these huge beasts, weighing, as
they sometimes do, as much as four or five large oxen, is an
immense prize to the hungry Bushman or Koranna, as the flesh is by
no means unpalatable; and the fat, with which these animals are
always covered, is considered delicious. When salted it is called zee-
koe speck, is very much like excellent fat bacon, and is greatly
prized by the Dutch colonists, not only for the table, but for the
reputed medicinal qualities which are attributed to it. In Abyssinia,
hippopotamus meat is commonly eaten.
The hog is one of those animals that are doomed to clear the earth
of refuse and filth, and that convert the most nauseous offal into the
nicest nutriment in its flesh. It has not altogether been unaptly
compared to a miser, who is useless and rapacious in his life, but at
his death becomes of public use by the very effects of his sordid
manners. During his life he renders little service to mankind, except
in removing that filth which other animals reject.
A delicate sucking pig, a Bath chap, or a good rasher of bacon are,
however, tit-bits not to be despised.
Lord Brougham hoped to see the day when every man in the United
Kingdom would read Bacon. ‘It would be much better to the
purpose,’ said Cobbett, ‘if his lordship would use his influence that
every man in the kingdom could eat bacon.’
In British India, only Europeans and the low Hindoos eat pork, but
wild hogs are very abundant, and afford good sport to the hunter.
The avoidance of pork arises as much from religious scruples as the
deep-rooted aversion to the domestic swine all must imbibe who
have only seen it in the East, where it is a tall, gaunt, half famished,
and half ferocious-looking brute, which performs the office of
scavenger.
The legend which ascribes to the eating of human flesh the origin of
one of the most loathsome of diseases, scarce offers a more horrible
picture to the imagination than is presented by a letter recently
published in the Ceylon Examiner. The beautiful islands of Mauritius
and Bourbon are largely supplied with pork from Patna, a province of
Hindostan that has been over-run by the cholera. Both there and at
Calcutta the bodies of the natives are consigned to the Ganges,
instead of being interred. ‘Let any person,’ says the writer in the
Ceylon paper, ‘at daybreak start from the gates of Government
House, Calcutta, and, whether his walk will be to the banks of the
river or to the banks of the canals which on three sides surround the
city, he will see pigs feeding on the dead bodies of the natives that
have been thrown there during the night. During the day the river
police clear away and sink all that remains of the bodies. Bad as is
the metropolis of India it is nothing compared to Patna. Hundreds
upon hundreds of human corpses are there strewed along the
strand; and fattening, ghoule-like, upon these are droves upon
droves of swine. These swine are slaughtered, cut up, and salted
into hams, bacon, and pickled pork, and then despatched to
Calcutta.... The great market for this poisonous swine produce is the
Mauritius and Bourbon, where it is foisted on the inhabitants as the
produce of Europe. Moreover, as these swine are sold in Calcutta at
3s. or 4s. each carcase, it is stated that the inferior class of
homeward-bound vessels are provisioned with them, and thus this
human-fed pork is introduced into Europe and America.’
Pork-eaters may believe as much of the following remarks as they
please. ‘It is said that the Jews, Turks, Arabians, and all those who
observe the precept of avoiding blood and swine’s flesh, are infinitely
more free from disease than Christians; more especially do they
escape those opprobria of the medical art, gout, scrofula,
consumption, and madness. The Turks eat great quantities of honey
and pastry, and much sugar; they also eat largely, and are indolent,
and yet do not suffer from dyspepsia as Christians do. The swine-fed
natives of Christendom suffer greater devastation from a tubercular
disease of the bowels (dysentery) than from any other cause. Those
persons who abstain from swine’s flesh and blood are infinitely more
healthy and free from humors, glandular diseases, dyspepsia, and
consumption; while in those districts, and among those classes, of
men, where the pig makes the chief article of diet, tubercle in all its
forms of eruptions, sore legs, bad eyes, abscesses, must prevail.’
These are the remarks of an American journalist, which, however,
have not, I conceive, the shadow of foundation.
‘It appears somewhat singular,’ remarks Mr. Richardson, in his
history of the pig, ‘that the flesh of the hog was prohibited in the
ceremonial of the Jewish law; the same prohibition being afterwards
borrowed by Mahomet, and introduced into the Koran.’ Great
difference of opinion prevails as to the cause of this prohibition;
some alleging that this food was unsuited to the land inhabited by
the Jews. As, however, the kinds of food to be eaten and rejected—
doubtless to prevent that luxurious epicurism unsuited to a growing
and prosperous nation—were to have a limit, this limit was fixed by
two distinctive marks: they must ‘divide the hoof, and chew the cud;’
that principle of restriction admitting only a limited range to the food
permitted. The pig, the horse, and the camel were excluded. It was
only in a state of low nationality, or in times of great degeneracy, that
the Jew ever tasted pork.
The food of the hog varies in different localities, and probably
materially influences the flavour of the meat. In the River Plata
provinces they feed them on mutton. After describing the purchase—
8,000 at eighteen-pence per dozen (?)—by a Mr. M. Handy, a
traveller adds, ‘As soon as the sheep became fattened on his own
lands, he killed about a thousand, sold the fleeces at five shillings
per dozen, and with the mutton he fed a herd of swine. Mentioning
this fact to a large party of Europeans, at the dinner table of Lord
Howden, when in Buenos Ayres, my statement was received with a
murmur of scepticism; but I offered to accompany the incredulous to
the pastures, where the remainder of the sheep were then
feeding.’—(Two Thousand Miles’ Ride through the Argentine
Provinces.) But the Yankees beat this, according to a late American
paper. In North America they generally feed them on maize, but in
some of the States, apples form a principal portion of their food, and
the ‘apple sauce’ thus becomes incorporated with the flesh. A
gentleman travelling down East, overtook a farmer dragging a lean,
wretched-looking, horned sheep along the road. ‘Where are you
going with that miserable animal?’ asked the traveller. ‘I am taking
him to the mutton mill, to have him ground over,’ said the farmer.