PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

Vector Addition
COVERAGE: • Vector addition is different from the usual
• The difference between scalar and addition in arithmetic.
vector quantities. • The magnitude and direction should be taken
• Representing vectors graphically into consideration.
• Resultant and equilibrant vectors • Only vectors of the same kind can be added or
• Finding resultant vector combined.

PROPERTIES OF VECTOR ADDITION

Commutative
VECTORS
• The order of addition does not matter.
Scalar Quantity o 𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴

• Is a quantity that has magnitude only. Associative

o Examples:
• The grouping does not matter in adding 2 or
▪ 25 m
more vectors.
▪ 45 s
▪ 50 kg o (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
▪ 40 km/h RESULTANT AND EQUILIBRANT
Vector Quantity Resultant Vector (R)
• Is a quantity that has both magnitude and a • Is the sum of all the vectors being considered.
direction in space. • Is a single vector which will produce the same
o Examples: effect produced by the given vectors.
▪ Displacement
▪ Velocity Equilibrant Vector (E)
▪ Acceleration
• The same magnitude as that of the resultant, but
▪ Force
opposite in direction.
Representing Vectors
FINDING RESULTANT VECTOR
• A vector is represented by an arrow.
Graphical Method or Polygon Method
• The length of the arrow is proportion
magnitude of the vector. • Use a ruler and a protractor.
• The tail indicated the starting point.
• The orientation of the arrowhead indicates the Analytical Method
direction. • Requires some knowledge in trigonometry.
• Vectors maybe denoted using a boldface type.
GRAPHICAL/POLYGON METHOD
• Draw 1st vector using a convenient scale.
• From the terminal point (head) of the 1st vector,
draw 2nd vector; from the terminal point (head)
of the 2nd vector; draw 3rd vector; and so on,
until the last vector.
• Draw the resultant vector (R) from the initial
point (tail) of the 1st vector to the terminal point
(head) of the last vector.
• Measure the resultant vector R using a ruler and
a protractor to find its magnitude and direction.
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

Using Unit Vectors

VECTORS FOR CALCULUS-BASED PHYSICS

Finding the Magnitude
Vector
• A quantity that has a magnitude (size) and a
direction.
• Can be in one-dimension, two-dimensions, or
even three-dimensions.
• Can be represented using a magnitude and an
angle measured from a specified reference.
• Can also be represented using unit vectors.

Vectors in Physics
• We only used two dimensional vectors.
• All vectors were in the x-y plane.
• All vectors were shown by stating a magnitude
and a direction (angle from a reference point).
• Vectors could be resolved into x-&y-
components using right triangle trigonometry
(sin, cos, tan)

Unit Vectors
• It is a vector that has a magnitude of 1 unit
• Some unit vectors have been defined in standard
directions.
• +x direction specified by unit vector “ἰ”
• +y direction specified by “ⅉ”
• +z direction specified by “k”
• “n” specifies a vector normal to a surface.
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
Vector Addition

Vector Multiplication
Dot product
Dot products (another way)
• If you are given the original vectors using
magnitudes and the angle between them you
• Also known as a scalar product. may calculate magnitude by another (simpler)
method.
• 2 vectors are multiplied together in such a
manner as to give a scalar answer (magnitude
only)
Cross Product

• Also known as a vector product.

• 2 vectors are multiplied together in such a
manner as to give a vector answer (magnitude
and direction)
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
Using a Dot Product in Physics

Finding a Cross Product Cross Products (another way)

• If you are given the original vectors using
magnitudes and the angle between them you
may calculate magnitude by another (simpler)
method.
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
against a surface or pressed against another
COVERAGE: body.
• To Learn Newton’s laws of motion Friction
• To study the relationship between
a force and the acceleration it • a force, which opposes the relative motion of a
causes body at rest or in motion.
• To solve problems related to the Tension
Newton’s second law of motion
• To define frictional force and solve • The force exerted by a string, rope or cable on
problems related to it an object to which it is attached.
• A tension force pulls in the direction of the rope
and is exerted uniformly along its entire length.
LESSON 1: FORCE AND MOTION
Mass
The Concept of Force • A scalar quantity and is commonly known
• When you push or pull an object, you exert a qualitatively as the amount of matter which an
force on it. If an object moves with uniform object is made.
motion (constant velocity), no force is required • It is also defined as a measure of an object’s
to maintain the motion. inertia. The greater an object’s mass, the greater
• Only a force can cause a change in velocity that its inertia and the less its motion changes when
causes a body to accelerate. pushed or pulled by a force.
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Force
Sir Isaac Newton and his colleagues formulated three
• An interaction that causes an acceleration of a
laws based on experimental observations which are
body. The magnitudes of forces are defined in
called the laws of motion.
terms of the acceleration they give the standard
kilogram. 1. Newton’s First Law of Motion: The Law of
• A force that accelerates that standard body by Inertia
exactly 1 is defined to have a magnitude of one • A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in
Newton (I N). motion will continue to move in motion at
• The direction of the force is the direction of the constant velocity in a straight line unless, in
acceleration. either case, it is acted upon by an external
• It is a vector quantity. unbalanced force.
• Thus, the net force on a body is the vector sum
of all the forces acting on it.

Weight
• is a force that pulls the body directly toward a 2. Newton’s Second Law of Motion: The Law
nearby astronomical body; in everyday of Acceleration
circumstances, that astronomical body is the
• An unbalanced force acting on an object will
earth.
cause the object to accelerate in the direction of
• The force is primarily due to an attraction, called the force.
gravitational attraction, between the
• The acceleration is directly proportional to the
astronomical body and any object nearby.
vector sum of all the forces acting on the object
Normal Force and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.

• the perpendicular force (perpendicular to the

surface) experienced by a body that is pressed
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
Static Friction
• Static frictional force exists when an object does
not slide along a surface on which it rests even
through a force is exerted to make it slide.
• If a large box is pushed but it does not slide, the
static frictional force resists the applied force.
3. Newton’s Third Law of Motion: The Law
• The force of friction in this case is called static
of Action and Reaction Forces because the box remains stationary.
• Whenever one object exerts a force on another
object, the second object exerts a reaction force The maximum force that static frictional force exerts
of equal magnitude but in opposite direction to depends on two factors:
the first force.
a) The relative roughness of two surfaces in
• It is equivalent to stating that forces always
contact. Roughness is measured by the
occur in pairs, or that a single isolated force
coefficient of static friction s. The larger the
cannot exist.
value of s, the rougher the surfaces and the
harder it is to move the object.
b) The magnitude of the normal force between the
object and the surface on which it rests. The
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
larger the normal force, the harder it is to make
the object move.
• Newton’s Second Law relates the forces acting
on an object to its acceleration.
• Kinematics is often used to relate an object’s Kinetic Friction
acceleration to its changing velocity and
position. • As an object slides across a surface, kinetic
frictional force opposes its motion.
Problem-Solving Strategy • The word kinetic signifies that the object is
1. Draw a simple, neat diagram of the system. moving.
2. Isolate the object of interest and draw the force • In the case of a moving car, for example, the
diagram or free body diagram for the object; a road exerts kinetic frictional force on the tires of
diagram showing all external forces acting on the road.
the object. Do not include forces exerted by the • After an object, initially at rest, that is pushed or
object on its surrounding. For systems pulled, starts to move, less force is usually
containing more than one object, draw separate needed to keep the object sliding than the force
diagrams for each object. required to make the object move. That is,
3. Establish convenient coordinate axes for each kinetic frictional force is less than the maximum
object and find the component of the forces static friction.
along these axes. • The effect of friction on the motion of an object
4. Solve for the unknowns. You must have as many is accounted for by defining a coefficient of
independent equations as the number of kinetic friction, k, a number less than the
unknowns. coefficient of static friction.

Friction
Friction
• Opposes the motion of an object across a surface
on which it rests and is directed parallel to the
surface of the contact.
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
Properties of Frictional Force
I. If a body remains stationary, the static frictional
force fs, and the component of the applied force
that is parallel to the surface are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction. If the
component of parallel to the surface increases,
then fs also increases.
II. The magnitude of fs has a maximum value that
is equal to sN. That is, fs  sN where N is the
magnitude of the normal force. If the component
of parallel to the surface exceeds sN, then the
body begins to slide on the surface.
III. Once a body begins to slide along a surface, the
magnitude of the frictional force rapidly
decreases to a smaller constant value given by fk
= kN, where uk < us.
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

COVERAGE: Torque

• Study the conditions that are necessary • A measure of the tendency of a force to cause an
for an extended body to remain object to rotate.
stationary, both in terms of its position • The magnitude of torque (L) is the product of
in space and its rotational ability. the magnitude of force (F) and the moment arm
• Express the conditions of equilibrium in (s).
the form of mathematical equations Moment Arm
and apply them in solving and
analyzing variety of situational • The perpendicular distance from the line of
problems. action of the fore to the point about which the
object rotates called axis of rotation.

LESSON 2: STATICS Point O is the axis of rotation, and S is the moment arm,
the broken lines drawn from the force F is the line of
First Condition of Equilibrium action of the force.
➢ If the vector sum of all the forces acting on the Hence,
body is zero, then there will not be any change
in its state of motion, and the body is in a state L = F • S
of equilibrium under the action of these set of
The torque is positive if the force tends to rotate the
forces.
object counterclockwise about the origin and negative if
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + . . . = 0 it tends to rotate the object clockwise.

➢ It satisfies then that the sum of the x components

(F1x, F2x, F3x . . .) of all forces acting on the
object must be zero, and the sum of the y
Second Condition of Equilibrium
components (F1y, F2y, F3y, . . .) must also be ➢ For an object to remain in rotational equilibrium,
zero. the positive torque that tends to rotate it
counterclockwise must be balanced by a torque
Fx = F1 x +F2 x +F3 x … 0
of equal magnitude that tends to rotate it
Fy = F1 y + F2 y + F3 y . . . 0 clockwise. Thus, the second condition of
equilibrium is:
These two equations are useful in calculating one or two
unknown forces acting on an object if all other forces L = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . = 0
acting on it are known. To use these equations correctly,
where L1, L2, L3 . . . represents the torque caused by all
here are some steps to follow:
forces F1, F2, F3, . . . acting on the object.
I. Make a drawing of the whole structure being
considered.
II. Draw a separate force diagram known as the free
body diagram for one part of the structure.
III. Superimpose an x-axis and a y-axis on the force
diagram.
IV. Write the equations for the first condition of
equilibrium.
V. Substitute the known information into the
equations and algebraically solved for the
unknowns.
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

COVERAGE:

• Calculate the work done by an

applied force that moves an
object through a certain
displacement.
• Distinguished between kinetic
and potential energy. where  is the angle between the two vectors and .
• Use the principle of conservation
of energy to solve problems that
involves moving objects. • There will be no work done if the displacement
• Determine the power output of and the applied force are at right angles with
an energy source. each other, since cos 90° = 0.
• If the applied force does work by moving the
body in the direction of the force, the work
LESSON 3: WORK, ENERGY & POWER done is positive. If the body moves in the
opposite direction of the force, the work is done
Work WORK by the body and is negative.
• The term work, commonly used in connection
with widely physical or mental activities, is
restricted in physics, in cases wherein there is a Units of Work
force and a displacement along the direction of
the force.
• In general, work is defined as the product of the
displacement and the component of the force
along the displacement.
• Work is a scalar quantity.

ENERGY
Energy

• The property of a body or system of bodies by

• If the force and the displacement are in the
virtue of which work can be performed is called
same direction, as shown in the diagram above,
energy.
then the work done by the force in moving the
• It is a scalar quantity.
body is given by:
• Energy can exist in many forms and can be
𝑊 = |𝐹| = |𝑆| = 𝐹𝑆 transformed from one form to another.
• The energy possessed by an object by virtue of
Where: F is the applied force, S is displacement
its motion is called kinetic energy, or energy of
• If the force and the displacement are not in the motion.
same direction, as shown in the diagram below, • Energy of position, or configuration, is called
then the work done by the applied force is given potential energy.
by • When work is done on a body in the absence of
frictional force, the work done is equal to the
𝑊 = |𝐹| = |𝑆| (cos 𝜃) = 𝐹𝑆 cos 𝜃 = (𝐹 cos 𝜃) 𝑆
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
sum of the increase in kinetic energy and the component of the weight along the plane of
increase in potential energy. length L is,
• The units in which energy is expressed are the
𝑊 = (𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛) 𝐿
same as the units of work.
But,
Potential Energy
ℎ
• An object may store energy because of its 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐿
position.
• The energy that is stored is called potential
energy (PE), because in the stored state, it has
the potential to do work.

Gravitational Potential Energy

• Work is required to lift objects against the

earth’s gravity.
• The potential energy due to elevated positions
is called gravitational potential energy.
• The amount of gravitational potential energy Therefore,
possessed by an elevated object is equal to the
W = mgh
work done against gravity on lifting it.
• If a mass m is raised from position 1 to position • Note that the height h is the distance above
2, a distance h, as shown in the diagram on the some reference level, such as the ground or the
right, work is done on the body against gravity floor of a building.
with the magnitude, • The potential energy or the work done on a
body raised to a height is independent of the
𝑊 = −𝑚𝑔ℎ
path, or course, taken by the body.
• where mg is the force, and the negative sign • The potential energy is relative to some
signifies a force against gravity. reference level and depends only on mg and the
• If the body is allowed to fall, the weight of the height h.
body will do the same amount of work, • The potential energy of a body at high altitude
with respect to the surface of the earth is given
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
by
• which in another way, is called the potential
𝑙 𝑙
energy of the body. 𝑃𝐸 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚( − )
𝑅 𝑟
• In other words, energy was stored in the body
by virtue of its position relative to the surface. Where the universal gravitational constant G =
Therefore 6.67𝑥10−11 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔 − 𝑠 2 , M is the mass of the earth,

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ • m is the mass of the body, R is the radius of the

earth, and r is the distance of the body from the
Since weight w = mg, PE = wh center of the earth.
• Note that r is not just the altitude above the
earth’s surface but includes the radius of the
• Consider now the work done in dragging a body earth as well.
of mass m along a frictionless inclined plane, as
shown. Since the component of the vertical
force, (the weight = mg) along the plane is
(mgsin), the work done against this
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
Kinetic Energy Transformation and Conversation of Energy

• If an object is moving, then by virtue of that • Energy is given to a body or system of bodies
motion, it is capable of doing work. It is called when work is done upon it.
energy of motion, or kinetic energy (KE). • In this process, there is merely a transfer of
• The kinetic energy of the moving object can be energy from one body to another.
measured by the amount of work it will do if • In such transfer no energy is created nor
brought to rest or by the amount of work destroyed: it merely changes from one form to
originally need to impart velocity to it, in another. This statement is known as the law of
circumstances where the work cannot also go conservation of energy.
into potential energy.
• Consider a body with initial speed V1 on which a
steady unbalanced force F acts as it moves a
distance s. The body gains speed at a rate given
𝐹
by 𝑎 = 𝑚 until it reaches a final speed V2. The
work done on the body by the unbalanced force
that accelerated it appears as a change in its
kinetic energy.

W = KE = Fs
Since F = ma, multiplying by s gives

Fs = mas
• An example of the law of the conservation of
so that
energy is the conservation of mechanical energy
KE = Fs = mas (potential and kinetic) in the case of a simple
pendulum of mass m. If the pendulum is raised
Using
to a height h, it acquires potential energy. When
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑉22 − 𝑉12 it reaches the lowest point of the arc, its
potential energy is minimum, but its velocity is
1
𝑎𝑠 = (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) maximum showing that the potential energy of
2
the pendulum has been converted to kinetic
We finally obtain energy. This conservation is 100% ; friction at
1 the point of support and air resistance is
 KE = 𝑚 (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) neglected. The kinetic energy at the lowest
2
point will carry the pendulum to the same
1 1
= 𝑚𝑉22 − 𝑚𝑉12 height in the other side of the swing. The law of
2 2 conservation of energy still holds even if friction
If the body was initially at rest at V1 = 0 and the gain in and air resistance are taken into account,
kinetic energy is the final kinetic energy. Thus, the because in that case, when the body eventually
kinetic energy of a body, moving with velocity V, at any stops swinging after some time, both its
instant is potential and kinetic energies, by then, will all
have been dissipated into heat energy.
1
KE = 𝑚𝑉 2
2
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
Power POWER
• The time rate of doing work is known as power.
Power measures the amount of work done in
given time:

• In the MKS system, the unit of power is in joule

per second, also known as the watt, named
after James Watt. In the CGS system, the unit of
power is in erg per second. In the English
system, the standard unit of power is the
horsepower (hp).
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
IMPULSE
COVERAGE: Impulse
• Relate Newton’s second Law of Motion • is the product of a force acting on an object and
to impulse and momentum. the time that the force acts. An impulse causes
• Calculate the impulse of a force and the object’s momentum to change:
relate it to the change in momentum.
• Distinguish between internal and Impulse J = F • t
external forces among interacting • An equation relating the impulse of a force and
bodies. the subsequent change in momentum of the
• Recognize when momentum is object on which the force acts is derived using
conserved. Newton’s Second Law of Motion and (F = ma)
• Apply the impulse — momentum kinematics:
relation and the conservation of
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
momentum to a variety of problems 𝑎=
𝑡
involving collisions (elastic and
inelastic) and other kinds of interaction  F = ma
between bodies. 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
= 𝑚[ ]
𝑡
Rearranging the terms
LESSON 4: IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
( F) t = m(v − 𝑣𝑜 )
LINEAR MOMENTUM
impulse = change in linear momentum
Momentum CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
• A property related to an object’s motion and • As two colliding bodies interact with each other,
mass. they exert forces on each other. These are
• The faster the object moves and the larger its internal forces if we take the two bodies
mass, the greater is its momentum. together as our system. At the same time, they
• It is the tendency of an object to continue may be acted upon by other external forces
moving at constant velocity and thereby such as friction.
encountering difficulty in bringing the object to • The total linear momentum of a system is
rest. conserved if there is no additional external
Linear Momentum force present before, after and during the
collision. The total linear momentum of a
• The linear momentum p is defined system remains constant.
quantitatively as the product of its mass m and
velocity v:

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
𝑚
• the unit of momentum is 𝑘𝑔 𝑠2
• Since velocity is a vector quantity having
magnitude and direction, momentum is also a
vector quantity with magnitude and direction.
• The direction of an object’s momentum equals
the direction of its velocity.
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
e for partly elastic collision is equal to the ratio between
relative speeds.
𝑈2 − 𝑈1 relative speed after collision
e= =
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 relative speed before collision

Ballistic Pendulum
• used to measure velocity of bullets.

A bullet with mass (m) and unknown velocity (v) is fired

to hit a hanging block of mass (M) as shown in the
following figure. The block with embedded bullet swings
COLLISIONS and rises to a height (h).

• When two bodies collide, internal forces are

external during the short time of impact.
• These forces may be conservative or dissipative.
If the forces are conservative, the collision is said
to be elastic.
• In an elastic collision, the total energy (kinetic
energy) is conserved.
• A collision is inelastic if total energy is not
conserved.
• Note: All collision conserve momentum, but not
all of them conserve kinetic energy.
From conservation of momentum,
Three Categories of Collisions
𝑚1 𝑉1 + 𝑚2 𝑉2 = 𝑀𝑈1 + 𝑀𝑈2
1. Perfectly Elastic Collision
• when deformation maybe resolved in a very 𝑈1 = 𝑈2 = 𝑈 = √2𝑔ℎ
relatively short time interval.
2. Partly elastic 𝑚1 𝑉1 = 𝑀𝑈
• when deformation is resolved in a longer
𝑚𝑉 = (𝑚 + 𝑀)√2𝑔ℎ
time interval or separation of colliding
bodies is not abrupt. 𝑚+𝑀
𝑉= (√2𝑔ℎ)
3. Inelastic collision 𝑚
• deformation may be permanent that the
bodies in collision may stick together and
travels together with common velocity.

Coefficient of Restitution (e)

• e = 0; perfectly inelastic collision

• e = 1; perfectly elastic collision
• 1 < e > 0; partly elastic collision
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS

COVERAGE: DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

• Briefly describe the three states of • One important property of matter in general,
matter and define the concepts of and of fluids, in particular, is the density 
condensed matter fluids and fluid (Greek letter rho), a scalar quantity defined as
static. the ratio of the mass m per unit volume V :
• Discuss the density and specific gravity
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
of a substance, understand the = =
concept of pressure at a point in a 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
fluid, know the variation of pressure • Density may also be expressed as weight
with depth, and distinguish between density. This is given or calculated by using the
absolute and gauge pressure. formula
• Explain Pascal’s law and Archimedes’
𝑊
principle and know the origin of g=
𝑉
buoyant force.
• Understand surface tension and the • where  g is the weight density
concept of capillarity. o W is the weight
o V is the volume

Weight density may be expressed in 𝑁⁄ 3 in SI

LESSON 5: FLUID STATICS 𝑚
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠⁄
Or in CGS system.
𝑐𝑚3
• Ordinary matter can be found in any one of the
three states solid, liquid, or gas. • The density of a substance in general depends
• From one point of view, solids and liquids are on environmental factors, like the temperature.
classified as condensed matter, since they have But for liquids and solids, the variation in
certain properties in common, like they are density is very small over wide ranges of many
both relatively incompressible so that their factors that to the first approximation, we can
volumes can hardly be changed. Gases, on the treat it as a constant.
other hand, are easily compressible. • The SI unit of density is kg/m3
• From a different point of view, gases and liquids • The CGS unit, g/cm3 , is also widely used.
are grouped together as fluids, since they can • The corresponding conversion factor is 1 g/cm3
flow. Gases expand to fill the whole container = 103 kg/m3 .
holding them whereas liquids settle to the
The specific gravity of a substance is a dimensionless
bottom of any container where they are placed
quantity defined as follows:
and take its shape. Solids do not have this
property.
• The atoms in a solid have relatively fixed
positions in their overall structure, whereas in a
fluid, the atoms can easily move relative to one
another.
• Once the atoms of a fluid have taken the shape
of the container holding them, fluid flow stops
and the fluid becomes stationary. Fluid statics is
the study of the properties of fluids at rest.
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
Another name for specific gravity is relative density. The same at any two points at the same level in the fluid, so
density of water at 4.0C is 1000 kg  m3. that the shape of the container does not really matter.

The weight density of any substance may be Absolute and Gauge Pressure
determined by applying the formula.
• Absolute pressure is the total pressure given in
 g = 𝑟 𝑤 equation (1.4). The difference p − pa between
absolute and atmospheric pressure is the gauge
where r is the relative density  𝑔 = 𝑟 𝑤 pressure pg . Hence, if po = pa in equation (1.4),
Pressure and the Variation of Pressure with we find that
Depth p𝑔 = p − p𝑎 = pgh

• A fluid at rest exerts a force F perpendicular to If the pressure is less than atmospheric, as in partial
any surface A in contact with it, such as a body vacuum, the gauge pressure is negative.
immersed in the fluid or the container wall
itself. The pressure p at a point within a fluid is PASCAL’S LAW
defined as the ratio of the force F acting
perpendicular to a small element of surface • If the pressure po in equation (5.4) is increased
area A at that point: by a certain amount, the pressure p at any
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 F depth increases by exactly the same amount.
𝑝= = The first man to notice this fact was the French
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 A
scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and a
• It is independent of the direction of the area physical law, known as Pascal’s law, was named
A. Pressure is a scalar quantity. after him. It states that
• The SI unit of pressure is the pascal, where 1 o Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N  m2. The other units used transmitted undiminished to every
are the atmosphere (atm), the bar, lb  in2 (psi), point of the liquid and to the walls of
and cm of mercury (cm Hg). The corresponding the confining vessel.
conversion factors are • Equation (153) shows that Pascal’s law,
maintaining that the pressure remains
1 atm = 1.013  105 Pa = 1.013 bar = 14.70 lb  in2 = 76
unchanged throughout a confined fluid, makes
cm Hg.
possible the amplification of a relatively small
• If the weight of the fluid is negligible, the applied force to a much larger one if the surface
pressure in a fluid is the same throughout its area is significantly increased. This is the basis
volume. But usually, the fluid’s weight is not for the operation of earth-moving machineries,
negligible. Atmospheric pressure is lower at the brake system of cars, or even a barber’s
high altitude than at sea level. Deep beneath chair. Pascal’s law also enables the transmission
the sea, the pressure is many times larger than of forces over long distances to relatively
that on the surface. inaccessible locations as in the wing flaps of an
• Assuming that the acceleration g due to gravity airplane.
is uniform throughout the volume of the fluid,
the pressure in a fluid at rest increases with
depth according to the following relation:

p = p𝑜 +  g h ,
where p is the pressure at depth h and po is the
pressure on the surface. Note that the pressure is the
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
• The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest gives • The molecules of a liquid exert attractive forces
rise to a force acting perpendicular to the on each other. Therefore, a molecule inside the
surface of a body submerged at that point. volume of the liquid has a zero net force acting
Since the pressure at all points on the same on it. But a molecule on the surface is attracted
level in the fluid are equal, all the forces acting into the volume, making the surface area of the
along the sides of the submerged body cancel liquid as small as possible.
out. For every sideward force on one side, we • Surface tension is the force on the surface of
find an equivalent force on the other side at the the liquid tending to minimize its area.
same level as the first, which is acting in the
opposite direction.
• However, the forces along the top and the
bottom surfaces of the submerged body do not
cancel out because of the variation of pressure
with depth. Along the upper surface of the sub-
merged body, the pressure is less because the
depth is smaller. The downward forces due to
the fluid pressure at the top must also be
smaller. Along the lower surface of the
submerged body, the pressure is larger because
the depth is greater. The upward forces due to • Surface tension can be easily demonstrated by
the fluid pressure at the bottom must also be carefully placing a needle on the surface of a
bigger. The pressure difference between the body of water. It will float even if it is not
top and bottom surfaces of a submerged body partially submerged, so it is not buoyed up
therefore gives rise to a net upward force called because of Archimedes’ principle. The needle
the buoyant force. slightly depresses the surface molecules, but it
• According to Archimedes’ principle, A body completely remains on the water surface. What
wholly or partially immersed in a fluid is keeps it afloat is the surface tension of the
buoyed up by a force equal in magnitude to the liquid.
weight of the liquid displaced by the body. • Surface tension also causes freely suspended
• That is, if the fluid has density F and the droplets of liquid to become spherical in shape
submerged body a volume VS , the upward because a sphere has the smallest surface-to-
buoyant force is FB = FVS g . volume ratio of any geometric shape.
• An object whose density O is greater than that • Substances, like detergents, which reduce the
surface tension when mixed with a liquid, are
of the fluid (O > F) displaces a volume of the
fluid whose weight is less than the weight of the called surfactants.
object (F V < O VS g) so that the object sinks. Cohesion, Adhesion, and Capillarity
• On the other hand, an object whose density  O
is less than that of the fluid (O < F) displaces a • The attraction between similar molecules in a
volume of the fluid whose weight is greater liquid is called cohesion.
than the weight of the object (F VS g > O VS g) • whereas the attraction between the molecules
so that the object floats. of a liquid and another substance, such as the
wall of a thin glass tube, is called adhesion.
• When the adhesive forces are large compared
to the cohesive forces, as in the case of water
and a glass surface, the surface of the liquid is
concave upward, as shown in (a) in the diagram
 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS
that follows, and the liquid is said to wet the
surface of the other substance.

• When the adhesive forces are small compared

to the cohesive forces, as in the case of mercury
and glass, the liquid does not wet the surface of
the other substance, and the surface of the
liquid is convex, as shown in (b) above.
• The curved liquid surface is called a meniscus.
• The contact angle C between the wall and the
tangent to the surface measures the relative
magnitudes of the cohesive force and the
adhesive force. For a liquid that wets the
surface, the contact angle is less than 90, as
shown in (a) above. For a liquid that does not
wet the surface, as in (b) above, the contact
angle is greater than 90.
• When the surface of a liquid is concave upward,
as shown in (a), the surface tension at the wall
of the tube has a component upward. The liquid
will rise in the tube until the net upward force
on it due to the surface tension is balanced by
the weight of the liquid. This rise is called
capillary action or just capillarity.
• Capillarity causes the rise of a liquid in blotting
paper and of lamp oil in the wick. It is also
responsible for holding water in the soil in the
small spaces between soil particles. If it were
not for capillarity, all the rain water would
trickle downward, leaving the upper soil dry.