UNIT 2 :Carbohydrates: Sugars and Starch

1. List the importance and functions ofCarbohydrates

2. Explain Protein sparing function, of carbohydrates
3. Discuss the Anfi ketogenic effect:of carbohydrates..
4. How does carbohydrates. help in CNS, and heart function.
5. Discuss carbohydrates. in gene expression.Give the itake and recommendations
6. Discuss the classification of starch and their nutritional importance
7. Discuss the importance of amylose,amylopectin
8. Discuss the importance of modified starch.Resistant starch
9. Explain Glycemic Index.
10. Discuss the Factors Influencing the Blood Glucose Responses of Foods,
11. Illustrate the Therapeutic effects of low Glycemic Index Foods,( Calculation of Glycemic Index of
Meals/Diets).

1. Carbohydrates have six major functions within the body:

1. Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose

2. Sparing the use of proteins for energy

3. Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis

4. Biological recognition processes

5. Flavor and Sweeteners

6. Dietary fiber

Providing energy and regulating blood glucose

Glucose is the only sugar used by the body to provide energy for its tissues. Therefore, all digestible
polysaccharides, disaccharides, and monosaccharides must eventually be converted into glucose or a
metabolite of glucose by various liver enzymes. Because of its significant importance to proper
cellular function, blood glucose levels must be kept relatively constant.

Among the enormous metabolic activities the liver performs, it also includes regulating the level of
blood glucose. During periods of food consumption, pancreatic beta cells sense the rise in blood
glucose and begin to secrete the hormone insulin. Insulin binds to many cells in the body having
appropriate receptors for the peptide hormone and causes a general uptake in cellular glucose. In
the liver, insulin causes the uptake of glucose as well as the synthesis of glycogen, a glucose storage
polymer. In this way, the liver is able to remove excessive levels of blood glucose through the action
of insulin.

In contrast, the hormone glucagons is secreted into the bloodstream by pancreatic alpha cells upon
sensing falling levels of blood glucose. Upon binding to targeted cells such as skeletal muscle and
brain cells, glucagon acts to decrease the amount of glucose in the bloodstream. This hormone
inhibits the uptake of glucose by muscle and other cells and promotes the breakdown of glycogen in
the liver in order to release glucose into the blood. Glucagon also promotes gluconeogenesis, a
process involving the synthesis of glucose from amino acid precursors. Through the effects of both
glucagon and insulin, blood glucose can usually be regulated in concentrations between 70 and
115mg/100 ml of blood.
Other hormones of importance in glucose regulation are epinephrine and cortisol. Both hormones
are secreted from the adrenal glands, however, epinephrine mimics the effects of glucagon while
cortisol mobilizes glucose during periods of emotional stress or exercise.

Despite the liver's unique ability to maintain homeostatic levels of blood glucose, it only stores
enough for a twenty-four hour period of fasting. After twenty four hours, the tissues in the body that
preferentially rely on glucose, particularly the brain and skeletal muscle, must seek an alternative
energy source. During fasting periods, when the insulin to glucagons ratio is low, adipose tissue
begins to release fatty acids into the bloodstream. Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains consisting
of single carboxylic acid group and are not very soluble in water. Skeletal muscle begins to use fatty
acids for energy during resting conditions; however, the brain cannot afford the same luxury. Fatty
acids are too long and bulky to cross the blood-brain barrier. Therefore, proteins from various body
tissues are broken down into amino acids and used by the liver to produce glucose for the brain and
muscle. This process is known as gluconeogenesis or "the production of new glucose." If fasting is
prolonged for more than a day, the body enters a state called ketosis. Ketosis comes from the root
word ketones and indicates a carbon atom with two side groups bonded to an oxygen atom. Ketones
are produced when there is no longer enough oxaloacetate in the mitochondria of cells to condense
with acetyl CoA formed from fatty acids. Oxaloacetate is a four-carbon compound that begins the
first reaction of the Krebs Cycle, a cycle containing a series of reactions that produces high-energy
species to eventually be used to produce energy for the cell. Since oxaloacetate is formed from
pyruvate (a metabolite of glucose), a certain level of carbohydrate is required in order to burn fats.
Otherwise, fatty acids cannot be completely broken down and ketones will be produced.

Sparing Protein and Preventing Ketosis

So why are carbohydrates important if the body can use other carbon compounds such as fatty acids
and ketones as energy? First of all, maintaining a regular intake of carbohydrates will prevent
protein from being used as an energy source. Gluconeogenesis will slow down and amino acids will
be freed for the biosyntheses of enzymes, antibodies, receptors and other important proteins.
Furthermore, an adequate amount of carbohydrates will prevent the degradation of skeletal muscle
and other tissues such as the heart, liver, and kidneys. Most importantly, ketosis will be prevented.
Although the brain will adapt to using ketones as a fuel, it preferentially uses carbohydrates and
requires a minimum level of glucose circulating in the blood in order to function properly. Before the
adaptation process occurs, lower blood glucose levels may cause headaches in some individuals. To
prevent these ketotic symptoms, it is recommended that the average person consume at least 50 to
100g of carbohydrates per day.

Although the processes of protein degradation and ketosis can create problems of their own during
prolonged fasting, they are adaptive mechanisms during glucose shortages. In summary, the first
priority of metabolism during a prolonged fast is to provide enough glucose for the brain and other
organs that dependent upon it for energy in order to spare proteins for other cellular functions. The
next priority of the body is to shift the use of fuel from glucose to fatty acids and ketone bodies.
From then on, ketones become more and more important as a source of fuel while fatty acids and
glucose become less important.

Flavor and Sweeteners

A less important function of carbohydrates is to provide sweetness to foods. Receptors located at

the tip of the tongue bind to tiny bits of carbohydrates and send what humans perceive as a "sweet"
signal to the brain. However, different sugars vary in sweetness. For example, fructose is almost
twice as sweet as sucrose and sucrose is approximately 30% sweeter than glucose.

Sweeteners can be classified as either nutritive or alternative. Nutritive sweeteners have all been
mentioned before and include sucrose, glucose, fructose, high fructose corn syrup, and lactose.
These types of sweeteners not only impart flavor to the food, but can also be metabolized for
energy. In contrast, alternative sweeteners provide no food energy and include saccharin, cyclamate,
aspartame, and acesulfame. Controversy over saccharin and cyclamate as artificial sweeteners still
exists but aspartame and acesulfame are used extensively in many foods in the United States.
Aspartame and acesulfame are both hundreds of times sweeter than sucrose but only acesulfame is
able to be used in baked goods since it is much more stable than aspartame when heated.

Dietary Fiber

Dietary fibers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gum and mucilage are important
carbohydrates for several reasons. Soluble dietary fibers like pectin, gum and mucilage pass
undigested through the small intestine and are degraded into fatty acids and gases by the large
intestine. The fatty acids produced in this way can either be used as a fuel for the large intestine or
be absorbed into the bloodstream. Therefore, dietary fiber is essential for proper intestinal health.

In general, the consumption of soluble and insoluble fiber makes the elimination of waste much
easier. Since dietary fiber is both indigestible and an attractant of water, stools become large and
soft. As a result, feces can be expelled with less pressure. However, not enough fiber consumption
will change the constitution of the stool and increase the amount of force required during
defecation. Excessive pressure during the elimination of waste can force places in the large intestine
wall out from between bands of smooth muscle to produce small pouches called diverticula.
Hemorrhoids may also result from unnecessary strain during defecation.

The disease of having many diverticula in the large intestine is known as diverticulosis. Although
diverticula is often asymptomatic, food particles become trapped in their folds and bacteria begin to
metabolize the particles into acids and gases. Eventually, the diverticula may become inflamed, a
condition known as diverticulitis. To combat the disease, antibiotics are administered to the patient
to destroy the bacteria while the intake of fiber in the diet is decreased until the inflammation has
subsided. Once the inflammation has been reduced, a high fiber diet is begun to prevent a relapse.

Besides the prevention of intestinal disease, diets high in fiber have other health benefits. High fiber
intake reduces the risk of developing obesity by increasing the bulk of a meal without yielding much
energy. An expanded stomach leads to satisfaction despite the fact that the caloric intake has
decreased.

Beyond dieters, diabetics can also benefit from consuming a regular amount of dietary fiber. Once in
the intestine, it slows the absorption of glucose to prevent a sudden increase in blood glucose levels.
A relatively high intake of fiber will also decrease the absorption of cholesterol, a compound that is
thought to contribute to atherosclerosis or scarring of the arteries. Serum cholesterol may be further
reduced by a reduction in the release of insulin after meals. Since insulin is known to promote
cholesterol synthesis in the liver, a reduction in the absorption of glucose after meals through the
consumption of fiber can help to control serum cholesterol levels. Furthermore, dietary fiber intake
may help prevent colon cancer by diluting potential carcinogens through increased water retention,
binding carcinogens to the fiber itself and speeding the passage of food through the intestinal tract
so that cancer-causing agents have less time to act.
Biological Recognition Processes

Carbohydrates not only serve nutritional functions, but are also thought to play important roles in
cellular recognition processes. For example, many immunoglobulins (antibodies) and peptide
hormones contain glycoprotein sequences. These sequences are composed of amino acids linked to
carbohydrates. During the course of many hours or days, the carbohydrate polymer linked to the
rest of the protein may be cleaved by circulating enzymes or be degraded spontaneously. The liver
can recognize differences in length and may internalize the protein in order to begin its own
degradation. In this way, carbohydrates may mark the passage of time for proteins.

4. Carbohydrates have a greater effect on the brain and nervous system than most people think.
Blood sugar levels and insulin responses are well known in reference to obesity and inflammatory
processes, but when it comes to neurological integrity there can be gap in understanding and
appreciation. Blood sugar levels have a significant impact on brain chemistry; the foods we eat can
help sustain steady levels of blood sugar or certain foods can induce sugar crashes or spikes that can
cause feelings of fogginess, anxiousness, depression, lack of focus, or apathy. Most people
understand that overeating or eating the “wrong” foods can contribute to weight gain, changes in
body composition (increased fat percentage relative to lean muscle), and cardiovascular conditions.
Recently, with new research, certain diet and nutritional choices have been linked to depression and
other neurodegenerative diseases. The key to the nutritional impact on the nervous system is
centered on inflammation, and how certain foods can have a pro-inflammatory effect on the brain
while others have an anti-inflammatory effect. Sustained, long term inflammation can lead to short-
term symptoms (such as brain fog) but also long-term changes (such as Alzheimer’s or dementia).

When it comes to carbohydrates and the impact on the brain, the bottom line revolves around the
effect that the carbohydrate has on insulin levels. The human body needs insulin; it delivers
nutrients into cells that is utilized as energy. However, too much glucose (carbohydrate) in the blood
will in turn lead to an increased level of insulin in the blood, and the excess glucose is stored as fat.
The typical American diet has an overabundance of carbohydrates (and commonly comprised
refined, low quality carbohydrates) that leads to a condition of insulin resistance. When the body
becomes less sensitive to insulin (more resistant), greater amounts of insulin is needed in the blood
to work appropriately. Recent research and evidence have shown that insulin resistance can acutely
affect the brain, leading to a cascade of inflammatory events that over time can lead to the so-called
“type 3 diabetes”, also known as Alzheimer’s disease.

Neurons (brain cells) require twice as much energy as the cells in the rest of our body.
Carbohydrates are the preferred energy source for the brain; however, the brain cannot store
glucose like other organs and muscles in the body. Therefore, your brain is dependent upon when
you eat and what you eat to sustain it for energy. This is why higher glycemic index foods can have a
detrimental impact on overall brain function; it causes a spike in blood sugar (which can be good for
immediate functioning), but it inevitably leads to a blood sugar crash that can leave the brain starved
for more energy than before, and make you feel foggy, fatigued, and forgetful. The simplest first step
to regulating brain integrity in reference to carbohydrate intake is to limit the high glycemic index
carbohydrates (refined sugars, flours, foods with “added sugar”, artificial sugars used as sweeteners,
etc.) and replace them with more complex carbohydrates alternatives (sprouted, flourless bread,
quinoa, sprouted barley, chickpeas, etc.).

There are also spices, beverages, and foods that can help minimize blood sugar spikes and therefore
have an effect on the nervous system. We will look deeper in depth on those foods in upcoming
blogs. I hope this information was helpful and will lead you to look into your diet with a deeper
understanding that the food choices you make affects more than just how you look in the mirror!

Carbohydrates play crucial roles in supporting the functions of both the Central Nervous System
(CNS) and the heart. Here's how carbohydrates contribute to the proper functioning of these vital
systems:

### Carbohydrates and Central Nervous System (CNS) Function:

1. **Primary Energy Source:**

- Glucose, derived from carbohydrates, is the primary and preferred energy source for the brain.
The CNS, including the brain and spinal cord, relies heavily on a constant supply of glucose to meet
its energy needs.

2. **Cognitive Function:**

- Glucose is essential for cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and concentration.
Adequate carbohydrate intake helps maintain optimal brain function and supports mental activities.

3. **Neurotransmitter Synthesis:**

- Carbohydrates are involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers
that transmit signals between nerve cells. Examples include serotonin, dopamine, and
norepinephrine.

4. **Glycogen Storage in the Brain:**

- While the liver and muscles primarily store glycogen, the brain also has limited glycogen stores.
During times of low blood sugar (hypoglycemia), glycogen stored in the liver can be broken down to
release glucose and maintain blood glucose levels for the brain.

### Carbohydrates and Heart Function:

1. **Energy for Cardiac Muscle:**

 - The heart, being a muscle, requires a significant amount of energy to function efficiently.
Carbohydrates, particularly glucose, serve as a major energy source for the cardiac muscle during
each heartbeat.

2. **Oxygen Efficiency:**

- Carbohydrates are more oxygen-efficient than fats in terms of energy production. The heart's
ability to utilize glucose for energy helps ensure efficient oxygen utilization, especially during periods
of increased cardiac workload, such as during exercise.

3. **Preservation of Protein in Cardiac Tissues:**

- Adequate carbohydrate intake helps spare proteins in cardiac tissues from being used as an
energy source. This preservation of proteins is important for maintaining the structural integrity and
contractile function of the heart.

4. **Glycogen Storage in Cardiac Cells:**

- Like other muscles, cardiac cells can store glycogen. This stored glycogen can be broken down to
release glucose when the heart needs additional energy during periods of increased demand.

5. **Regulation of Blood Lipids:**

- Carbohydrates influence the metabolism of lipids (fats). By maintaining a balance between

carbohydrate and fat metabolism, carbohydrates indirectly contribute to heart health by helping
regulate lipid profiles in the blood.

It's important to note that while carbohydrates are essential for CNS and heart function, the quality
and type of carbohydrates matter. Whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes provide complex
carbohydrates along with fiber, vitamins, and minerals, contributing to overall health. Maintaining a
balanced diet that includes an appropriate amount of carbohydrates is crucial for supporting the
energy demands of these vital organs and promoting overall well-being.

5) Carbohydrates play an indirect but significant role in gene expression through their influence on
various metabolic pathways and cellular processes. Here's how carbohydrates are involved in gene
expression, along with dietary recommendations for optimal health:

Carbohydrates and Gene Expression:

1. Energy Supply for Cellular Processes:

 Carbohydrates, specifically glucose, serve as a primary energy source for cellular

activities, including those involved in gene expression. Cellular processes such as
DNA replication, transcription, and translation require energy, and glucose provides
the necessary fuel.
 2. Regulation of Metabolic Pathways:

 Carbohydrates influence metabolic pathways such as glycolysis and the pentose

phosphate pathway. These pathways provide precursors for the synthesis of
nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA, which are essential for gene
expression.

3. Epigenetic Modifications:

 Carbohydrates can impact epigenetic modifications, which are changes in gene

expression that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence. For example, the
availability of certain nutrients, including carbohydrates, can influence DNA
methylation and histone modifications, affecting gene activity.

4. Insulin Signaling:

 Carbohydrates, especially in the form of glucose, play a role in insulin signaling.

Insulin, released in response to elevated blood glucose levels, influences gene
expression by regulating various transcription factors and metabolic pathways.

Dietary Recommendations:

1. Choose Complex Carbohydrates:

 Prioritize complex carbohydrates found in whole grains, legumes, fruits, and

vegetables. These sources provide not only energy but also essential nutrients, fiber,
and phytochemicals that support overall health.

2. Balanced Macronutrient Intake:

 Maintain a balanced intake of macronutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins,

and fats. This ensures that the body receives a diverse range of nutrients needed for
various cellular processes, including those involved in gene expression.

3. Favor Nutrient-Dense Carbohydrates:

 Opt for nutrient-dense carbohydrate sources that provide vitamins, minerals, and
antioxidants. This includes a variety of colorful fruits and vegetables, which
contribute to overall health and may have positive effects on gene expression.

4. Limit Refined and Added Sugars:

 Minimize the intake of refined carbohydrates and added sugars. Excessive

consumption of these can lead to metabolic imbalances, inflammation, and insulin
resistance, potentially impacting gene expression.

5. Consider Individual Needs:

 Individual carbohydrate requirements can vary based on factors such as age, activity
level, and health status. Tailor carbohydrate intake to meet specific energy needs
and support overall well-being.

6. Stay Hydrated:
  Maintain proper hydration, as water is essential for many cellular processes,
including those related to gene expression. Dehydration can negatively affect overall
cellular function.

7. Consult with a Healthcare Professional:

 Individuals with specific health conditions or unique dietary needs should consult
with healthcare professionals or registered dietitians for personalized
recommendations.

It's essential to recognize that gene expression is a complex process influenced by various factors,
including diet and lifestyle. While carbohydrates are one component of a healthy diet, overall dietary
patterns and lifestyle choices contribute to the intricate web of influences on gene expression.

Studies indicate that induction of metabolic gene expression by nutrient intake, and in response to
subsequently secreted hormones, is regulated by transcription factors binding to cis-elements and
associated changes of epigenetic memories (histone modifications and DNA methylation) located in
promoter and enhancer regions. Carbohydrate intake-mediated induction of metabolic gene
expression is regulated by histone acetylation and the histone acetylation reader bromodomain-
containing protein 4 (BRD4) on the gene body region, which corresponds to the transcribed region of
the gene. In this review, we introduce carbohydrate-responsive metabolic gene regulation by (i)
transcription factors and epigenetic memory in promoter/enhancer regions (promoter/enhancer-
based epigenetics), and (ii) histone acetylation and BRD4 in the gene body region (gene body-based
epigenetics). Expression of carbohydrate-responsive metabolic genes related to nutrient digestion
and absorption, fat synthesis, inflammation in the small intestine, liver and white adipose tissue, and
in monocytic/macrophage-like cells are regulated by various transcription factors. The expression of
these metabolic genes are also regulated by transcription elongation via histone acetylation and
BRD4 in the gene body region. Additionally, the expression of genes related to fat synthesis, and the
levels of acetylated histones and BRD4 in fat synthesis-related genes, are downregulated in white
adipocytes under insulin resistant and/or diabetic conditions. In contrast, expression of
carbohydrate-responsive metabolic genes and/or histone acetylation and BRD4 binding in the gene
body region of these genes, are upregulated in the small intestine, liver, and peripheral leukocytes
(innate leukocytes) under insulin resistant and/or diabetic conditions. In conclusion, histone
acetylation and BRD4 binding in the gene body region as well as transcription factor binding in
promoter/enhancer regions regulate the expression of carbohydrate-responsive metabolic genes in
many metabolic organs. Insulin resistant and diabetic conditions induce the development of
metabolic diseases, including type 2 diabetes, by reducing the expression of BRD4-targeted
carbohydrate-responsive metabolic genes in white adipose tissue and by inducing the expression of
BRD4-targeted carbohydrate-responsive metabolic genes in the liver, small intestine, and innate
leukocytes including monocytes/macrophages and neutrophils.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmolb.2021.682696/full
6) Starch, or amylum, is a complex carbohydrate that exists in many foods, including grains,
vegetables, and fruits. The principal sourcesTrusted Source of starch are:

 maize

 tapioca

 wheat

 potatoes
The extraction of pure starch from food produces a white, tasteless, and odorless powder that does
not dissolve in cold water or alcohol.

Starch is a natural polymer, or polysaccharide, meaning that it is a long chain comprising one type of
molecule. Starch consists of glucose molecules. It can occur in two forms: amylose and amylopectin.

Amylose is a linear or straight-line polymer that scientists describe as amorphous or solid.

Amylopectin forms a branched chain and is crystalline.

Different plants contain varying ratios of these polysaccharide units. However, amylose generally
makes up a maximum of 30%Trusted Source of starch, with the rest being amylopectin.

Plants create these starch polymers to store the glucose they create during photosynthesis. For this
reason, foods that are rich in starch are good sources of energy.

When someone eats food containing starch, the body breaks down the natural polymers into units
of glucose, which provide energy throughout the body.

Besides being part of a nutritious diet, various industries — including pharmaceutical, paper, and
food — use starch in their manufacturing processes.

Types

Depending on its nutritional characteristicsTrusted Source, starch fits into one of three groups:

 Rapidly digestible starch (RDS): This form of starch exists in cooked foods, such as potatoes
and bread. The body rapidly converts it to glucose.

 Slowly digestible starch (SDS): This starch has a complex structure, meaning that the body
breaks it down slowly. It exists in cereal grains.

 Resistant starch (RS): The body cannot easily digest this form of starch, and it can pass
through the digestive system untouched, similar to dietary fiber. It may support healthy
intestinal microflora. Experts further divide RS into four categories, including:

o RS1, which exists in grains, seeds, and beans.

o RS2 from raw potatoes and unripe bananas.

o RS3 from foods that undergo cooking then cooling, such as rice and cornflakes.

o RS4, which is in bread.

Any given food type can contain various types of these starches.

People can buy different forms of starch to use in cooking, including:

 Potato: Raw, crushed potatoes are the source of potato starch. The liquid starch dries to
form a white, flour-like powder. It is gluten-free and features in various recipes as a wheat
flour alternative.

 Tapioca: This versatile flour comes from the crushed pulp of the cassava root. People can
mix it into baked goods or use it as a thickening agent for soups, stews, and sauces.

 Corn: This starch comes from the maize grain. It can thicken recipes and is a base for corn
syrup. Doctors also use it to supply glucoseTrusted Source to individuals with glycogen
storage disease.
Additionally, modified starchTrusted Source exists, which is a starch derivative that manufacturers
have treated to change its properties. The baking industry widely uses this form of starch because it
can tolerate a range of conditions, including extreme heat or cold.

Health and nutritional benefits

Doctors recommend eating plenty of starchy foods as part of a balanced diet to provide energy and
fiber, as well as to increase feelings of fullness.

Energy

Starch is the most importantTrusted Source energy source for humans. The body digests starch by
metabolizing it into glucose, which passes into the bloodstream and circulates the body. Glucose
fuels virtually every cell, tissue, and organ in the body. If there is excess glucose, the liver stores it
as glycogen.

Glucose is essential for brain function. An adult’s brain is responsible for 20–25%Trusted Source of
the body’s glucose consumption.

Learn more about high energy foods here.

Fiber

Dietary fiber is a nondigestible carbohydrateTrusted Source that only exists in plant-based foods.
Foods rich in starch, such as corn, beets, potatoes, beans, fruits, and whole grains, are abundant
fiber sources. Although the body does not digest fiber, this carb is an essential part of a nutritious
diet.

Nutritionists divide fiber into soluble and insoluble forms. Fruits and vegetables are sources of
soluble fiber that can absorb water. Soluble fiber feeds the good bacteria in the gut, helps slow
digestion, and softens the stool.

Insoluble fiber does not absorb water. Instead, it passes through the digestive system, adding bulk to
keep bowel movements regular and prevent constipation. Whole grain foods, nuts, seeds, and leafy
green vegetables are good sources of insoluble fiber.

According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), most individuals in the United States do not
eat enough fiber. Government guidelines suggestTrusted Source that adult females need up to 28
grams (g) of fiber per day while adult males need up to 34 g.

Learn more about high fiber foods here.

Fullness

Eating starchy foods may help increase satiety, which is the feeling of being full, after eating.

Research shows that eating foods rich in resistant starch helps people feel full. These foods may also
improve insulin sensitivity and reduce fat storage. In addition, eating fibrous foods rich in resistant
starch may help people maintain a moderate weight.

In a small 2018 studyTrusted Source, researchers offered participants breakfast and lunch with
either 48 g of resistant starch or a placebo. The participants were then allowed to eat as much as
they liked at dinner. The researchers found that consuming the resistant starch at breakfast and
lunch significantly reduced the participants’ energy intake during this later meal.
Resistant starch and modified starch are two types of starches that differ in their digestibility,
functional properties, and potential health benefits. Let's explore each one:

Resistant Starch:

1. Definition:

 Resistant starch is a type of starch that resists digestion in the small intestine and reaches
the colon undigested.

2. Types:

 There are four main types of resistant starch:

 Type 1 (RS1): Found in physically inaccessible starch in seeds and grains.

 Type 2 (RS2): Present in raw potatoes, green bananas, and high-amylose starches.

 Type 3 (RS3): Formed when certain starchy foods, like potatoes and rice, are cooked
and then cooled.

 Type 4 (RS4): Chemically modified resistant starch.

3. Digestibility:

 Resistant starch is not easily broken down by digestive enzymes in the small intestine.
Instead, it undergoes fermentation in the colon by gut bacteria.

4. Health Benefits:

 Improved Insulin Sensitivity: Resistant starch may enhance insulin sensitivity, potentially
reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes.

 Enhanced Colon Health: Fermentation in the colon produces short-chain fatty acids, which
may contribute to a healthier colon environment.

 Weight Management: Resistant starch may promote satiety and reduce overall calorie
absorption.

5. Food Sources:

 Green bananas, raw potatoes, legumes, and some grains are examples of foods containing
resistant starch.

Modified Starch:

1. Definition:

 Modified starch refers to starch that has been chemically or physically altered to enhance its
functional properties for various industrial and food processing applications.

2. Types:

 There are different methods of modifying starch, including:

 Chemical Modification: Involves altering the structure of starch molecules using

chemicals.
  Physical Modification: Involves physical treatments like heating and cooling to
modify starch properties.

 Genetic Modification: Involves using genetic engineering techniques to produce

starch with specific characteristics.

3. Functional Properties:

 Modified starches are often used for their improved stability, texture, and thickening
properties in food processing. They can withstand variations in temperature, acidity, and
shear.

4. Uses:

 Commonly used in the food industry for thickening sauces, improving texture in baked
goods, and enhancing the stability of processed foods.

5. Health Considerations:

 While modified starches are generally considered safe for consumption, concerns may arise
with certain chemical modifications. It's essential to evaluate specific modified starch
products for their safety and regulatory approval.

6. Food Sources:

 Found in a variety of processed foods such as soups, sauces, gravies, and baked goods.

In summary, resistant starch is a naturally occurring type of starch with potential health benefits,
while modified starch is starch that has been altered for specific functional properties in food
processing. Both have distinct roles and applications in the food industry and can contribute to the
texture, stability, and nutritional characteristics of a wide range of food products.

7) Starch is a colourless and odourless polysaccharide that is found in plants as stored

carbohydrates. It is a polymer of glucose monomers that are linked with each other to form a
polysaccharide.

Starch is composed of two types of polysaccharide molecules:

 Amylose

 Amylopectin

Amylose and Amylopectin

Amylose is a polysaccharide made of several D-glucose units. They are linked by 1,4-glycosidic bonds.
When iodine is added to starch, the colour changes to dark blue or black due to the presence of
amylose present in the starch. Amylose is soluble in water and can be hydrolyzed into glucose units
by the enzymes α- amylase. They are linked by α(1→4) glycosidic bonds. Amylase catalyses the
hydrolysis of starch into sugars. Amylose in starch is responsible for giving the deep blue colour in
the presence of iodine. Iodine gets trapped in the amylose helices.

Amylopectin is a polymer of several D-glucose molecules. 80% of amylopectin is present in starch.

Amylopectin molecules are linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds. It is a water-
insoluble fraction.
Heating starch with water produces a colloidal suspension due to the swelling of starch granules. It
readily dissolves in hot water. On cooling, it forms a starch paste or starch gel.

Let us discuss the difference between amylose and amylopectin.

Also Read: Carbohydrates

Difference Between Amylose and Amylopectin

Following are the important difference between amylose and amylopectin:

Amylose Amylopectin

It is a straight-chain It is a branched-chain polymer of D-glucose units

polymer of D-glucose
units

Constitutes 20% of starch Constitutes 80% of starch

It is soluble in water It is insoluble in water

Straight chain structure Branched structure

It contains α-1,4- It contains α-1,4-glycosidic bonds between two glucose units in the straight chain
glycosidic bonds between and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds at the branching
two glucose units

Also Read: Difference between Osmosis and Diffusion

Thus we see how amylose and amylopectin are different from each other. For more information on
the difference between the two, keep visiting BYJU’S website or download BYJU’S app for further
reference.

9) Foods and drinks provide our body with energy in the form of
carbohydrates, fat, protein and alcohol.

Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source.

The glycaemic index (GI) is a way that carbohydrates in foods and drinks are ranked according to
how quickly they raise the glucose level of the blood (also known as ‘blood sugar level’). It has
replaced classifying carbohydrates as either ‘simple’ or ‘complex’.

Foods with carbohydrates include bread, breakfast cereals, rice, pasta, legumes, corn, potato,
fruit, milk, yoghurt, sugar, biscuits, cakes and lollies.

Digesting and absorbing carbohydrates

The digestive system breaks down carbohydrates in foods and drinks into simple sugars, mainly
glucose. For example, both rice and soft drink will be broken down to simple sugars in your digestive
system. This simple sugar is then carried to your body’s cells through the bloodstream.

The pancreas secretes a hormone called insulin, which helps the glucose to move from your blood
into the cells. Once inside a cell, the glucose is ‘burned’ along with oxygen to produce energy. Our
brain, muscles and nervous system all rely on glucose as their main fuel to make energy.

The body converts excess glucose from food into glycogen. Glycogen acts as a storage form of
glucose within the muscle tissue and the liver. Its role is to supplement blood glucose levels if they
drop between meals (especially overnight) or during physical activity.

The glycaemic index (GI)

The glycaemic index (GI) is a way of ranking carbohydrate-containing foods based on how slowly or
quickly they are digested and increase blood glucose levels over a period of time – usually 2 hours.

The GI uses glucose or white bread as a reference food – it has a GI score of 100. Carbohydrate-
containing foods are then compared with this reference to assign their GI. This ensures all foods
compared have the same amount of carbohydrate, gram for gram.

Carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion have a higher glycaemic index. These high
GI carbohydrates, such as a baked potato, release their glucose into the blood quickly.

Carbohydrates that break down slowly, such as oats, release glucose gradually into the bloodstream.
They have low glycaemic indexes. The blood glucose response is slower and flatter. Low GI foods
prolong digestion due to their slow breakdown and may help with feeling full.

GI scale examples

The terms ‘low GI’, ‘medium GI’ and ‘high GI’ are given to foods that fall within different ranges of
the GI.

These ranges, along with some example foods, include:

 low GI (less than 55) – examples include soy products, beans, fruit, milk, pasta, grainy bread,
porridge (oats) and lentils

 medium GI (55 to 70) – examples include orange juice, honey, basmati rice and wholemeal
bread

 high GI (greater than 70) – examples include potatoes, white bread and short-grain rice.

Factors that affect the GI of a food

Factors such as the size, texture, viscosity (internal friction or ‘thickness’) and ripeness of a food
affect its GI. For instance, although both ripe and unripe bananas have a low GI (less than 55), an
unripe banana may have a GI of 30, while a ripe banana has a GI of 51.

Fat, protein, soluble fibre, fructose (a carbohydrate found in fruit and honey) and lactose (the
carbohydrate in milk) also generally lower a food’s glycaemic response. Fat and acid foods (like
vinegar, lemon juice or acidic fruit) slow the rate at which the stomach empties and slow the rate of
digestion, resulting in a lower GI.

Other factors present in food, such as phytates (used to store phosphorus in plants) in wholegrain
breads and cereals, may also delay a food’s absorption and lower the GI.

Cooking and processing can also affect the GI – food that is broken down into fine or smaller
particles will be more easily absorbed and so has a higher GI. Foods that have been cooked and
allowed to cool (potatoes, for example) can have a lower GI when eaten cold than when hot (for
example, potato salad compared with hot baked potato).

High GI foods are influenced by low GI foods

Generally, eating low GI foods and high GI foods at the same time has the effect of ‘averaging’ the
GI. This is important, as most foods are eaten as part of a meal and this affects the GI value of foods.
For example, eating cornflakes (a higher GI food) with milk (a lower GI food) will reduce the overall
effect of the cornflakes and milk meal on blood glucose levels.

GI symbol and claims on packaged foods

You might have noticed that some packaged food products have a GI symbol or make claims about
the food’s GI and its health effects (for example, ‘low GI to help you stay fuller for longer’). These are
examples of nutrition content claims and general level health claims, allowed by Food Standards
Australia New Zealand under Standard 1.2.7 Nutrition, health and related claims.

The Low GI Symbol and claims about the relationship of a low GI product and its effect on health is
only available to packaged food products that meet strict nutritional and testing criteria.

This labelling is not compulsory for food companies to follow, so not all products that are eligible will
display the symbol or make a claim. This is often the case for smaller companies who may not have
the money to go through the necessary processes to be given the label. These claims also won’t
generally be used on food products that would be eligible but are not typically packaged (for
example, fresh fruit and vegetables).

Glycaemic load (GL)

The amount of the carbohydrate-containing food you eat affects your blood glucose levels. For
example, even though pasta has a low GI, a large serving can still cause the blood glucose levels to
rise more rapidly than a smaller serving. This is what is called the glycaemic load (GL).

The GL builds on GI, as it considers both the GI of the food and the amount of carbohydrate in a
portion. GL is based on the idea that a high GI food consumed in small quantities would give the
same effect on blood glucose levels as larger quantities of a low GI food.
GL can be calculated easily if you know what the food’s GI is and how much carbohydrate is present
in the serving.

Calculating glycaemic load (GL)

The GL calculation is: GI x the amount of carbohydrates (in grams) in a serving of food) ÷ 100.

Using a pasta example:

 GI of a standard white wheat pasta, boiled to al dente texture = 43.

 The carbohydrate content of a standard 180g serve = 44g.

 GL = 43 x 44/100 = 19g.

However, if a half portion of pasta was eaten, the GL would also halve:

 GI of a standard white wheat pasta, boiled to al dente texture = 43.

 The carbohydrate content of a half portion 90g serve = 22g.

 GL = 43 x 22/100 = 9.5g.

Here is another example, where both foods contain the same amount of carbohydrate but their GIs
are different:

 A small baked potato (GI = 80, carbohydrate = 15g).

 GL = 80 x 15/100 = 12g.

 An apple (GI = 40, carbohydrate = 15g).

 GL = 40 x 15/100 = 6g.

Both the small baked potato and the apple have the same amount of carbohydrate (15g). However,
because their GIs differ (the apple is low while the baked potato is high), their GLs also differ, which
means the baked potato will cause the blood glucose level of the person eating it to rise more
quickly than the apple.

The University of Sydney’s GI search shows the GI, GL and carbohydrate content per serving of a
wide variety of foods.

GI and exercise

Eating low GI foods 2 hours before endurance events, such as long-distance running, may improve
exercise capacity. It’s thought that the meal will have left your stomach before you start the event
but remains in your small intestine releasing energy for a few hours afterwards.

Moderate to high GI foods may be most beneficial during the first 24 hours of recovery after an
event to rapidly replenish muscle fuel stores (glycogen).

Using the GI as a guide to healthy eating

The GI can be considered when choosing foods and drinks consistent with the Australian Guide to
Healthy Eating, but there are limitations. For example, the GI of some everyday foods such as fruits,
vegetables and cereals can be higher than foods to be eaten occasionally (discretionary) like biscuits
and cakes. This does not mean we should replace fruit, vegetables and cereals with discretionary
choices, because the first are rich in important nutrients and antioxidants and the discretionary
foods are not.

GI can be a useful concept in making good food substitution choices, such as having oats instead of
cornflakes, or eating grainy bread instead of white bread. Usually, choosing the wholegrain or higher
fibre option will also mean you are choosing the lower GI option.

It’s not always possible or necessary to choose all low GI foods. There is room in a healthy diet for
moderate to high GI foods, and many of these foods can provide important sources of nutrients.
Remember, by combining a low GI food with a high GI food, you will get an intermediate GI for that
meal.

Choosing between high and low GI foods

The best carbohydrate food to eat varies depending on the person and situation. For example,
people with type 2 diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance have become resistant to the action of
insulin or cannot produce insulin rapidly enough to match the release of glucose into the blood after
eating carbohydrate-containing foods. This means their blood glucose levels may rise above the level
considered optimal.

Now consider 2 common breakfast foods – cornflakes and porridge made from wholegrain oats. The
rate at which porridge and cornflakes are broken down to glucose is different. Porridge is digested to
simple sugars much more slowly than cornflakes, so the body has a chance to respond with
production of insulin, and the rise in blood glucose levels is less.

For this reason, porridge is a better choice of breakfast cereal than cornflakes for people with type 2
diabetes. It will also provide more sustained energy for people without diabetes.

On the other hand, high GI foods can be beneficial at replenishing glycogen in the muscles after
strenuous exercise. High GI can also quickly restore blood glucose levels to normal when someone
with diabetes is experiencing a ‘hypo’, which is when their blood glucose levels fall below the normal
range of 4 to 8mmol/L. For example, eating 5 jellybeans will help to raise blood glucose levels
quickly. A person with diabetes is only at risk of a ‘hypo’ if taking certain medications or injecting
insulin.

If you have a medical condition, such as diabetes, it’s important to get advice from your doctor or
specialist before making any changes to your diet.

10) WHAT CAN MAKE MY BLOOD GLUCOSE RISE?

 Too much food, such as a meal or snack with more carbohydrates than usual

 Not being active

 Not enough insulin or oral diabetes medications

 Side effects from other medications, such as steroids or antipsychotic medications

 Illness—your body releases hormones to fight the illness, and those hormones raise blood
glucose levels
  Stress, which can produce hormones that raise blood glucose levels

 Short- or long-term pain, such as pain from a sunburn—your body releases hormones that
raise blood glucose levels

 Menstrual periods, which cause changes in hormone levels

 Dehydration

Go to:

WHAT CAN MAKE MY BLOOD

GLUCOSE FALL?

 Not enough food, such as a

meal or snack with fewer
carbohydrates than usual
or a missed meal or snack

 Alcohol, especially on an
empty stomach

 Too much insulin or oral

diabetes medications

 Side effects from other

medications

 More physical activity or

exercise than usual—
physical activity makes
your body more sensitive
to insulin and can lower
blood glucose

Go to:

HOW CAN I TRACK MY BLOOD

GLUCOSE?

There are two ways to keep track

of your blood glucose levels:

 Using a blood glucose meter to measure your blood glucose level at that moment

 Getting an A1C test at least twice a year to find out your average blood glucose for the past 2
to 3 months

11) A low-glycemic index (low-GI) diet is an eating plan based on how foods affect blood sugar level,
also called blood glucose level.
The glycemic index ranks food on a scale from 0 to 100. The low end of the scale has foods that have
little effect on blood sugar levels. The high end of the scale has foods with a big effect on blood sugar
levels.

A low-GI diet uses the glycemic index as the main guide for meal planning. People also may use the
glycemic index as one of many tools for making choices about foods and meals.

Purpose

The purpose of a low-GI diet is to choose foods less likely to raise blood sugar levels.

Why you might follow a low-GI diet

You might choose to follow a low-GI diet because you:

 Want to lose weight or keep a healthy weight

 Need help planning and eating healthier meals

 Need help keeping blood sugar levels from going too high or low as part of a diabetes
treatment plan

 Want to lower risk of diabetes or diseases of the heart or blood vessels

The glycemic index

The glycemic index is designed to be a food-choice guide for people living with diabetes. An
international database is run by the Sydney University Glycemic Index Research Service in Sydney,
Australia. The database shows the results of food studies from around the world.

A basic overview of carbohydrates and blood sugar is helpful for understanding low-GI diets.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates, also called carbs, are a type of nutrient in foods. The three basic forms are sugars,
starches and fiber. Your body breaks down the sugars and starches from carbs. They end up as a
type of sugar called glucose. This sugar passes into the bloodstream and is the main source of energy
for cells in your body. Fiber passes through your body undigested.

Two main hormones from the pancreas help control glucose in the bloodstream. The hormone
insulin moves glucose from the blood into the cells. The hormone glucagon helps release glucose
stored in the liver when blood sugar levels are low. This process helps keep the body fueled and
blood sugar in balance.

Many different things about food affect how quickly glucose enters the bloodstream.

Understanding GI numbers

The glycemic index ranks the effect food has on blood sugar levels. A low-GI diet suggests foods that
have low GI values. The categories are:

 Low GI: 1 to 55

 Medium GI: 56 to 69

 High GI: 70 and higher

In order to assign a rank, also called a GI value, researchers usually compare the effect of eating a
food with the effect of eating sugar on blood sugar levels. Sometimes the comparison is made with
eating white bread. For example, to test the GI value of cantaloupe, 10 or more healthy people eat
enough cantaloupe to digest 50 grams of total carbohydrates. That is about one medium cantaloupe
for each person. Over the next two hours, their blood sugar levels are tested several times. On
another day, the same 10 people eat or drink 50 grams (12 teaspoons) of sugar. Again, their blood
sugar levels are tested several times over two hours.

The researchers compare the results of eating sugar with eating cantaloupe to rank the effect of
eating cantaloupe. The GI value for cantaloupe is 65 to 70.

Limits of GI values

The glycemic index doesn't consider how much of a food you are likely to eat during a meal. For
example, you likely wouldn't eat a whole medium-sized cantaloupe at once.

To focus on this problem, researchers developed the idea of glycemic load (GL). This number shows
the effect on blood sugar levels when you eat a common portion of the food. For example, you
might eat one-third of a medium-sized cantaloupe during one meal. The GL value for that much
cantaloupe is around 11 or lower.

Sydney University's table of GI values also includes GL values. The GL values are divided into:

 Low GL: 1 to 10

 Medium GL: 11 to 19

 High GL: 20 or more

Other issues

A GI value tells you nothing about other nutritional information. For example, cantaloupe has a
medium to high GI score and a medium GL score. But it is a good source of vitamin C, beta carotene
and other important nutrients. Whole milk has a low GI value and a low GL value. But it's high in fats
and calories. So it may not a good choice for losing or controlling weight.

The published GI database is not a complete list of foods. Instead, it's a list of foods that have been
studied. Many nutritious foods with low GI values may not be in the database. The list also includes
highly processed foods which may be less nutritious than unprocessed foods. And some foods with
low GI values may not be good sources of nutrients.

The GI value of any food item depends on many factors. It matters how the food is prepared and
how it is processed. Also, there can be a range in GI values for the same foods. So the values may not
be reliable for all food choices.

Diet details

If you follow a low-GI diet, your foods with carbs are mostly limited to choices with low values. You
usually will avoid foods with high values. Examples of foods with low, middle and high GI values are:

 Low GI: Green vegetables, most fruits, raw carrots, kidney beans, chickpeas and lentils.

 Medium GI: Sweet corn, bananas, raw pineapple, raisins, cherries, oat breakfast cereals, and
multigrain, whole-grain wheat or rye bread
  High GI: White rice, white bread and potatoes

Commercial low-GI diets may refer to foods as having slow carbs or fast carbs. This is because foods
with a low GI value are digested and absorbed over a longer time. Foods with high values are
absorbed over a shorter time.

Results

Studies of low-GI diets have shown varied results. In general, they have shown a low-GI diet may be
helpful for:

 Losing weight

 Lowering blood pressure

 Lowering total cholesterol levels

 Improving diabetes management

 Lowering the risk of diabetes and heart and blood vessel diseases

Researchers have noted the benefit of the diet may be linked to the nutrient-rich foods and high-
fiber foods in the studies. The overall nutritional quality of the food may be more important than
the GI value of each food item.

The bottom line

Following a low-GI diet may help you lose weight or keep a healthy weight. It may help you manage
a diabetes plan. It may lower your risk of diabetes and heart and blood vessel diseases.

The glycemic index also could be one tool, rather than the main tool, to help you make healthier
food choices. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends a focus on healthy dietary patterns
and nutrient-rich foods.

A healthy dietary pattern means making consistently healthy choices over time. Foods that fit in that
pattern vary. They include a variety of fruits and vegetables that provide vitamins, minerals and
fiber. A healthy dietary pattern also includes whole-grain foods that are high in fiber and other
nutrients. Beans, legumes, fish, low-fat dairy and lean meats are also good choices.