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Worldwide: A Cultural Approach

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 Contents vii

The Development of Cultural Ways of Thinking 178 ■■ RESEARCH FOCUS: Measuring Temperament 219
Evaluating Sociocultural Theories of Cognitive Goodness-of-Fit 220
Development 179 Summary: Temperament: Individual Differences in
Emotion and Self-Regulation 220
■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: Bringing Theories of Cognitive
Development Into the Classroom 180 7.2 Emotions 221
Summary: Sociocultural Theories of Cognitive Development 180 Theories of Emotion Development 221
Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 181 Infancy: Primary Emotions and Emotion Perception 222
Toddlerhood: Secondary Emotions and Self-Regulation 225
6 Learning Languages 182 Autism Spectrum Disorder 227
6.1 Languages in Today’s World 184 Childhood: Self-Regulation and Contentment 228
Humanity’s Linguistic Diversity 184 Adolescence: Emotional Storm and Stress? 230
The Impact of Globalization 185 Depression and Suicide in Adolescence
and Emerging Adulthood 231
Summary: Languages in Today’s World 187
Summary: Emotions 234
6.2 Evolutionary and Biological Bases of Language 187
7.3 Self-Conceptualization 235
Language and Human Biology 187
Infancy and Toddlerhood: The Birth of Self 235
An Evolutionary Advantage 188
Early and Middle Childhood: The Self in the Present 236
Summary: Evolutionary and Biological Bases of Language 189
Adolescence: Possible Selves 237
6.3 Theories of Language Development 189 Summary: Self-Conceptualization 237
Early Theories 190
7.4 Self-Esteem 238
Recent Theories 191
Culture and Self-Esteem 238
Summary: Theories of Language Development 193
The Development of Self-Esteem Among
6.4 First Sounds and Words 193 American Children 239
Perception of Speech 193 ■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: Praise, Motivation, and Academic
Recognition of Words 194 Achievement 241
Production of Sounds, Gestures, and First Words 196
Self-Esteem, Physical Appearance, and
Infant-Directed Speech 197 Eating Disorders 241
■■ CULTURAL FOCUS: Cultural Views on Speaking to Infants Summary: Self-Esteem 243
and Toddlers 199
7.5 Identity 243
Reading to Infants and Toddlers 199
Erikson’s and Marcia’s Theories 243
Summary: First Sounds and Words 200
Identity in Emerging Adulthood 245
6.5 From First Words to Cultural Competence 201 ■■ CULTURAL FOCUS: The Features of Emerging Adulthood 246
Adding Words 201 Identity and Variations Across Cultures 247
Forming Words and Sentences 203 Ethnic Identity 247
Becoming an Adept Native Speaker 204 Summary: Identity 249
■■ RESEARCH FOCUS: Observing Everyday Storytelling 206 Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 250
Creating New Language 207
Language and Cultural Cognition 208 8 Gender: Biology, Socialization,
Summary: From First Words to Cultural Competence 209 and Cultural Change 251
6.6 Multilingualism 209
8.1 Development of a Gendered Self 253
The Development of Multilingualism 210
Early Childhood 253
Benefits and Risks of Multilingualism 210
Middle Childhood 253
■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: Early Multilingual Education
Adolescence 254
Across Contexts 212
Summary: Development of a Gendered Self 256
Language Brokering 212
8.2 Gender in Traditional Cultures 256
Summary: Multilingualism 213
From Girl to Woman 256
Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 214
From Boy to Man 257
Historical Changes and Recent Revolutions 258
7 Emotions, Self, and Identity 215 Summary: Gender in Traditional Cultures 260

7.1 Temperament: Individual Differences in 8.3 Gender Comparisons in Developed Countries 261
Emotion and Self-Regulation 217 Analyzing Gender Differences 261
The Raw Material of Personality 217 ■■ RESEARCH FOCUS: Meta-Analyses of Gender Differences 261
viii Contents

Differences Between Females and Males 263 9.5 Siblings and Grandparents 306
Qualifications About Differences Between Family Systems Theory 306
Females and Males 264 Siblings 307
Summary: Gender Comparisons in Developed Countries 265 Grandparents 309
8.4 Reasons for Gender Differences: Theories Summary: Siblings and Grandparents 309
and Research 265 9.6 Changing Families 310
Biological and Biosocial Bases 265 Divorce and Remarriage 310
Socialization 268 Single Parenthood 312
■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: Gender in the Preschool and Primary Sexual Minority Families 313
School Classroom 270 Dual-Earner Families 313
Cognition and Motivation 271 ■■ RESEARCH FOCUS: Early Child Care and Its
Gender Inequity 271 Consequences 315
Summary: Reasons for Gender Differences: Summary: Changing Families 315
Theories and Research 272
Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 316
8.5 Beyond the Binary 273
Androgyny 273 10 Peers, Friends, and Romantic Partners 317
Gender Minorities 274
10.1 Social Contexts Beyond the Family:
Intersectionality 275 Two Theories 319
■■ CULTURAL FOCUS: Gender Among Latinas 275 Mead’s Classifications of Childhood Social Stages 319
Summary: Beyond the Binary 276
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory 320
8.6 Globalization and the Future of Gender 276 Summary: Social Contexts Beyond the Family: Two Theories 322
Gender in Today’s World: Education, Unpaid 10.2 Play with Peers and Friends 322
Work, and Physical Violence 276
Toddlerhood Through Early Childhood 322
Gender in Tomorrow’s World 279
■■ RESEARCH FOCUS: Shyness in China and Canada:
Summary: Globalization and the Future of Gender 279
Cultural Interpretations 324
Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 280
Middle Childhood Through Adolescence 325

9 Family Relationships:
Summary: Play with Peers and Friends 326

10.3 Peers 327

Foundations and Variations 281
Characteristics of Peer Groups 327
9.1 The First Social Relationship: Two Theories 283 Popularity Among Peers 329
Erikson’s First Stage 283 ■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: School Intervention Programs
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory 283 for Rejected Children 330
■■ CULTURAL FOCUS: Stranger Anxiety Aggression and Bullying Among Peers 331
Across Cultures 285 Summary: Peers 333
Summary: The First Social Relationship: Two Theories 285
10.4 Friends 334
9.2 Attachment to Parents 286 Changes in Friendship in Childhood 334
Attachment Quality 286
■■ CULTURAL FOCUS: Friendship and Play in Middle
Critiques of Attachment Theory 288 Childhood Across Cultures 335
The Role of Fathers 290 Changes in Friendship in Adolescence and
■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: Enhancing Attachment in Child Emerging Adulthood 335
Welfare Institutions 291 Cultural Variations in Friendship 337
Summary: Attachment to Parents 292 Summary: Friends 338

9.3 The Parent–Child Relationship 292 10.5 Problem Behaviors Among Friends 339
Parenting Styles 292 Substance Use and Abuse 339
Parental Use of Discipline 296 Delinquency and Crime 342
Parent–Child Coregulation and Conflict 298 Summary: Problem Behaviors Among Friends 344
Summary: The Parent–Child Relationship 301 10.6 Romantic Partners 344
9.4 Problems in the Parent–Child Relationship 302 Falling in Love, Finding a Soul Mate 345
Child Abuse and Neglect 302 Sexuality in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood 346
Runaway and “Street” Children 304 Contraceptive Use, Pregnancy, and Sexually
Resilience 305 Transmitted Infections 347
Summary: Problems in the Parent–Child Relationship 305 Sexual Minority Youth 349
 Contents ix

Sexual Harassment and Date Rape 351 ■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: Panwapa: An International
Summary: Romantic Partners 352 Multimedia Educational Program 399
Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 353 Government Policies on Media 400
Summary: Media and Other Contexts of Socialization 401
11 School and Work: Developing 12.3 Theories of Media Influence 401
Cultural Skills 354 Cultivation Theory and Social Learning Theory 402
11.1 Preschool 356 Uses and Gratifications Approach 402
Summary: Theories of Media Influence 404
Preschool Quality and Cultural Goals 356
Early Intervention Programs 358 12.4 Uses of Media 404
Summary: Preschool 359 Emotional Uses 404
11.2 From Primary Education to Tertiary Cognitive Uses 406
Education 360 Social Uses 406
Historical and Cultural Variations in Schooling 360 ■■ CULTURAL FOCUS: “Teenagers” in Kathmandu, Nepal 408
Primary Education: Learning Reading Summary: Uses of Media 409

and Mathematics 362 12.5 Risks of Media 409

■■ CULTURAL FOCUS: Primary School Across Cultures 364 Physical Health 409
Secondary Education 365 Aggression: Behaviors and Attitudes 411
■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: School Climate 367 Sexual Stereotypes and Victimization 413
Tertiary Education 368 Summary: Risks of Media 413

Summary: From Primary Education to Tertiary Education 370 12.6 Benefits of Media 414
11.3 School and Other Contexts 371 Cognitive Benefits 414
Family and Friends 371 Emotional Benefits 415
Social Class 372 Benefits to Social Development 416
Ethnicity 373 Summary: Benefits of Media 417

Immigrant Generation 374 12.7 Globalization and Media 417

Summary: School and Other Contexts 374 Cultural Values 418
11.4 Intelligence Tests and School Readiness 375 ■■ RESEARCH FOCUS: Ethiopian Children Receive Laptops 419
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children 375 Bicultural and Hybrid Identities 420
■■ RESEARCH FOCUS: The Wechsler Intelligence Scale Summary: Globalization and Media 420
for Children: Creating a Measurement 376 Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 421
Influences on Intelligence 377
Assessing Cognitive Ability in Infants 380 13 Meaning Systems: Moral,
Alternative Views of Intelligence 381 Religious, and Civic Development 422
Cultural Views of Intelligence 382
13.1 Moral Development: Emotions and
Summary: Intelligence Tests and School Readiness 383
Socialization 424
11.5 Work 384 Sociomoral Emotions 424
Child Labor 384 Socialization of Morality 427
Adolescent Work 385 Summary: Moral Development: Emotions and Socialization 429
Making the Transition to Adult Work 387
13.2 Moral Development: Reasoning and Identity 429
Summary: Work 388
The Cognitive-Developmental Approach 430
Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 389
The Domain Approach 432

12 Media: Uses, Risks, and Benefits 390

The Justice and Care Orientations Approach
The Cultural-Developmental Approach
433
434
12.1 Media Prevalence 392 Moral Identity 436
The Worldwide Prevalence of Media 392 Summary: Moral Development: Reasoning and Identity 437
Media Prevalence in Children’s Lives 392 13.3 Religious and Spiritual Development 438
Summary: Media Prevalence 396 Conceptions of Supernatural Entities 438
12.2 Media and Other Contexts of Socialization 397 Socialization of Religious Beliefs and Behaviors 439
Media’s Socialization Goals 397 Religion as a Protective Factor 440
Parents’ Use of Media 398 ■■ CULTURAL FOCUS: Religion in the Lives of African
Schools’ Use of Media 399 American Adolescents 440
x Contents

Individualized and Secular Approaches to Religion 441 13.6 Values in Today’s and Tomorrow’s World 452
Summary: Religious and Spiritual Development 443 Individualism on the Rise 453
13.4 Civic Development 443 Exposure to Diversity 454
Community Service in Adolescence 443 Summary: Values in Today’s and Tomorrow’s World 454

■■ EDUCATION FOCUS: Schools as Civic Institutions 446 Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional 455

Community Service in Emerging Adulthood 446 Glossary G-1

Political Involvement in Adolescence and Emerging
Adulthood 448
References R-1
■■ RESEARCH FOCUS: Beyond Deficiency: Civic Answers A-1
Development in Immigrant Youth 449 Credits C-1
Summary: Civic Development 449
Name Index NI-1
13.5 Political Conflict and Extremism 450
Children and Adolescents in War 450 Subject Index SI-1
Extremism in Emerging Adulthood 451
Summary: Political Conflict and Extremism 452
Preface
Four New Ways to Approach Child Development

C
hild Development Worldwide: A Cultural Approach grows 3. An unprecedented inclusion of diverse contexts of child
out of our personal, teaching, and professional expe- development; and
riences. Lene grew up in Denmark and Belgium, and 4. A deep integration of digital technology into the text.
Jeff in the United States. Together, we have lived in Denmark,
India, France, and the United States. We have shared the won-
derful experience of being involved in the development of
our twins, now 18 years old, who have traveled with us to all
those places and consider themselves fully American and fully
Thinking Culturally
Danish. Both of us have taught a wide range of developmen- The world’s population is about 7½ billion, and the popu-
tal psychology courses, including child development. What is lation of the United States is about 330 million—less than
striking to us about the world and the field of child develop- 5% of the total. By 2050, the world’s population is ex-
ment are the remarkable changes that both have undergone pected to exceed 9 billion, with almost all growth taking
in the last decades. We wrote this text to reflect those changes. place in economically developing countries. Worldwide,
Globalization and technology have been making the child development is remarkably diverse. In Africa, for
world smaller—with distances shrinking and interconnec- example, most children are multilingual because they
tions multiplying. Cultural diversity and globalization are learn both local and European languages in primary
often part of the everyday experiences of today’s students— school. In Asia, after centuries of being excluded from
through travel, migration, and study abroad programs, as educational opportunities, girls are reaching parity with
well as everyday real-life and virtual interactions. We see boys in educational achievement. In fact, 15-year-old-girls
this vividly in our twins’ lives as they learn about different in many Asian countries outperformed boys on recent in-
cultures from their teachers, have friends from many differ- ternational science tests. In Europe, it is now typical for
ent countries, and play Internet games with children from young people in many countries to take a “gap year”—a
across the globe. These worldwide changes are here to stay year devoted to travel and exploration before they com-
and will continue to profoundly impact children’s lives. mit to higher education or a “real” job—as they enter
Today, the field of child development is as fascinating emerging adulthood. For students, it is more important
and important as it has ever been—and, like the world, looks than ever to have knowledge of the wider world because
much different than it did 15 or 25 years ago. Child Development of the increasingly globalized economy, and because so
Worldwide speaks to that change. After all, child development many issues—issues like climate change, disease, and
does not occur in a vacuum. It happens in numerous com- terrorism—cross borders.
munal contexts and cultural settings that are perpetually Although this text covers scientific findings from
changing. By encouraging students to see children through across the world, it aims to do something even more
a cultural lens, this text balances the universals and Western- important. The ultimate learning goal is for students
centric research that have in the past characterized much of the to think culturally about development. As this text em-
field with the growing body of research on the development phasizes, diverse cultures exist both within and across
of children from diverse cultures within and across countries. nations, often intersecting in important ways with eth-
Our experiences of growing up and working in a number of nicity, race, and religion. We hope that through this
different countries have translated into an approach that em- text students will learn to apply child development to
phasizes how universal features of development are shaped the work they do as well as to their own lives, and to
by cultural diversity. Child Development Worldwide offers this understand that there is—always and everywhere—a
new approach, in four fundamental ways: cultural basis to development. To be clear, this does not
mean that biology is not important. Transcending the
1. An emphasis on teaching students to think culturally old “nature versus nurture” division, students will learn
about development; that humans have evolved to be an incomparably cul-
2. A broadened scope of child development and an updat- tural and global species, and that current research shows
ed perspective on when children may be considered startling ways that genes and the environment influence
“grown up”; one another.

xi
xii Preface

Broadening the Scope It is not only that we devote five full chapters to dif-
ferent context, but we also cover topics that reflect cultural

of Child Development diversity and change within those contexts. For example,
the chapter on “Family Relationships: Foundations and
The second way that this text takes a new approach corre- Variations” includes sections on grandparents and sex-
sponds to the historical expansion of the field of child de- ual minority families. The chapter on “School and Work:
velopment, from an early, narrow focus on young children Developing Cultural Skills,” as indicated by the title, recog-
to a broader one—one that now encompasses adolescents nizes that many children all over the world work—not just
and emerging adults. This expansion is reflected in the to support their leisure activities but to support their fami-
growth of professional organizations supported by instruc- lies. The chapter on “Media: Uses, Risks, and Benefits” cov-
tors, researchers, and practitioners. The oldest, the Society ers not only long-known risks to children’s development,
for Research in Child Development (SRCD), was started in but also benefits to cognitive, emotional, and social devel-
1933. The Society for Research on Adolescence (SRA) and opment. It also addresses how children, parents, schools,
the European Association for Research on Adolescence and governments use media for developmental purposes.
(EARA) were established about a half-century later, in 1984 In the chapter on “Meaning Systems: Moral, Religious, and
and 1988 respectively, as scholars increasingly recognized Civic Development,” there is attention to children’s lives
the importance of the adolescent years. The Society for the in the context of political conflict and war. In sum, Child
Study of Emerging Adulthood (SSEA) is even more recent, Development Worldwide covers a rich array of contexts—
begun in 2013, because scholars recognized that it was tak- what they look like in today’s world and how they intersect.
ing longer than in the past to “grow up” in many countries Every chapter also includes “Apply Your Knowledge as
and that ages 18–25 had become crucial years of change a Professional” videos to help students see how what they
and preparation for adult life. Also, major international or- have learned is applicable across a wide range of contexts
ganizations dedicated to the well-being of children, such as and professions. For example, the videos include interviews
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) and the WHO with an instructor of maternity nursing, a media literacy
(World Health Organization), have recently broadened teacher, a child development researcher, a reproductive en-
their focus on younger children to include adolescents and docrinologist, an education coordinator in a language im-
emerging adults. mersion school, and a court-appointed child advocate. In
Here, we provide in-depth coverage from prenatal short, the learning goal is for students to know that current
development through middle childhood, and also cover theory and research on child development pertain to many
adolescence and emerging adulthood. The learning goal contexts and societal roles.
is for students to know what contemporary child devel-
opment looks like—to understand how the meanings
of childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood are
dependent on cultural and historical circumstances. For
Embracing Digital
example, emerging adulthood exists in some cultures but
not others, and consequently, adult work may be taken
Learning
on anywhere from middle childhood to the 20s. Our fourth approach to offering an up-to-date and inno-
vative text pertains to pedagogy. Today’s students are the
most tech-savvy generation of college students yet, and we
wanted to present materials in a way that was inspired by
Encompassing Diverse the opportunities of digital technology. When we wrote the
text, we wrote it with digital features in the forefront of our
Contexts minds rather than as an afterthought.
In addition to a print version, this text is available in
Not only has child development broadened in terms of Revel format, which provides an immersive digital and in-
the age groups covered, but today the field also addresses teractive learning experience. After all, a digital approach
many more contexts of development than previously. From fits well with our cultural approach. Digital content easily
an early focus in the field on family (e.g., Freud) and peers travels across boundaries. For example, interactive maps of
(e.g., Piaget), researchers now address many other con- the United States and the world allow students to explore
texts such as work, media, and civic organizations. Thus, content across cultures in a more meaningful way. When
the third way that this text takes a different approach is students engage with content in a lively way, they learn
by including an unprecedented number of chapters on more deeply and effectively.
different contexts: “Family Relationships: Foundations Revel also allows us to update materials more frequently
and Variations,” “Peers, Friends, and Romantic Partners,” to provide students access to important cutting-edge knowl-
“School and Work: Developing Cultural Skills,” “Media: edge. The text inaugurates a “Breaking Developments”
Uses, Risks, and Benefits,” and “Meaning Systems: Moral, feature that will be available digitally. This feature will
Religious, and Civic Development.” provide succinct summaries of landmark new research
 Preface xiii

and significant cultural trends that have direct relevance to personal experience is important, it may not be reflective of
theory and research in the text, yet have occurred since the how most children develop.
publication of the print text. “Breaking Developments” will The Chinese have an expression for the limited way all
be updated at the beginning of each January and July. of us learn to see the world: jing di zhi wa, meaning “frog in
the bottom of a well.” The expression comes from a fable
about a frog that has lived its entire life in a well. The frog
Understanding Children’s assumes that its tiny world is all there is. Only when a pass-
ing turtle tells the frog of the great ocean to the east does the
Lives Today frog realize that there is much more to the world. All of us
are like that frog—which you can also see depicted on the
As parents, we have learned a lot from raising twins, cover of this text. We grow up as members of a culture and
Paris and Miles, who are now entering emerging adult- learn to see the world from the perspective that becomes
hood. We occasionally share stories from their childhood most familiar to us. But look at the cover again. Do you also
to illustrate concepts in the text. Just as we draw on our see how the black dot is the eye in the profile of a child? With
personal experiences, we encourage students to draw on Child Development Worldwide, we hope that students will
theirs as a source of insights into child development. For come to understand the lives and development of children
example, each chapter ends with a personal journaling in ways previously unseen.
prompt. Growing up is universal. Every culture differentiates
Furthermore, in every chapter, we include first-person between children and adults, and children across all cultures
quotes from children, adolescents, and emerging adults share common developmental characteristics. Yet, culture
from around the world. In videos included with the text, also profoundly impacts psychological development. How
children talk about their lives, including growing up as and when a child reaches adulthood varies widely across
a Latina girl in the United States, being a child soldier in the world. By encouraging students to see children from
Congo, and living with a learning disability. We wish for both a developmental and cultural perspective, we hope
students to hear other individuals’ perspectives, and think to inspire an understanding that will be useful and fruitful,
this adds authenticity to the presentation of theories and not only while students are taking this course but through-
research findings. It is also a vivid reminder that, although out their lives.
xiv Preface

Child Development Worldwide Features

“Cultural Focus” Features highlight how
culture impacts various aspects of devel-
opment, such as breast-feeding practices,
friendship and play in middle childhood,
or what it means to be a teenager in
Kathmandu. Students read an overview
of the topic, watch a cultural video
expanding that topic’s discussion, and
then answer a review question.

“Education Focus” Features highlight the

application of child development research
to educational settings, both in and outside
of school. Students read an overview of the
topic and then respond to a review question.

“Research Focus” Features offer a

detailed description of a research study,
including its premises, methods, results,
and limitations. Each feature is avail-
able in both traditional narrative format
and as a sketch-art style video. Multiple
choice questions appear at the end of the
feature to ensure that students have a solid
understanding of the research study and
methodology.
 Preface xv

Teaching and Learning Aids

Learning Objectives
Learning objectives for each chapter
are listed at the start of the chapter as Early Theories
well as alongside every section heading. LO 6.3.1 Describe how behaviorist, innatist, and cognitive theories explain
Based on Bloom’s taxonomy, these language development, including the extent to which they emphasize
numbered objectives help students nature or nurture.

better organize and understand the Three early theories bring very different perspectives to language development, and contin-
ues to influence present-day research.
material. The end-of-section summary
is organized around these same objec- BEHAVIORISM. For language acquisition, as for the development of any other skill,
behaviorism behaviorism regards infants as starting out from scratch and learning behaviors based on
tives, as are all of the supplements and the responses or “conditioning” of those around them (Skinner, 1957). According to this the-
a theory that regards infants
assessment material. as starting out from scratch ory, children learn language based on:
and learning behaviors
• Positive reinforcement: when a caregiver encourages a child’s behavior by responding
based on the responses
positively to it, for example, with praise or a reward.
or “conditioning” of those
around them • Negative reinforcement: when a caregiver encourages a child’s behavior by stopping or
removing something negative, such as nagging or being grounded.
• Imitation: when a caregiver models a behavior for the child to learn and repeat.
• Punishment: when a caregiver discourages a child’s behavior by imposing an unpleas-
ant condition such as yelling or extra chores.

Section Summaries
Organized by learning objective, a
summary now appears at the end of
each section.

Critical Thinking Questions

These questions encourage students to think more deeply and critically about a
developmental topic, and to synthesize information across chapters.
xvi Preface

Revel for Child Development Worldwide

When students are engaged deeply, they learn more effectively and perform better in their
courses. This simple fact inspired the creation of Revel: an interactive learning environment
designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn. Built in collaboration with edu-
cators and students nationwide, Revel is the newest, fully digital way to deliver respected
Pearson content. Revel enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—
integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students to
read about and practice course material in tandem. This immersive educational technology
boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and improved
performance throughout the course.

Learn More about Revel

Rather than simply offering opportunities to read about and study child development, Revel
facilitates deep, engaging interactions with the concepts that matter most. By providing
opportunities to improve skills in analyzing and interpreting research and theory, Revel
engages students directly and immediately, which leads to a better understanding of course
material. A wealth of student and instructor resources and interactive materials can be found
within Revel. Some of our favorites are mentioned in the information that follows.
For more information about all the tools and resources in Revel and access to your own
Revel account for Child Development Worldwide, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/revel.

Interactive Maps, Tables, and Figures feature

Social Explorer technology that allow for
real-time data updates and rollover informa-
tion to support the data and show movement
over time. Dozens of other interactivities
feature enhanced visuals and exercises that
bring important concepts to life such as click-
able maps that highlight differences between
developing and developed nations, interac-
tive figures, and table- and figure-based
exercises that encourage students to check
their understanding of materials.
 Preface xvii

“Chapter Introduction” Videos begin

each chapter and provide an overview of
the developmental topic being covered.
The videos feature children and parents
from diverse cultural backgrounds
discussing their lives and experiences
in relation to the topic of a chapter.

End-of-Section and End-of-

Chapter Review Quizzes
Available in our Revel product, multiple-choice
practice quizzes appear after each section to
help students assess their comprehension of
the material. A cumulative multiple-choice test
appears at the end of every chapter.

Shared Writing
Assignable Shared Writing Activities
in our Revel product direct students to share
written responses with classmates, fostering
peer discussion.
xviii Preface

“Breaking Developments” feature

author-written summaries of new
landmark research and cultural
trends. New Breaking Developments
will be added to the Revel version
of this title at the beginning of each
January and July.

“Apply Your Knowledge as a Professional”

Videos are offered in every chapter,
allowing students to learn about a wide
variety of career paths. In the videos, career
professionals describe their job and explain
how a knowledge of child development
and culture influences their work on a
daily basis.

“Journaling Question” prompts

toward the end of each chapter give
students an opportunity to apply key
concepts and new knowledge to their
own experiences.
 Preface xix

Teaching and Learning Package

A textbook is but one component of a comprehensive learning package. The author team
that prepared the teaching and learning package had as its goal to deliver the most compre-
hensive and integrated package on the market. All supplements were developed around the
textbook’s carefully constructed learning objectives. The authors are grateful to reviewers
and focus group members who provided invaluable feedback and suggestions for creating a
complete and outstanding package.

TEST BANK (ISBN: 0134635825) Written by Professor Regina M. Hughes (Collin College),
the test bank contains hundreds of multiple-choice and essay questions, each referenced to
the relevant page in the book and correlated to the chapter learning objectives. Each chapter
of the test bank includes a Total Assessment Guide, an easy-to-reference grid that organizes
all test items by learning objective and question type.

The test bank comes with Pearson MyTest (ISBN: 0134625366), a powerful test generation
program that helps instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams. Questions and
tests can be authored online, allowing instructors ultimate flexibility and the ability to
efficiently manage assessments wherever and whenever they want. Instructors can easily
access existing questions and then edit, create, and store using simple drag-and-drop and
Word-like controls. Data on each question provides information relevant to difficulty level
and page number. In addition, each question maps to the text’s major section and learning
objective. For more information go to www.PearsonMyTest.com.

ENHANCED LECTURE POWERPOINT SLIDES WITH EMBEDDED VIDEOS (ISBN:

0134891856) the Enhanced Lecture PowerPoints offer detailed outlines of key points
for each chapter supported by selected visuals from the textbook, and include the vid-
eos from the video series featured in the text. ADA-compliant Standard Lecture
PowerPoints (ISBN: 0134635744) without embedded videos are also available.
A separate Art and Figure version (ISBN: 0134891864) of these presentations contains all art
from the textbook for which Pearson has been granted electronic permissions

INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL (ISBN: 0134635752) Written and compiled by Linda Lockwood,

Ph.D. (Metropolitan State University), the Instructor’s Manual includes suggestions for pre-
paring for the course, sample syllabi, and current trends and strategies for successful teaching.
Each chapter offers integrated teaching outlines and a list of the key terms for quick reference,
and includes an extensive bank of lecture launchers, handouts, and activities. Answers to the
in-text features are provided. The electronic format features click-and-view hotlinks that allow
instructors to quickly review or print any resource from a particular chapter. This tool saves
prep work and helps you maximize your classroom time.

ACCESSING ALL RESOURCES For access to all instructor supplements for Child
Development Worldwide, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc and follow the directions to
register (or log in if you already have a Pearson user name and password). Once you have
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Acknowledgments

W
riting a new child development text involves also reviewed by a panel of subject-matter experts to ensure
many years of unwavering dedication, and we accuracy and currency. Dozens of focus-group participants
are profoundly grateful to all of the talented peo- helped guide every aspect of the program, from content
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We would especially like to thank Amber Chow, the the supplements. In fact, some of those focus-group par-
Senior Portfolio Manager, who supported our vision for the ticipants were so inspired by the project that they became
text with her characteristic blend of thoughtfulness and en- members of the supplements author team themselves. We’d
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it to fruition. Nic Albert and Julie Swasey performed su-
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Laurel Anderson, Palomar College
to the wise and indefatigable Debbie Coniglio at Ohlinger
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Publishing Services and to Gina Linko at Integra for coordi-
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Turner, the Content Producer, oversaw all aspects of the
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Technical Manager of Learning Tools, and Elissa Senra-
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Sargent, the Digital Content Producer, coordinated all as-
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pects of digital media production. Chris Brown, Product
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Marketing Manager, handled the marketing of the text and
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read chapters, sections, and other materials in the course
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The Development of Child Allison DiBianca Fasoli, Middlebury College
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Development Worldwide Hope Doerner, Minneapolis Community Technical College
This text is the product of the most extensive development Dana Donohue, Northern Arizona University
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forts of a team of authors, reviewers, and publishing experts Caitlin Faas, Mount St. Mary’s University
who shared a vision for not only a unique and up-to-date Colleen Fawcett, Palm Beach State
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and relevant to students as possible. Every chapter was Jamie Harmount, Ohio University

xx
 Acknowledgments xxi

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 About the Authors
Lene Arnett Jensen is Associate Professor in the Department of Psychology at Clark
University in Worcester, Massachusetts. She received her Ph.D. in developmental psychol-
ogy in 1994 from the University of Chicago, and did a 1-year postdoctoral fellowship at
the University of California—Berkeley. Before coming to Clark University, she taught at the
University of Missouri and Catholic University of America.
She aims through scholarship and professional collaboration to move the discipline
of psychology toward understanding development both in terms of what is universal and
what is cultural. She terms this a “cultural-developmental approach.” Her research ad-
dresses moral development and cultural identity formation. Together with her students,
she has conducted research in countries such as Denmark, India, Thailand, Turkey, and the
United States. Her publications include New Horizons in Developmental Theory and Research
(2005, with Reed Larson, Jossey-Bass/Wiley), Immigrant Civic Engagement: New Translations
(2008, with Constance Flanagan), Bridging Cultural and Developmental Psychology: New Syn-
theses for Theory, Research and Policy (2011), the Oxford Handbook of Human Development and
Culture (2015), Moral Development in a Global World: Research from a Cultural-Developmental
Perspective (2015), and the Oxford Handbook of Moral Development (forthcoming).
From 2004 to 2015, she was editor-in-chief for the journal New Directions for Child and
Adolescent Development (with Reed Larson). She served as program chair for the 2012 biennial
conference of the Society for Research on Adolescence (with Xinyin Chen), and currently
serves on awards committees for the Society for Research on Child Development (SRCD)
and the Society for Research on Adolescence (SRA). For additional information, please see
www.lenearnettjensen.com.

The authors with their toddler twins, Miles and Paris.

xxii
 About the Authors xxiii

The authors with their twins, now on the cusp of emerging adulthood.

Jeffrey Jensen Arnett is a Research Professor in the Department of Psychology at Clark

University in Worcester, Massachusetts. He received his Ph.D. in developmental psychol-
ogy in 1986 from the University of Virginia, and did 3 years of postdoctoral work at the
University of Chicago. From 1992 to 1998 he was Associate Professor in the Department of
Human Development and Family Studies at the University of Missouri, where he taught a
300-student lifespan human development course every semester. In the fall of 2005, he was a
Fulbright Scholar at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark.
His primary scholarly interest for the past 20 years has been in emerging adulthood.
He coined the term, and he has conducted research on emerging adults concerning a wide
variety of topics, involving several different ethnic groups in U.S. society. He is the Founding
President and Executive Director of the Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood (SSEA;
www.ssea.org). From 2005 to 2014 he was the editor of the Journal of Adolescent Research (JAR),
and currently he is on the Editorial Board of JAR and five other journals. He has published
many theoretical and research papers on emerging adulthood in peer-reviewed journals, as
well as the books Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach (2018, 6th edition),
and Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens Through the Twenties (2015, 2nd
edition). For more information on Dr. Arnett and his research, see www.jeffreyarnett.com.
Lene and Jeff live in Worcester, Massachusetts with their twins, Miles and Paris.
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month or six weeks without food. Nassau, New Providence, the
capital is chiefly supplied from these islands with the guana.
There are several varieties of this reptile in Australia, but that which
is most common is from four to six feet in length, and from about a
foot and a half to two feet across the broadest part of the back, with
a rough dark skin, enlivened by yellow spots. Although perfectly
harmless, as far as the human race are concerned, this huge lizard
is a terrible foe to the smaller quadrupeds—opossums, bandicoots,
kangaroo-rats, &c.,—on which it preys. It is very destructive also
among hen roosts, and often takes up its quarters in the vicinity of a
farm-house for the convenience of supping on the hens and their
eggs.
The guana is much sought for and esteemed by the blacks as an
article of food, and is frequently presented as a great delicacy to the
young ‘gins.’ By the settlers it is not often eaten, owing to the natural
feeling of dislike which is created by its form and habits. Those,
however, who do not entertain these feelings, or are able to
overcome them, find the flesh of the creature really excellent. It is not
unlike that of a rabbit, to which, in flavour, it is fully equal, and eats
best when stewed or curried.
The guana usually lives in trees, and, on the approach of man, it
invariably makes off with great alacrity, scrambling rapidly up the
nearest trunk; but it is easily brought down by a shot.
Captain Keppel tells us, ‘that while out on a shooting excursion at
Port Essington, he observed a native plucking the feathers off a
goose; while so employed his eye caught the tip-end of the tail of an
iguana, an animal of the lizard kind, about four feet long, which was
creeping up the opposite side of a tree; he tossed the goose, without
further preparation, on to the fire, and ascended the tree as easily as
Jack would run up the well-rattled rigging of a man-of-war. He almost
immediately returned with the poor animal struggling in his scientific
grasp. It was the work of a minute to secure it to a stick of about the
same length as itself to prevent its running away, when it was made
to change places with the goose, which, being warm through, was
considered to be sufficiently done. The whole goose he devoured,
making no bones, but spitting out the feathers. Then came the
iguana’s turn, which, although less tender, was not the less relished.
It appeared to require great muscular strength to detach the flesh
from the skin. The operation being finished, he lay down to sleep.
His wife, having sprinkled him with dirt to keep the flies off, was
proceeding to eat the skin of the iguana, when the arrival of some
more geese offered her a more satisfactory repast.’
The iguana is, I believe, the Talagowa of the natives of Ceylon—le
Monitor terrestre d’Egypte of M. Cuvier. The Indian monitor (Monitor
dracæna, Gray) is found in great abundance in all the maritime
provinces of Ceylon. The natives are partial to its flesh. Dr. Kelaart
states that he once tasted some excellent soup made from a tender
guana, which was not unlike hare soup. At Trincomalee they are
hunted down by dogs, and sold in the market for 6d. each. They feed
on the smaller reptiles and insects, and measure, when large, four
feet five inches. Despite its repulsive appearance, the iguana is
eagerly hunted for food by the natives of Africa, Australia, America,
and Asia.
The eggs of the guana are another article deserving the attention of
gourmands. One of these lizards sometimes contains as many as
four-score eggs. These are about the size of a pigeon’s egg, with a
very soft shell, which contains only a very small quantity of the
albumen. The yolk, unlike that of other eggs, does not become hard
and dry when boiled, but is soft and melting as marrow.
It would be a refreshing sight to see Alderman A., or Sheriff B., or
any other civic dignitary who has gone the round of all the dishes
which native and foreign skill have been able to produce, and to
whom a new combination would convey as much delight as a black
tulip or a blue dahlia would to a horticulturist, partaking for the first
time of pâté de foie gras de l’hiccatee, or a dish of the eggs of the
iguana garnished with anchovies. The inhabitants of some of the
Pacific islands esteem the large oval eggs of the lizards as food.
The meat of the Amblyrynchus subcristatus, another lizard, when
cooked, is white, and by those whose stomachs rise above all
prejudices it is relished as very good. Humboldt has remarked, that
in intertropical South America, all lizards which inhabit dry regions
are esteemed delicacies for the table.
There are an almost innumerable variety of lizards, properly so
called, in all parts of the colony of New South Wales, and the whole
of the larger kinds are used for food by the blacks, although but very
rarely eaten by the settlers. Those who have eaten them, state that
their flesh resembles that of a fowl. The dragon lizard, or as it is
sometimes called, the frilled lizard, is the most remarkable, being
provided with a large frill, which it has the power of extending
suddenly, and in a rather startling manner, when attacked or
alarmed; it is usually about a foot and a half or two feet long. The
Jew lizards are dark coloured, with a dewlapped and puffy
appearance about the throat and neck, varying in size, but seldom
exceeding two feet in length. The scaly lizards are fierce looking,
although harmless, reptiles, with a spotted scaly hide, generally
about a foot long, and remarkable for having small round club-
shaped tails. They are easily domesticated, but as their appearance
is far from attractive, they are seldom made pets of. The large spiny-
backed rock lizard resembles a guana, the only material points of
difference being that it has a heavy dewlap beneath its chin, and a
row of spines along the back from the head to the tail. The flat-tailed
lizard, called by the natives the Rock Scorpion, is imagined by them
to be venomous, although in reality it is perfectly harmless; it is
nocturnal in its habits, and possesses to a peculiar extent the
singular power, which is more or less vested in all the lizard family, of
leaving its tail in the hands of any one who attempts to capture it by
laying hold of that appendage, and of making off apparently
scatheless. The sleeping lizard is in body, as well as in its sluggish
habits, exactly like the terrible death adder, from which it is only to be
distinguished by its short feet.
Many of the lizard family are believed by the settlers to be
venomous, but such is not the case; I believe in fact that no four-
footed reptile has yet been discovered which is possessed of venom.
A remarkable power possessed by the guana, and perhaps by
others of the lizard family, is its power of resisting the poison,
ordinarily most destructive to animal life,—prussic acid. A middling
sized guana took a small bottle of prussic acid, and seemed rather to
have been exhilarated by it than otherwise; it was killed, however, by
a dose of arsenic and spirits of wine.
There is a large, ugly, amphibious lizard, about three feet long, met
with in Guiana, known as the Salempenta, or El Matêo, which is
thought (particularly by the Indians) good eating, the flesh being
white and tender. It is, however, much more ugly in appearance than
the guana.
Occasionally large lizards of other kinds, two or three feet in length,
are brought to the Rio market, and they are said to be excellent
eating.
In the reign of Cheops, as an Egyptian gentleman curious in poultry,
and famous even there for his success in producing strange birds,
was walking by the river Nile, he met with an egg, which, from its
appearance, he thought promised results out of the common way;
so, picking it up, he took it home, and gave directions for hatching it.
But some time after, on visiting his poultry yard, he found that all his
pets had disappeared, a few feathers only lying scattered about,
whilst a fearful animal rushed upon him open-mouthed. The fact
was, he had hatched a crocodile.
Mr. Joseph, in his History of Trinidad, tells us, that he has eaten the
eggs of the cayman or alligator, (without knowing what eggs they
were), and found them good. In form and taste they much resemble
the eggs of the domestic hen.
Dr. Buckland, the distinguished geologist, one day gave a dinner,
after dissecting a Mississippi alligator, having asked a good many of
the most distinguished of his classes to dine with him. His house and
his establishment were in good style and taste. His guests
congregated. The dinner-table looked splendid, with glass, china,
and plate, and the meal commenced with excellent soup. ‘How do
you like the soup?’ asked the doctor, after having finished his own
plate, addressing a famous gourmand of the day. ‘Very good,
indeed,’ answered the other; ‘turtle, is it not? I only ask because I do
not find any green fat.’ The doctor shook his head. ‘I think it has
something of a musky taste,’ said another; ‘not unpleasant, but
peculiar.’ ‘All alligators have,’ replied Buckland; ‘the cayman
particularly so. The fellow whom I dissected this morning——’ At this
stage there was a general rout of the whole guests. Every one
turned pale. Half-a-dozen started up from the table; two or three ran
out of the room; and only those who had stout stomachs remained to
the close of an excellent entertainment. ‘See what imagination is!’
said Buckland. ‘If I had told them it was turtle, or tarrapen, or
birdsnest soup, salt-water amphibia or fresh, or the gluten of a fish,
or the maw of a sea bird, they would have pronounced it excellent,
and their digestion been none the worse. Such is prejudice.’ ‘But was
it really an alligator?’ asked a lady. ‘As good a calf’s head as ever
wore a coronet,’ answered Buckland.
The Australian crocodile is more closely allied to the gavial of India
(Gavialis gangeticus), but is now often termed, like the American
species, an alligator. It is large and formidable; one captured by
Captain Stokes, in the Victoria River, and described in his published
journal, was fifteen feet long, and some have been taken still larger
than this. Like all animals of its class, the Australian crocodile is a
much more formidable enemy in the water than on shore; but even in
the latter position, it is by no means to be despised, for it progresses
with tolerable speed; and, although it seldom or never attacks a man
openly when out of its own proper element, still it is believed to have
a strong liking for human flesh, when that delicacy can safely be
obtained. One of these creatures paid a visit to a seaman, who was
asleep in his hammock on shore after a hard day’s labour, and being
unable to get conveniently at the man, it managed to drag off and
carry away the blanket which covered him; the sailor at first charged
his comrade with having made him the subject of a practical joke, but
the foot-prints of the huge reptile, and the discovery of the abstracted
blanket in the water, soon showed him the real character of his
nocturnal visitant.
The flesh of the crocodile is white and delicate, resembling veal. It
was a favourite dish among the Port Essington settlers, and among
the seamen employed in the surveys of the northern coast and rivers
of Australia. It is frequently pursued and killed for food by the
aborigines of that part of the country: the plan which they adopt is to
hunt it into some blind creek, when the reptile, finding itself closely
pressed, and no water near, usually forces its head, and perhaps the
upper part of its body in some sand-hole, fancying that it has, by so
doing, concealed itself from its pursuers. In this position it is
despatched with comparative ease. The crocodile makes a terrible
noise by snapping its jaws, particularly when in pain, or when it is
annoyed by the buzzing about its mouth and eyes of the mosquitoes
or other insects, which are found in myriads among the swamps,
creeks, and shallow waters, where it abides; this snapping noise is
often a startling sound to explorers encamping near waters
frequented by the monster.
The aboriginal tribes far to the southward of the localities in which
the crocodile has its habitation, have an imperfect knowledge of the
animal; stories of its voracity and fierceness have probably been
recounted at the friendly meetings of the tribes, and these stories
have in the same manner passed across the continent, changed and
magnified with each new relation, until on reaching the coast tribes
of the south, the crocodile became a nondescript animal of most
terrible form, frightening the blacks and puzzling the whites under the
name of the Bunyip.
In Dongola, at the present day, the crocodile is caught for the sake of
its flesh, which is regarded as a delicacy. The flesh and fat are eaten
by the Berbers, who consider them excellent. Both parts, however,
have a smell of musk so strong that few strangers can eat
crocodiles’ flesh without violent sickness following.
The Rev. Mr. Haensel, in his Letters on the Nicobar Islands, tells us
that ‘part of the flesh of the crocodile, or cayman, is good and
wholesome when well cooked. It tastes somewhat like pork, for
which I took it, and ate it with much relish, when I first came to
Nancauwery, till, on inquiry, finding it to be the flesh of a beast so
disgusting and horrible in its appearance and habits, I felt a loathing,
which I could never overcome; but it is eaten by both natives and
Europeans.’ The aboriginal natives of Trinidad considered a broiled
slice of alligator as a dainty morsel; and Mr. Joseph, the historian,
records having tasted it, and found it very palatable. Tastes in this,
as in other matters, differ.
Mr. Henry Koster, in his Travels in Brazil, says—‘I have been much
blamed by my friends for not having eaten of the flesh of the
alligator, and, indeed, I felt a little ashamed of my squeamishness
when I was shown by one friend a passage in a French writer, whose
name I forget, in which he speaks favourably of this flesh. However,
if the advocate for experimental eating had seen an alligator cut into
slices, he would, I think, have turned from the sight as quickly as I
did.’ The Indians of South America eat these creatures, but none of
the negroes will touch them.
Dr. Madden, in his Travels in Egypt, appears to have
experimentalized on the saurians as food—
‘I got’ (he says) ‘a small portion of a young crocodile, six feet long,
broiled, to ascertain its taste. The flavour a good deal resembles that
of a lobster, and, though somewhat tough, it might certainly be
considered very excellent food.’
The spectacled cayman (Alligator sclerops) is known under the
name of yacaré, or jacquare, in South America. Azara, the naturalist,
tells us that the eggs of this animal are white, rough, and as large as
those of a goose; they are deposited, to the number of sixty, in the
sand, and covered with dried grass. The Indians of Paraguay, and
other districts, esteem them as food, and also relish the white and
savoury flesh of this alligator, although it is dry and coarse. Cayman
is the Spanish word for alligator, and, according to Walker, alligator is
the name chiefly used for the crocodile in America.
Mr. Wallace thus describes an alligator hunt, as pursued on the lakes
in Mexiana, an island lying off the mouth of the Amazon:—‘A number
of negroes went into the water with long poles, driving the animals to
the side, where others awaited them with harpoons and lassos.
Sometimes, the lasso was at once thrown over their heads, or, if first
harpooned, a lasso was then secured to them, either over the head
or the tail, and they were easily dragged to the shore by the united
force of ten or twelve men. Another lasso was fixed, if necessary, so
as to fasten them at both ends; and, on being pulled out of the water,
a negro cautiously approached with an axe, and cut a deep gash
across the root of the tail, rendering this formidable weapon useless;
another blow across the neck disabled the head; and the animal was
then left, and pursuit of another commenced, which was speedily
reduced to the same condition.
‘Sometimes the cord would break, or the harpoon get loose, and the
negroes had often to wade into the water among the ferocious
animals in a very hazardous manner. They were from ten to eighteen
feet long, sometimes even twenty, with enormous mis-shapen heads
and fearful rows of long, sharp teeth. When a number were out on
the land, dead or dying, they were cut open, and the fat, which
accumulates in considerable quantities about the intestines, was
taken out, and made up into packets in the skins of the smaller ones,
taken off for the purpose. After killing twelve or fifteen, the overseer
and his party went off to another lake at a short distance, where the
alligators were more plentiful, and by night had killed nearly fifty. The
next day they killed twenty or thirty more, and got out the fat from the
others. In some of these lakes 100 alligators have been killed in a
few days; in the Amazon or Para rivers it would be difficult to kill as
many in a year. The fat is boiled down into oil and burned in lamps. It
has rather a disagreeable smell, but not worse than train-oil.’
The flesh of the land alligator, as it is termed by the Malays (the
Hydrosaurus salvator), which occasionally attains the length of five
or six feet, makes, it is said, good eating, and is much esteemed by
the natives for its supposed restorative and invigorating properties.
At Manila, these creatures are regularly sold in the markets, and
fetch a good price; the dried skin is readily bought by the Chinese,
who use it in some of their indescribable messes of gelatinous soup.
Another species eaten is the Hydrosaurus giganteus. Like that of the
Iguanæ of the New World, the flesh of these saurians is delicate
eating, and has been compared to that of a very young sucking pig.
The eggs of all the different kinds of alligators, and there are three or
four distinct species abounding in the Amazon and its tributary
streams, are eaten by the natives, though they have a very strong
musky odour. The largest species of alligator (Jacare nigra), reaches
a length of 15 or rarely 20 feet.
Mr. Wallace, in his Travels, records, that on one occasion, the
Indians on the Rio Negro supped off a young alligator they had
caught in a brook near, ‘but the musty odour was so strong that I
could not stomach it, and after getting down a bit of the tail, finished
my supper with mingau, or gruel of mandioc.’
Alligators are killed in great numbers in parts of the river Amazon, for
their fat, which is made into oil.
Hernandez states, that the flesh of the Axolotl, an aquatic reptile, is
very agreeable and wholesome. It is the Siren pisciformis of Shaw;
the Menobranchus pisciformis, Harl. It is commonly sold in the
markets of Mexico. When dressed after the manner of stewed eels,
and served up, with a stimulating sauce, it is esteemed a great
luxury. The flesh of the sauve-garde or common Teguixin of Brazil
(Teguixin monitor of Gray, Teius Teguixin) is eaten, and is said to be
excellent.
The flesh of the common ada of Mr. Gray is accounted excellent by
the natives of Guiana, who compare it to a fowl; its eggs are also in
great request. It is the Thorictes dracæna, Bibron; La grande
dragonne, Cuvier, and attains the length of four to six feet.
Some species of lizards are used as food in Burmah. One of these
especially, called pada, is stated not to be inferior to a fowl,—this is
probably the iguana. Nearly every species of serpent is eaten there,
after the head has been cut off. All have a fishy taste. Some few
kinds, however, although the teeth are carefully removed, cannot be
used, as the flesh appears to be poisonous.
The flesh of snakes is eaten by many in Dominica, particularly by the
French, some of whom are very fond of it; but it is reckoned
unwholesome, and to occasion the leprosy.
A snake called, by the natives of Western Australia wango, is
particularly liked by them as food.
There is a very venomous yellow-bellied snake, from five to six feet
long, called locally dubyt, which is much dreaded; but that is also
eaten by them.
The formidable lance-headed viper, of the Leeward Islands
(Trigonocephalus lanceolatus), feeds chiefly on birds, lizards, and
rats. After swallowing their prey, these snakes exhale a disgusting
odour; this does not prevent the negroes from eating their flesh,
which they find, it is said, free from any unpleasant flavour.
Mr. Buckland, in his interesting volume, Curiosities of Natural
History, says, he once had the opportunity of tasting a boa-
constrictor, that had been killed by an accident, and came into his
possession.
‘I tried the experiment,’ he observes, ‘and cooked a bit of him; it
tasted very like veal, the flesh being exceedingly white and firm. If I
had had nothing else, and could have forgotten what I was eating, I
could easily have made a dinner of it.’
The flesh of serpents was held in high repute by the ancients,
medicinally; and, when properly prepared, seems to have made a
very agreeable article of diet, corresponding with the turtle soup of
the present day. Even now, in the French tariff, vipers are subject to
a duty of 4s. the cwt.
In Guatemala, there is a popular belief, that lizards eaten alive cure
the cancer. The Indians are said to have made this important
discovery; and in 1780, the subject was investigated by European
physicians. I do not find the remedy in the modern pharmacopœias,
nevertheless, the inhabitants of Amatitlan, the town where the
discovery was first made, still adhere to their belief in its efficacy. The
man who first eat a live oyster or clam, was certainly a venturous
fellow, but the eccentric individual who allowed a live lizard to run
down his throat, was infinitely more so. There is no accounting for
taste.
Probably some of our learned physiologists and medical men may
be able to explain the therapeutic effects.
Some of the tribes of Southern Guinea, eat the boa-constrictor, or
python, and consider it delicate food. The more informed among
them, however, regard the practice as peculiarly heathenish. In
Ceylon, the flesh of the anaconda, which is said to devour travellers,
is much esteemed as food by some of the natives.
Who shall determine what is good eating? When we have gone over
so many delicacies, we must not be surprised at men’s eating
rattlesnakes, and pronouncing them capital food. An English writer,
who has recently published a work entitled A Ride over the Rocky
Mountains to Oregon and California, in describing the journey across
the great desert, says:—
‘12th July.—Shot two prairie dogs. Jem killed a hare and rattlesnake.
They were all capital eating, not excepting the snake, which the
parson cooked, and thought it as good as eel!’
The Australian aborigines, and some of the Kafir tribes, commonly
eat snakes roasted in the fire—and stewed snakes may, for aught I
know, be as good as stewed eels.
The Italians regale themselves with a jelly made of stewed vipers.
The Bushman of Africa catches serpents, not only as an article of
food, but to procure poison for his arrows.
Various reliable accounts before me prove that rattlesnakes are not
unfit for food, and may be placed among the multifarious articles
regarded by man as delicacies of the table. The negroes eat the
flesh of the rattlesnake, as well as that of other serpents. When the
skin and intestines are removed, no bad odour remains. A
correspondent of the Penny Magazine thus describes his experience
of fried rattlesnakes, at a tavern in Kaskaskia, a small town on the
Mississippi. He finds there a party of four or five travellers, who had
been on an exploring expedition:—
‘After a brief interview, they politely invited me to partake of the
supper they had already bespoken, informing me, at the same time,
that they considered themselves peculiarly fortunate in having
procured an excellent dish,—in fact, a great delicacy—in a place
where they expected to meet with but indifferent fare. What this great
delicacy was, they did not attempt to explain; and, having without
hesitation accepted of their invitation, I felt no inclination to make any
farther inquiries.
‘When the hour of supper arrived, the principal dish—and, indeed,
almost the only one upon the table—appeared to me to be a dish of
good-sized eels fried. I being the guest of my new acquaintances,
had the honor of being the first served with a plate of what the
person who presided called ‘Musical Jack.’ ‘Musical Jack,’ thought I,
is some species of eel peculiar to the Mississippi and its tributary
waters; and taking it for granted that it was all right, I forthwith began
to ply my knife and fork. ‘Stop,’ said the individual that occupied the
bottom of the table, before I had swallowed two mouthfuls. ‘You, sir,
have no idea, I presume, what you are eating; and since you are our
guest for the time being, I think it but right that you should have no
cause hereafter to think yourself imposed upon. The dish before you,
which we familiarly call ‘Musical Jack,’ is composed of rattlesnakes,
which the hunter who accompanies us in our tour of exploration was
so fortunate to procure for us this afternoon. It is far from the first
time that we have fared thus; and, although our own hunter skinned,
decapitated, and dressed the creatures, it was only through dint of
coaxing that our hostess was prevailed upon to lend her frying-pan
for so vile a purpose.’
‘Although curiosity had on many occasions prompted me to taste
strange and unsavoury dishes, I must confess that never before did I
feel such a loathing and disgust as I did towards the victuals before
me. I was scarcely able to listen to the conclusion of this short
address, ere I found it prudent to hurry out of the room; nor did I
return till supper was over, and ‘Musical Jack’ had either been
devoured or dismissed their presence.
‘As far as I recollect the circumstance, there was nothing peculiar or
disagreeable in the flavour of the small quantity I ate; and when the
subject was calmly discussed on the following day, one of the party
assured me he was really partial to the meat of the rattlesnake,
although some of the other members of his party had not been fully
able to conquer their early-conceived antipathies towards this snake;
but that during their long journey they had been occasionally
prevailed upon to make trial of a small quantity of the flesh, and were
willing to own that had they, been ignorant of its nature, they should
have pronounced it of a quality passably good.
‘Ever afterwards in my visits to Kaskaskia, I narrowly examined
every dish of a dubious character that was placed before me, in
order to satisfy myself that it was not ‘Musical Jack.’’
Dr. Lang, in one of his works, gives us an account of snake cooking
in Australia:—
‘One of the black fellows took the snake, and placing it on the branch
of a tree, and striking it on the back of the head repeatedly with a
piece of wood, threw it into the fire. The animal was not quite dead,
for it wriggled for a minute or two in the fire, and then became very
stiff and swollen, apparently from the expansion of the gases
imprisoned in its body. The black fellow then drew it out of the fire,
and with a knife cut through the skin longitudinally on both sides of
the animal, from the head to the tail. He then coiled it up as a sailor
does a rope, and laid it again upon the fire, turning it over again and
again with a stick till he thought it sufficiently done on all sides, and
superintending the process of cooking with all the interest
imaginable. When he thought it sufficiently roasted, he thrust a stick
into the coil, and laid it on the grass to cool, and when cool enough
to admit of handling, he took it up again, wrung off its head and tail,
which he threw away, and then broke the rest of the animal by the
joints of the vertebræ into several pieces, one of which he threw to
the other black fellow, and another he began eating himself with
much apparent relish. Neither Mr. Wade nor myself having ever
previously had the good fortune to witness the dressing of a snake
for dinner by the black natives, we were much interested with the
whole operation; and as the steam from the roasting snake was by
no means unsavoury, and the flesh delicately white, we were each
induced to try a bit of it. It was not unpalatable by any means,
although rather fibrous and stringy like ling-fish. Mr. Wade observed,
that it reminded him of the taste of eels; but as there was a strong
prejudice against the use of eels as an article of food in the west of
Scotland, in my boyhood, I had never tasted an eel, and was
therefore unable to testify to the correctness of this observation.
There was doubtless an equally strong prejudice to get over in the
case of a snake, and for an hour or two after I had partaken of it, my
stomach was ever and anon on the point of insurrection at the very
idea of the thing; but, thinking it unmanly to yield to such a feeling, I
managed to keep it down.’
In a paper which I published in the Journal of the Society of Arts, in
October 1856, (vol. 4, p. 872,) I entered very fully into a description
of the various snakes which are met with in different countries,
poisonous or harmless, and to that paper I would refer those who
wish to obtain descriptive details—scientific or general—not bearing
on the subject of food, at present under our consideration.
The consumption of frogs is not, as is very often supposed, confined
to the French. It is now also indulged in, to a considerable extent, by
Americans; and frogs appear to command a high price in the New
York market. An enthusiastic writer tries to convince us, that the only
objection to frogs as an article of diet is a mere prejudice on the part
of those who have never eaten them. ‘In what respect are they
worse than eels? The frog who swallows young birds and ducklings
is surely as clean a feeder as the snake-like creature that dines on
dead dogs, and makes the celebrity of the ait at Twickenham. Or is a
frog less savoury than a rat? And yet what a price was paid for rats
at the siege of Kars! If the garrison could only have been supplied
with lots of frogs—literal or metaphorical—the Russians would never
have taken the place. Again, does a snail—the large escargot, which
people are so fond of in Paris—appear more tempting than a frog?
Or that animal picked out of its shell with a pin, and called, in vulgar
parlance, a winkle. ‘Away, then,’ as indignant orators say, ‘away,
then, with this cant of false delicacy and squeamishness, and the
very first opportunity you have, O lector fastidioso! order A Dish of
Frogs. They are quite as good as whitebait, when assisted by a flask
of Rhenish.’
The Athenæum, also, recently came out in favour of frogs. ‘There is
no reason,’ it remarks, ‘why we should eschew frogs and relish turtle;
still less is there for our eating one or two of the numerous edible
funguses, which our island produces, and condemning all the rest.’
The green or edible frog (Rana esculenta) is a native of Europe,
some parts of Asia, and also of Northern Africa. It is in high request
on the Continent for its flesh, the meat of the hind quarters, which is
alone used, being delicate and well tasted. In Vienna, where the
consumption of these frogs is very considerable, they are preserved
alive, and fattened in froggeries (grenouillières) constructed for the
express purpose.
In America, the flesh of the huge bull-frog (R. pipiens, Harl.; R.
mugiens, Catesby,) is tender, white, and affords excellent eating.
Some bull-frogs weigh as much as half-a-pound, but the hind legs
are the only parts used as food. They make excellent bait for the
larger cat-fish.
In the Antilles, another huge bull-frog is reared in a state of
domestication for the table. It is the Rana ocellata, Linn; R. gigas of
Spix; Cystignathus ocellatus, Wagler.
Toads seem also to be eaten by the French, though unwittingly.
Professor Dumeril used to relate, in his lectures at the Jardin des
Plantes, that the frogs brought to the markets in Paris are caught in
the stagnant waters round Montmorenci, in the Bois de Vincennes,
Bois de Boulogne, &c. The people employed in this traffic separate
the hind quarters and legs of the frogs from the body, denude them
of their skin, arrange them on skewers, as larks are done in this
country, and then bring them in that state to market. In seeking for
frogs, these dealers often meet with toads, which they do not reject,
but prepare them in the same way as they would frogs; and, as it is
impossible to determine whether the hind quarters of these
creatures, after the skin is stripped off, belong to frogs or toads, it
continually happen that great numbers of the supposed frogs sold in
Paris for food are actually toads.[18]
This account of the mode of bringing the frogs to market, in Paris,
does not tally with that given by my friend, Mr. F. T. Buckland, in his
Curiosities of Natural History; he says:—
‘In France, frogs are considered a luxury, as any bon vivant ordering
a dish of them at the Trois Frères, at Paris, may, by the long price,
speedily ascertain. Not wishing to try such an expensive experiment
in gastronomy, I went to the large market in the Faubourg St.
Germain, and enquired for frogs. I was referred to a stately-looking
dame at a fish-stall, who produced a box nearly full of them, huddling
and crawling about, and occasionally croaking as though aware of
the fate to which they were destined. The price fixed was two a
penny, and having ordered a dish to be prepared, the Dame de la
Halle dived her hand in among them, and having secured her victim
by the hind legs, she severed him in twain with a sharp knife; the
legs, minus skin, still struggling, were placed on a dish; and the
head, with the fore-legs affixed, retained life and motion, and
performed such motions that the operation became painful to look at.
These legs were afterwards cooked at the restaurateur’s, being
served up fried in bread crumbs, as larks are in England; and most
excellent eating they were, tasting more like the delicate flesh of the
rabbit than anything else I can think of. I afterwards tried a dish of
the common English frog, but his flesh is not so white nor so tender
as that of his French brother.’
The Chinese seem also to appreciate frogs, for Mr. Fortune, in
describing a Chinese market, says—
‘Frogs seemed much in demand. They are brought to market in tubs
and baskets, and the vender employs himself in skinning them as he
sits making sales. He is extremely expert at this part of his business.
He takes up the frog in his left hand, and with a knife, which he holds
in his right, chops off the fore part of its head. The skin is then drawn
back over the body and down to the feet, which are chopped off and
thrown away. The poor frog, still alive, but headless, skinless, and
feetless, is then thrown into another tub, and the operation is
repeated on the rest in the same way. Every now and then the artist
lays down his knife, and takes up his scales to weigh these animals
for his customers, and make his sales. Everything in this civilised
country, whether it be gold or silver, geese or frogs, is sold by
weight.’
According to Seba and Madame Merian, the negroes eat the flesh of
the Surinam toad (Pipa Surinamensis).
Frogs or toads of an enormous size (Crapaux) are very numerous in
Dominica, and much esteemed as an article of food; the flesh, when
fricasseed, being preferred by the English, as well as French, to
chickens; and, when made into soup, recommended for the sick,
especially in consumptive cases.
Wallace, in his Travels on the Amazon, tells us, ‘his Indians went
several times early in the morning to the gapo to catch frogs, which
they obtained in great numbers, stringing them on a sipo, and boiling
them entire, entrails and all, and devoured them with much gusto.
The frogs are mottled of various colours, have dilated toes, and are
called jui.’
The eating of frogs seems to be indulged in in the Philippines, for a
traveller tells us that—
‘After the rains there may generally be procured, by those who like
them, frogs, which are taken from the ditch round the walls in great
numbers, and are then fat and in good condition for eating, making a
very favourite curry of some of the Europeans, their flesh being very
tender.’[19]
 FISH.
More than two-thirds of our globe being covered by the waters of the
ocean, and of the remaining third a great part being washed by
extensive rivers, or occupied by lakes, ponds, or marshes, these
watery realms, teeming with life, furnish man with a great variety of
food. Some of these have already passed under consideration in the
reptilia, and others in the great class mammalia, as seals, morses,
and manatees, which can remain at no great distance from the sea,
together with whales, which never leave it, though constantly
obliged, by the nature of their respiration, to seek its surface.
Mollusca, crustacea, annelides, and zoophytes are almost peculiar
to this element, having but few scattered representatives on earth;
but, amidst all its varied inhabitants, there are none more exclusively
confined to its realms, none that rule them with such absolute sway,
none more remarkable for number, variety of form, beauty of colour,
and, above all, for the infinite advantages which they yield to man,
than the great class of fishes. In fact, their evident superiority has
caused their name to pass as a general appellation to all the
inhabitants of the deep. Whales are called fish, crabs are called
shell-fish, and the same term is used to denote oysters; though the
first are mammalia, the second articulata, and the third mollusca.
Milton has well described the abundance of fish—

——‘Each creek and bay,

With fry innumerable swarm and shoals
Of fish, that with their fins and shining scales,
Glide under the green waves; * * *
* * * part single, or with mate
Graze the sea-weed, their pasture, and through groves
Of coral stray; or sporting, with quick glance,
Show to the sun their way’d coats dropp’d with gold.’
The modes of preserving fish are various; they are salted and dried,
smoked and potted, baked or marinated, preserved in oil, and
pounded in a dry mass.
Several savage nations possess the art of preparing fish in a great
variety of ways, even as a kind of flour, bread, &c.
Dr. Davy, commenting upon the remarkable facts respecting the
exemption of fish-eating persons from certain diseases, suggests
that there is undoubtedly something in the composition of fish which
is not common to other articles of food, whether vegetable or animal.
He believes this consists of iodine. He says, that in all instances in
which he sought for this substance in sea fish he has found it; and
also traces of it in migratory fish, but not in fresh-water fish.
The trials he made were limited to red gurnard, mackerel, haddock,
common cod, whiting, sole, ling, herring, pilchard, salmon, sea-trout,
smelt, and trout.
The experiment was as follows.—He dried and charred, lixiviated,
reduced to ashes, and again washed from a quarter of a pound to a
pound of fish.
A good deal of limy matter was afforded from the washings of the
charcoal of the sea fish.
The saline matter was principally common salt, had a pretty strong
alkaline reaction, and by the blue hue produced by starch and aqua
regia, afforded a clear proof of the presence of iodine. Only a slight
trace was detected in the fresh-water salmon, sea-trout, and smelt.
In the spent salmon descending to the sea, only just a perceptible
trace was observable, and no trace in either parr or trout.
Dr. Davy states further, that he has detected it in an unmistakable
manner in the common shrimp; also in the cockle, mussel, oyster,
crab, &c.; nor is this remarkable, considering that it enters into the
greater part of the food of fishes.
He observes, also, that cod liver oil is well established as an
alterative or cure of pulmonary consumption, and as this oil contains
iodine, the inference is, that sea fish, generally, may be alike
beneficial. The practical application of this inquiry is obvious. A
suggestion is also made as to the efficacy of drying fish, even
without salt, the drying being complete to the exclusion of even
hydroscopic water, for the use of the explorer and traveller.
The inference as to the salutary effects of fish depending on the
presence of iodine, in the prevention of tubercular disease, might be
extended to goitre, which it is known has already yielded to iodine.
This formidable complaint appears to be completely unknown to the
inhabitants of sea-ports and sea-coasts. Respecting another and
concluding question, viz., the different parts of fish, it is to be
remarked that, so far as experiments have gone, the effects will not
be the same from all parts of the fish, because the inorganic
elements are not the same. The examples chosen are the liver,
muscle, roe, or melt. In the ash of the liver and muscle of sea-fish,
Dr. Davy always found a large proportion of saline matter, common
salt, abounding, with a minute portion of iodine, rather more in the
liver than the muscle, and free alkali, or alkali in a state to occasion
an alkaline reaction, as denoted by test-paper; whilst in the roe or
melt there has been detected very little saline matter, no trace of
iodine, nor of free alkali; on the contrary, a free acid, viz.,
phosphorus, analogous to what occurs in the yolk of an egg, and in
consequence of which it is very difficult to digest either the roe or
melt of a fish, or the yolk of an egg. The same conclusion on the
same ground is applicable to fresh-water fish, viz., the absence of
iodine.
A very common North American dish is chowder, which is thus
prepared:—
Fry brown several slices of pork; cut each fish into five or six pieces;
flour, and place a layer of them in your pork fat; sprinkle on a little
pepper and salt; add cloves, mace, and sliced onions; if liked, lay on
bits of the fried pork, and crackers soaked in cold water. Repeat this
till you put in all the fish; turn on water just sufficient to cover them,
and put on a heated bake pan lid. After stewing about 20 minutes,
take up the fish, and mix two teaspoonfuls of flour with a little water,
and stir it into the gravy, adding a little pepper and butter. A tumbler
of wine, catsup, and spices will improve it. Cod and bass make the