VII Semester

EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)

Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

Quantity of domestic waste water

In order to find out a suitable section for the sewer, it is necessary to determine the quantity of
sewage that will flow through the sewer. The sewage consists of the following two categories:

a) Dry weather flow

b) Storm water

a) DRY WEATHER FLOW

This is sometimes written as D.W.F. and it consists of two types of sewage:

 Domestic or sanitary sewage

 Industrial sewage
 The quantity of D.W.F. is determined by considering the following four factors:
 Infiltration and exfiltration
 Nature of industries
 Population
 Rate of water supply

Infiltration and exfiltration

The term infiltration is used to indicate the leakage of water from the ground surrounding the
sewer and the term exfiltration is used to indicate the leakage of sewage from the sewer into
the ground surrounding the sewer.

The infiltration and exfiltration are both undesirable. The infiltration unnecessarily increases
the quantity of sewage. The exfiltration pollutes the underground sources of water, if any. The
infiltration, however, is preferred to exfiltration.

The infiltration and exfiltration can be prevented to some extent by constructing watertight
joint of sewers.

 The quantity of water through infiltration depends on the following four factors:
 Head of subsoil water level
 Length of sewer
 Nature and type of soil through which sewer is laid and
 Size of sewer

Nature of industries -The quantity of industrial sewge will depend upon the nature of
industries. A careful study is, therefore, made of the industries contributing to the flow of
sewage and the quantity of industrial sewage is then accordingly worked out.
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

Population - Just as in case of water supply projects, the future population after two or three
decades is determined by applying any suitable method of population forecast. The design
period of different parts of the sewerage system is different and the following factors are taken
into account while fixing the probable life of a particular part of the sewerage system

a) Chances of improvement in the equipment

b) Cost of adding an extra unit of the equipment
c) Labour conditions having important influence on the cost of equipment
d) Maintenance cost and overhead charges
e) Operation methods and
f) Original cost of the part
g) Usually, the design periods of the following parts of sewerage system are:
h) Laterals: These are designed for 50 years or so
i) Branches and submains: These are also designed to last for 50 years or more
j) Main sewers and trunk sewers: These are designed for 30 to 50 years
k) Pumping plant: As additional pump can be installed with short notice, the design period
of pumping plant is about 5 to 10 years.
l) Treatment units: These are designed for 10 to 30 years.

Rate of water supply

Usually the quantity of water entering the sewer will be slightly less than the quantity of water
supplied. For practical purposes, it is assumed that the quantity of water which does not enter
sewer is very nearly equal to the extra quantity of water which enter sewer. In other words, the
rate of sewage is assumed as equal to the rate of water supply. The rate of sewage may,
however, be assumed lower than the rate of water supply to the extent of about 60 to 70 per
cent where there are sufficient reasons to justify such assumption.

Following two factors should be carefully considered while comparing rate of sewage with rate
of water supply.

Intensity of pressure: If water is supplied at high pressure, there is more consumption of

water and more wastage of water from leakage in pipes, valves etc.

Use of water: The use for which water is consumed should be carefully studied. It is quite
likely that water which is supplied may not appear as sewage after its consumption. For
instance, water that is supplied to fill up the tanks of railway locomotives will not appear as
sewage. Similarly, the quantity of water supplied and the quantity of sewage formed by various
prominent industries such as cotton mills, milk plants, etc. should be studied and accordingly
the rate of sewage should be decided.

Sewers
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

Sewers are underground pipes or conduits which carry sewage to the point of discharge or
disposal. The sewage originating from a building passes through fixtures and then lead to
lateral sewers, which in turn discharge into sub mains or main sewers.

 Important points to be considered before selecting sewer material

The following points are to be considered before selecting a material for constructing sewer:

Strength and durability - The sewer should have sufficient strength to withstand all the forces
that are likely to fall on them. Sewers are subjected to considerable external loads of backfill
material and traffic load, if any. They are not subjected to internal pressure of water. To
withstand external load safely without failure, sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement
is essential. In addition, the material selected should be durable and should have sufficient
resistance against natural weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.

Resistance to abrasion - Sewage mostly contains grit. These particles moving at high velocity
can cause wear and tear of sewer material. This abrasion can reduce thickness of pipe and
reduces hydraulic efficiency of the sewer by making the interior surface rough. Therefore, the
material of the sewer should be in a position to offer enough resistance to abrasion.

Resistance to corrosion - Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as H2S. This gas
in contact with moisture can be converted in to sulphuric acid. The formation of acids can lead
to the corrosion of sewer pipe. Hence, selection of corrosion resistance material is needed for
long life of pipe.

Weight - To facilitate easy handling and transportation, the sewers should have less specific
weight.

Imperviousness -This property is also important in selecting a sewer material. To eliminate

chances of sewage exfiltration and infiltration, the material selected for pipe should be
impervious.

Cost - Sewer should be less costly to make the sewerage scheme economical.

Hydraulically efficient - The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to have less frictional
coefficient

 Materials for sewer

1. Asbestos Cement Sewers - These types of sewers are manufactured from a mixture of
asbestos fibre, silica and cement. These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal
diameter and length up to 4.0 m. These kind of sewers are normally used for house
drainage. They are not recommended for underground situations. These pipes are used
for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of rainwater from roofs in
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds, and for transport of less foul
sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.

Advantages

a) These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.
b) Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
c) Interior is smooth (Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.011) hence, can make excellent
hydraulically efficient sewer, offering least resistance to flow.
d) They are durable against corrosion.

Disadvantages

a) These pipes are not very strong and hence should not be subjected to heavy super-
imposed loads.
b) These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid. When bacteria produces H2S, in
presence of water, H2SO4 can be formed.

2. Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete

Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes are available up to 0.45 m diameter and reinforcement
cement pipes are available up to 1.8 m diameter. Large sized cement concrete sewers are
generally reinforced. These pipes can be cast in situ or precast pipes. Precast pipes are better
in quality than the cast in situ pipes. The reinforcement in these pipes can be different such as
single cage reinforced pipes, used for internal pressure less than 0.8 m; double cage reinforced
pipes used for both internal and external pressure greater than 0.8 m; elliptical cage reinforced
pipes used for larger diameter sewers subjected to external pressure; and hume pipes with steel
shells coated with concrete from inside and outside. Cement concrete pipes may be used for
surface water drains in all diameters.

Advantages

a) Economical for medium and large sizes.

b) It is possible to effect saving in the cost of jointing, owing to the longer lengths in which
these pipes are generally available.
c) They can be made of any desired strength.
d) Strong in tension as well as compression.
e) These pipes are available in wide range of size and the trench can be opened and
backfilled rapidly during maintenance of sewers.

Disadvantages

a) These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H2SO4.
b) The carrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of corrosion.
c) The pipes are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and grit.
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

When cement concrete pipes are subjected to chemical and corrosive actions, one method of
protecting them from such actions is the lining of the sewer by vitrified clay blocks. These
blocks have projections, projecting downwards and are fixed in cement concrete of the sewers.
The joints between adjacent blocks are filled with cement mortar or with bituminous
compounds.

3. Brick Sewers

Brick sewers are generally made at site. They are used for construction of large size sewers or
particularly for storm water drains. The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree
roots and ground water through brick joints. These are lined from inside with stone ware or
ceramic block to make them smooth and hydraulically efficient. Lining also make the pipe
resistant to corrosion. If brick sewers are to be used on a large scale, the purpose made bricks
should be used instead of ordinary bricks. The advantage of brick sewers is that these could
be constructed to any required shape and size.

4. Galvanized iron sewers

Corrugated iron sewers are used for storm sewers. They are made from ingot iron or rust
resisting alloys, with galvanizing for additional protection. Bituminous coatings are also used
inside and outside, and the invert is sometimes, covered with abrasion resistant bituminous
material. It is made in varying metal thickness and in diameters up to 4.5 m.

5. Cast Iron

Cast iron pipes may be used in the form of sewers, where they have to withstand high internal
pressures and external loads. However, these are costly. Cast iron pipes are used for outfall
sewers, rising mains of pumping stations, and inverted siphons, where pipes are running under
pressure. These are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below
railways and highways. Light cast iron pipes are used for house drainage works, whereas,
heavy ones are adopted for city sewers.

6. Steel pipes

These types of sewers are used where lightness, imperviousness and resistance to high pressure
are of paramount importance. These sewers are flexible and can absorb vibrations and shocks
efficiently. They are more ductile and can withstand water hammer pressure better. They are
susceptible to corrosion and are not generally used for partially flowing sewers. They are
protected internally and externally against the action of corrosion. These sewers may be
protected from corrosion by galvanizing or by applying a bituminous coating or by using
special corrosion-resistant steel. Their use may be made in outfall or trunk sewers.

7. Stoneware sewers
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

The stoneware sewers are also known as vitrified clay sewers. This type of sewer is made of
clay or shale which has been ground, mixed with water, moulded into shape, dried and finally
burnt in the kiln at a very high temperature. At the end of the burning period, some common
salt is put in the kiln. The intensive heat cause the salt to vaporize and there is a reaction
between salt vapours and the clay to form a hard water proof glaze. The heat also causes a
fusion or vitrification of the clay which makes it very dense and hard. The temperature in the
kiln is maintained at 150°C for several hours in the beginning, but it is raised later to about
650°C to 750°C. Finally, the temperature is raised to 1200°C where vitrification takes place.

These sewers are normally favoured for house drainage connections and laterals. The interior
surface of these sewers is smooth and impervious. If properly laid, they are strong enough to
take the load of back-filling and traffic. They are cheap, easy to lay and join, resistant to
corrosion and extremely durable. But they are brittle, heavy and get damaged while handling
and transportation.

8. Plastic sewers

Plastic is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for internal drainage works in
house. These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage works.
They offer smooth internal surface. The additional advantages they offer are resistant to
corrosion, light weight of pipe, economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe is
tough and rigid, and ease in fabrication and transportion of these pipes.

9. High Density Polythylene (HDPE) Pipes

Usage of HDPE sewers is in its nascent stage of development. They are not brittle like asbestos
cement pipes and other pipes and hence does not cause damage to pipes during loading,
unloading and handling. They can be joined by welding or can be jointed with detachable joints
up to 630 mm diameter. These are commonly used for conveyance of industrial wastewater.
They offer all the advantages offered by PVC pipes.

10. Glass fibre reinforced plastic pipes

This material is widely used where corrosion resistant pipes are required. GRP or FRP can be
used as a lining material for conventional pipes to protect from internal or external corrosion.
It is made from the composite matrix of glass fiber, polyester resin and fillers. These pipes have
better strength, durability, high tensile strength, low density and high corrosion resistance.
These are manufactured up to 2.4 m diameter and up to 18 m length.

11. Pitch Fibre Pipes

The pitch impregnated fibre pipes are of light weight and have shown their durability in service.
The pipes can be easily jointed in any weather condition as internally tapered couplings join
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

the pipes without the use of jointing compound. They are flexible, resistant to heat, freezing
and thawing and earth currents which set up electrolytic action. They are also unaffected by
acids and other chemicals, water softeners, sewer gases, oils and greases and laundry
detergents. They can be cut to required length on the site. Because of the larger lengths, cost
of jointing, handling and laying is reduced. These are generally recommended for uses such as
house connection to sewers and septic tanks, farm drainage, down pipes, storm drains,
industrial waste drainage, etc. These have recently been manufactured in India.
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

Design discharge for sewers

Sewers need to be designed before commencing the actual laying work. Designing involves
estimation of period or duration for the which the sewer will serve for an expected population
and the discharge for which the sewer is to be designed.
Design Period
The length of time up to which the capacity of a sewer will be adequate is referred to as the
design period. In fixing a period of design, consideration must be given for the useful life of
structures and equipment employed, taking into account obsolescence as well as wear and tear.
Because the flow is largely a function of population served, population density and water
consumption, lateral and sub main sewers are usually designed for peak flows of the population
at saturation density as set forth in the Master Plan.
Population Forecasting
There are several methods for estimation or forecasting of population which can predict or
forecast population for a specific design period, usually three to four decades.
Tributary area
The natural topography, layout of buildings, political boundaries, economic factors, etc.,
determine the tributary area. For larger drainage areas, though it is desirable that the sewer
capacities be designed for the total tributary area, sometimes, political boundaries and legal
restrictions prevent the sewers to be constructed beyond the limits of the local authority.
However, in designing sewers for larger areas, there is usually an economic advantage in
providing adequate capacity initially for a certain period of time and adding additional sewers,
when the pattern of growth becomes established. The need to finance projects within the
available resources necessitates the design to be restricted to political boundaries. The tributary
area for any section under consideration has to be marked on a key plan and the area can be
measured from the map.
Per capita sewage flow
The entire spent water of a community should normally contribute to the total flow in a sanitary
sewer. However, the observed dry weather flow quantities usually are slightly less than the per
capita water consumption, since some water is lost in evaporation, seepage into ground,
leakage, etc. In arid regions, mean sewage flows may be as little as 40% of water consumption
and in well developed areas, flows may be as high as 90%. However, the conventional sewers
shall be designed for a minimum sewage flow of 100 litres per capita per day or higher as the
case may be. Non-conventional sewers shall be designed as the case may be.
The flow in sewers varies from hour to hour and also seasonally. But for the purpose of
hydraulic design, estimated peak flows are adopted. The peak factor or the ratio of maximum
to average flows depends upon contributory population as given in following Table.
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

Table. Peak factor for contributory population

The peak factors also depend upon the density of population, topography of the site, hours of
water supply and therefore individual cases may be further analysed if required. The minimum
flow may vary from 1/3 to 1/2 of average flow.
Infiltration
Estimate of flow in sanitary sewers may include certain flows due to infiltration of groundwater
through joints. Since sewers are designed for peak discharges, allowances for groundwater
infiltration for the worst condition in the area should be made as in Table.
Table. Ground water Infiltration
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

Sewage from Commercial institutions

Industries and commercial buildings often use water other than the municipal supply and may
discharge their liquid wastes into the sanitary sewers. Estimates of such flows have to be made
separately.

STORM WATER
Wherever possible, the storm water is to be collected and conveyed in sewers at proper places
for the following reasons:
a) Damp conditions are created which are unhygienic as they provide flourishing ground
for micro organisms
b) Eistence of waterpools affects the foundations of structures
c) Initial washings of streets by storm water contain organic matter and hence such
water requires to be collected and to be taken to the treatment plant
d) Low lying areas get flooded and transport system is paralysed. It leads to loss of
revenue.
e) Stagnant waterpools serve as breeding places for mosquitoes.
The quantity of storm water, which is known as wet weather flow (WWF) entering the sewer
is to be carefully determined. It involves various factors such as intensity of rainfall,
characteristics of catchment area, duration of storm, etc. Following two methods are generally
employed for calculating the quantity of storm water for the purpose of designing sewers:
a) Rational method
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

b) Empirical method
a) Rational method
In this method, the following three factors are combined in the form of an equation:
Q= K I A / 360
Where,
Q = peak runoff in m3 per second
K = Impermeability factor
I = Intensity of rainfall, mm per hour
A = Area in hectares
Catchment area
The catchment area to be served by a storm water sewer is measured directly from the map of
the locality.
Impermeability factor
Some quantity of rain water that falls on the ground is absorbed by soil and the percentage of
rain water that enters the sewer is known as impermeability factor. The following table gives
the impermeability factors for various types of surfaces.
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

Intensity of rainfall
The intensity of rainfall can be worked out from the rainfall records of the area under
consideration. Where rainfall records are not available, the intensity of rainfall is obtained by
applying suitable empirical formula.
The general empirical formula adopted to calculate intensity of rainfall is:
\[R=\frac{{25.4\c dota}}{{t + b}}\]
Where, R = Intensity of rainfall in mm per hour
t = Duration of storm in minutes
a and b are constants
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

The values of a and b are as follows:

a = 30 and b = 10 when duration of storm is 5 to 20 minutes
a = 40 and b = 20 when duration of storm is 20 to 100 minutes
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal
 VII Semester
EEDM -Unit -4 (Domestic Waste Water)
Subject Teacher – Dr. Rakhi Khandelwal

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