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ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY- MAIN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
LESSON
be able to:
•
6
At the end of the lesson, students should
Discuss the fundamental concepts of

drafting technology ,
• Identify the different types and uses of
lines,
• Create a slogan using the different
lettering styles,
• Explain the different types of views,
projections, and planes,
• Identify different drafting tools and
materials and their uses,
• Compare different types of pencils
WORD BANK
ABSOLUTE CO-ORDINATES – Using would enter this as @D<A. In this

this method, you enter the points as case, D is the distance and A is the
they relate to the origin of the WCS. angle. Example: @10<90 will draw a
To enter a point just enter in the line 10 units straight up from the first
exact point as X,Y. A way of point.
inputting points based on The three ways of entering
AutoCAD’s origin. coordinates shown above are the
RELATIVE CO-ORDINATES – This ONLY way AutoCAD accepts
allows you to enter points in relation keyboard input. Remember that X
to the first point you have entered. is always before Y (alphabetical).
After you’ve entered one point, the Don’t forget the ‘@’ symbol when
next would be entered as @X,Y. This you are entering relative points.
means that AutoCAD will draw a Any typing error or omission will give
line from the first point to another you results you don’t want. If you
point X units over and Y units up make a mistake and need to see
relative to the previous point. what you typed, press F2 to bring
up the text screen and check your
POLAR CO-ORDINATES – You would
typing. (press F2 to get back to
use this system if you know that you
your drawing.)
want to draw a line a certain
distance at a particular angle. You
Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

SUBJECT: Introduction to Industrial Arts Parts 1 and 2
1
PREPARED BY: CHRISTIAN LLOYD D. TAGUBA
Application Button – This button command. Watch this line while

displays commands for printing, learning.
saving, drawing utilities and other Status bar – This allows to see and
non-drawing tools. change different modes of
Quick Access Toolbar – This is for drawing such as Ortho, Osnaps,
quick access to common Grid, Otrack, etc. You can right
commands like New, Open, Save, click this area to toggle between
Plot icons and text for this area.
Filename – The name of the current Icons, Keystrokes and Menus
file you are working on. There are many ways to do things
in most Windows programs.
Search Bar – Search for text in your
AutoCAD is no exception. Everyone
drawing or search the help files.
will develop a way that works best
Ribbon – The Ribbon runs across the for him or her. In this course, we will
top of the drawing space and primarily be working with the
contains panels – each panel has a keystroke commands. The reason
group of associated tools. Switch to for this is because they will work in
different panels by clicking on the most AutoCAD versions (including
tabs at the top of the ribbon. The DOS versions), and in some other
Ribbon has most of the CAD programs. The icons work well,
commands/tools that you will use but as you will see, icons can be
while you are working. placed anywhere on the screen
Tabs – A series of Tabs make up the and can be difficult to find quickly.
Ribbon (Home, Insert, Manage, etc) You may be working on another
and organize the Tools into employee’s computer that is set up
common groups. differently than what you’re used
to. The pull-down menus will access
Panels – Contain a group of tools almost all commands, but are a
Tools – These are the icons that start slower way of doing things. Icons in
the commands you use to draw, AutoCAD 2010 are found on the
modify, etc. ribbon, divided into panels – just
click on the appropriate tab to
Tool Tip – If you hover your mouse
open the panel you need.
over a tool, a tool tip will appear to
give you more information. Hold it Example: If you want to draw a line,
longer for more info. you can do it a few ways:
At the command line
Drawing Space – These is where
type: LINE (or) L and press
you draw your designs.
the ENTER key.
Command line – When you type a
Select the line icon from the
command, you will see it here.
DRAW Panel.
AutoCAD uses this space to
‘prompt’ you for information. It will Another way is to Right-Click
give you a lot of information and on the drawing space and
tell you where you are in the choose “Recent Input” from
the menu. This will give a list

2
of the most recent Layer– All objects are drawn on a

commands that you have layer. You can group objects (such
used. as electrical) on a single layer and
organize your drawing.
All three approaches will do
the same thing: prepare AutoCAD Layout Tabs More Info– A space
to draw a line where you tell it. used for plotting your drawings
Acad.dwt– This is the default (formerly called Paper Space).
template that automatically loads Linetype– All objects are drawn
whenever you start a drawing with a particular linetype. Examples
session. It can be customized to suit would be solid, center, dashed, etc.
your needs.
Model space– The drawing space
Backup file– AutoCAD can be set where you ‘model’ the objects.
to automatically backup your
drawing and save it. This is a Modify– A generic term used for
safeguard in case your file gets changing your objects
corrupted. It is saved with a .BAK Object– Any item that is in the
extension AutoCAD database. Also known as
Block– A pre-drawn image you can an entity.
insert in your drawing to save time Origin– The (0,0) point of your
and make your file size smaller. current coordinate system.
Clean Screen– A display setting Ortho mode– This is a drawing
that gives you maximum drawing mode that allows you to draw only
space. perpendicular lines. It is toggled on
Crosshairs– This is your cursor when and off by pressing the F8 key.
it is in the drawing space. Orthographic Projection– A
Cursor– Your cursor will change standard drawing method that
depending on what function it is shows 2 or more views of the same
performing in the program. part.
Drawing template file– This is a file Osnap – Object Snap- This is a
that contains preset values for method of ‘snapping’ to certain,
frequently used settings. AKA a precise points on an object.
prototype drawing. The file Pan– To move around the drawing
extension is DWT. by dragging the drawing area
Extents– The outer boundaries of around your screen. (Holding the
the objects you have drawn. scroll button down on your mouse)
Grid– This is pattern of dots Panel– A grouping of commands
displayed on the screen to guide on the ribbon
you. It can be toggled on and off Path– The specific folder where
by pressing the F7 key. AutoCAD looks for, or saves files.
Grips– Small ‘handles’ on objects Pick– To select an object by ‘left-
that allow for quick editing. clicking’ on it.

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Plot– Also known as print. To make Zoom– To view either a smaller

a hard copy of your drawing. section of your drawing (zoom in)
Property– Any specific or a larger section (zoom out)
characteristic of an object such as
layer, scale, linetype, start point, Drafting technician Associate
etc.
degree in drafting tech. from a
Section View– A drawing that technical or comment college and
represents a cross section of a part at least one year drafting
or assembly. experience
Selection set– The current group of Designer A person with drafting
objects selected for modifying. and design experience and
Snap– This is a drawing mode that training who works on product
allows you to snap your cursor to designs
precise points laid out in a grid Engineer A person who had at least
pattern. Toggle with the F9 key. a four-year degree in an
Styles– Formatting that defines the engineering specialty such as
look of text, dimensions, etc. mechanical, electrical
architectural, or nuclear
Units More Info– The basic drawing
unit set for your drawing. For engineering.
example, you can use inches or Junior drafter Have good manual
millimeters depending on your drafting and CAD skills. Requires at
needs. You can also set the least one year of high school
precision you want displayed, such drafting & associate degree in
nearest 1/4″, 1/2″ 1/64″, etc. drafting tech. From a technical or
community college.
User coordinate system (UCS)
Rough sketches Sketches drawn
World Coordinate System (WCS)
with jagged lines. Their primary
View– A particular area of your purpose is to express thoughts
drawing. quickly. Drawn carefully. Show
Viewport– A separate ‘window’ on good proportion & excellent line
your drawing. You may have more values. They are based on a rough
than one viewport visible to see sketch that has captured a general
different areas of your drawing at idea
the same time. Technical drawings Set of accurate
Wizard More Info– An easy step-by- drawings that describe the exact
step instruction set to help you set- size and shape of an object or
up certain aspects of your drawing. product.
World Coordinate System (WCS)- Working drawings A complete
This is the common X-Y coordinate drawing or set of drawings
system that is the default. If it is prepared so that the object
modified, it becomes a User represented can be built without
Coordinate System (UCS) additional information.

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Prototype A function model of a Front view A view that shows that

product that allows engineers to true width and height of an object
test and analyze it before it goes but not the depth
into full production. Mechanical drawings A drawing
Blueprints A blueprint is a made with percision and drawing
reproduction of a technical instruments
drawing, documenting an Orthographic projection (height,
architecture or an engineering width, depth) All lines transfer to
design, using a contact print
each view an object
process on light-sensitive sheets.
Perspective drawing Technique of
Architect They design buildings and
representing objects so that they
structures.
appear progressively smaller as
Cartographer Is somebody who
they are father away.
makes and works with maps
Isometric drawing Drawing
Civil engineer Work with structural
design and construction material, prepared so that the front edge
(and the edge parallel to it) will
soil and water resources,
environmental concerns, and appear vertical (item looks 3D). A
transportation system design. 2D representation of a 3D object.
Engineer all government projects. Ellipse A geometric form
Schematics An electrical diagram resembling a circle viewed at an
that shows the electrical angle
connection and function of a Oblique pictorial drawings Sketch
circuit by mean of standard in which the height and width are
graphical symbols. It shows them shown in their true size (with axes at
without any regard to the actual 90 degrees to each other) but in
physical size shape or location of which the depth can be drawn at
the electrical devices or parts that any angle
make up the circuit Hidden lines Dashed lines that show
Sketching A way to express ideas the hidden part of an object
pictorially Parallel lines Two lines that never
Line A length that travels from point touch
A to B Fillet A rounded inside corner on a
CAD Computer aided drafting casting. Formed by gluing on
software program and integrates performed leather or wooden strips
design Ortho In CAD, a feature that restrict
Grid A horizontal and vertical crosshairs movement to either
pattern of dots spaced at regular vertical or horizontal directions
preset intervals Offset (icon) Tool that allows to
Zoom Makes object appear larger make a copy of a line, a set
or smaller distance away.

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Architect’s scale Full size scale of Window (Left to right selection)

inches divided into sixteen. it also Selects any object that is inside it.
has reduced size scales in which Move Relocates an object or
inches of fractions of an inches objects.
Hexagon Six sided figure Copy Duplicates an object or
Diameter Distance across a circle objects one or more times.
through it’s center Stretch Stretches an object after
Radius Distance from center of a you have selected a portion of it.
circle to a point on the circle Fillet Creates a round (or square)
Right angle Angle with the measure corner between two lines.
equal to 90 degrees Chamfer Creates an angled corner
Acute angle Angle between 0-90 between two lines.
degrees Array Creates a repeating pattern
Obtuse angle Angle greater than of the selected objects.
90 degrees
Layer Command used to the Layer
Equilateral triangle A triangle that and Linetype property dialog box.
has all equal sides Scale Proportionately resizes
Supplementary angle Angles equal objects.
to 180 Zoom/Extent This option will display
Isosceles triangle Only 2 equal sizes all the graphics that are contained
in the drawing with the largest
Two-point perspective Perspective
image possible.
dewing with 2 vanishing points
Pan Type this command and a
Vanishing points A point on the
hand will appear on the screen.
horizon where the line keeps going
Left click and hold to move around
Absolute coordinates X,Y your drawing.
Relative coordinates @X,Y Block Creates a block from
Polar coordinates @X<Y separate entities (internal to current
drawing).
Viewport A separate ‘window’ on
your drawing is called a… Wblock Creates a block and writes
it to a file (external).
Trim Shortens objects to a selected
cutting edge. Hatch Covers an area with a
predefined pattern.
Extend Lengthens objects to a
selected boundary edge. Pline Creates a polyline of arcs
and/or lines.
Offset Creates a parallel object by
a set distance. Pedit Edits polyline objects.
Crossing (Right to left selection) Explode Separates objects into

Selects any object that crosses the individual components.
boundary or is inside it.

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Acad.dwt This is the default Icon A small picture that is a

template that automatically loads symbol used to select a
whenever you start a drawing CAD/Computer tool.
session. It can be customized. Isometric Drawing A type of
Model space The drawing space drawing in which the lower edges
where most drawing is done. are drawn at 30 degrees from a
horizontal, all vertical edges are
Osnap – Object Snap This is a
perpendicular to horizontal.
method of attaching to certain,
precise points on an object. (end, Layer An electronic sheet of paper
mid, cen, per, tan, etc.) Toggle F3 that allows different parts of a
drawing to be visible or invisible,
Paper space An optional area used
colored, or of different linetype.
for plotting your drawings.
Leader A thin solid line that is drawn
Plot Known to everyone else as
from some note to its detail on an
print. To make a hard copy of your
object.
drawing based on Windows Printers
that are available. Object Snap A feature in CAD
programs that allows the user to
Units The basic drawing increment
set for your drawing. For example, automatically jump to specific
points on an object.
you can use inches or millimeters
depending on your needs. You One-point perspective A type of
can also set the precision you want perspective drawing that has one
displayed, such nearest 1/4″, 1/2″ vanishing point.
1/64″, etc. Ortho A feature in CAD programs
Assembly Drawing A drawing that that restricts the placement of lines
shows how part or all of a machine to vertical or horizontal.
or structure is put together. Perspective A technique of
Broken-out Section A small part of drawing that shows the parts of an
a view that is sectioned to show object that are closer to the viewer
some inside detail. larger and parts that are further
Detail Drawing A drawing that away smaller.
gives all of the information Plan view A top view in an
necessary to construct some part Architectural Drawing.
or part a larger structure.
Quadrilateral A geometric shape
Face A plane surface of an object. having four sides.
A process that produces a finish on Section A cutaway view of an
a surface perpendicular to a object.
centerline of rotation.
Working Drawing A complete
Full Section A sectional view drawing or series of drawings that
obtained by passing a cutting have been prepared to provide all
plane completely through an of the information necessary to
object. build the product.

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INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL DRAFTING

Drafting, also spelled draughting, also called engineering drawing, graphical
representation of structures, machines, and their component parts that
communicates the engineering intent of a technical design to the craftsman or
worker who makes the product.
At the design stage, both freehand and mechanical drawings serve the functions of
inspiring and guiding the designer and of communicating among the designer,
collaborators, production department, and marketing or management personnel. At
this stage exact mechanical drawings can clarify, confirm, or disqualify a scheme
that looked promising in a freehand sketch. Actually, both the sketch and the exact
mechanical drawing are essential parts of the process of designing, and both belong
to the field of drafting. After the basic design has been established, drafting skills aid
in the development and transmission of the wealth of data necessary for the
production and assembly of the parts. For an automobile, a skyscraper, or a
spacecraft, tens of thousands of drawings may be needed to convey all of the
requirements of the finished product from the designers to the fabricators.
The completion of the set of drawings necessary for the manufacture of a product or
the construction of a project involves three important factors: (1) itemization of every
detail and requirement of the final product or project; (2) application of good
judgment and knowledge of standard drafting procedures to select the combination
of drawings and specifications that will convey the information identified in stage (1)
in the clearest possible manner; and (3) deployment of skilled personnel and suitable
equipment to produce the documents specified in stage (2).
Drafting is based on the concept of orthographic projection, which in turn is the

principal concern of the branch of mathematics called descriptive geometry.
Although preceded by the publication of related material and followed by an
extensive development, the book Géométrie descriptive (1798) by Gaspard Monge,
an 18th-century French mathematician, is regarded as the first exposition of
descriptive geometry and the formalization of orthographic projection. The growth
and development of the drafting profession were favoured by the application of the
concepts published by Monge, the need to manufacture interchangeable parts, the
introduction of the blueprinting process, and the economy offered by a set of
drawings that in most cases made the building of a working model unnecessary.
Persons with a variety of skills and specialties are essential to the design and
implementation of engineering and architectural projects. Drafting provides
communication among them and coordination of their activities. The designer has
primary responsibility for the basic conception and final solution but depends upon
the support of several levels of drafters who prepare graphic studies of details;
determine fits, clearances, and manufacturing feasibility; and prepare the working
drawings. The delineator, or technical illustrator, converts preliminary or final
drawings into pictorial representations, usually perspective constructions in full
colour to help others visualize the product, to inform the public, to attract investment,
or to promote sales. Before undertaking their own drawings, persons entering the
profession of drafting may trace drawings to revise or repair them, then advance to

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the preparation of detail drawings, tables of materials, schedules of subassemblies

(such as doors and windows), and the dimensioning of drawings initiated by more
experienced colleagues. The wide spectrum of activities demanded of a design team
requires that its members combine experience and creativity with skills in
visualization, analysis, and delineation and with knowledge of materials, fabrication
processes, and standards.
It is the responsibility of the manufacturing, fabricating, or construction workers to

follow a set of drawings and specifications exactly; there should be no need for them
to ask questions or make decisions regarding particulars of the design. All such
particulars are the responsibility of the design team; the drawings must clearly
convey all necessary information so that the functional requirements of and
regulatory restrictions on the completed product or project are satisfied, the
mechanical properties of the materials are appropriate, and the machining
operations and assembly or erection procedures are possible.
The strictly utilitarian objectives of drafting and its emphasis on clarity and accuracy
clearly differentiate it from the allied art form covered in the article drawing.
Cartographic drafting is treated in the articles map and surveying. Some specific
applications of drafting are dealt with in the articles building construction: Modern
building practices; interior design; and clothing and footwear industry.
In the Drafting Program, students learn to communicate thoughts and ideas by using
graphic representation. Drafting students translate design concepts through sketches,
details, assemblies, and specifications. To generate their drawings, Drafting students
use computer-aided-drafting (CAD) systems, technical handbooks, tables, and
calculators. Students increase their general technical knowledge by learning
engineering and manufacturing processes used in industry.
The drafting curriculum provides instruction predominately in mechanical drafting,

along with limited instruction in architectural, civil, piping, structural, electronic, and
electrical drafting. Field trips to local businesses provide a realistic industrial setting
of an engineering/design department. Senior students complete a "senior design
project" and are also encouraged to participate in the co-op job placement program.
The Drafting shop generates drawings required for projects that are being completed
by other shops such as Precision Machining, Metal Fabrication, and Carpentry.
Objectives of a Drafting student are accuracy, legibility, neatness, and speed.

Students should also have the ability to visualize objects, along with possessing
good communication and math skills.
Technical drawings provide clear and accurate information how an object is to be

manufactured. It shows and describes clearly and accurately the information
required to build or manufacture a product.
Technical drawing is a form of design communication based on line symbols
recognized and understood worldwide. Hence, technical drawing is often referred to

9
as a universal language understood (readable) by anyone regardless of the

language they speak.
Contractors, estimators, tradesmen and builders rely totally on technical drawings for
the information they need to build, construct and manufacture a product. To work in
design and manufacturing industries, the study of technical drawing –ability to
prepare, read and interpret technical drawing is essential.
Line symbols used in technical drawing are often referred to as ALPHABET OF
LINES. The use of line symbols enables engineers/designers to express features of
designed products clearly and accurately. Line features vary not only by width but
also by how they are graphically represented in a drawing.
Line significance is conveyed by line weight or thickness of the line. Every line is
drawn at different thickness and darkness to express contrast as well as importance.
Lines that are less important are thin and light. Key to successful drafting is to have a
good technical knowledge of these various line characteristics – to understand where
and when to apply them in technical drawing.
ALPHABET OF LINE
1. OBJECT OR VISIBLE LINES – Thick dark line use to show outline of object,
visible edges and surfaces.
2. CONSTRUCTION LINE – Very light and thin line use to construct layout work.
3. DIMENSION LINE – Thin and dark lines use to show the size (span) of an object
with a numeric value. Usually terminates with arrowheads or tick markings.
4. HIDDEN LINE – Short dash lines use to show non visible surfaces. Usually shows
as medium thickness.
5. CENTRE LINE – Long and short dash lines. Usually indicates centre of holes,
circles and arcs. Line is thin and dark.
6. EXTENSION LINE – Thin and dark line use to show the starting and ending of
dimension.
Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education 10

7. CUTTING PLANE LINE – Extra thick line use to show cutaway views or plane of
projection where a section view is taken. Arrow indicates direction of view.
8. SHORT AND LONG BREAK LINES –Short and long medium line use to show
cutaway view of a long section.
9. LEADER LINE – Medium line with arrowhead to show notes or label for size or
special information about a feature.
10. PHANTOM LINE – Long line followed by two short dashes use to show alternate
position of a moving part.
11. SECTION LINE – Medium lines drawn at 45 degrees use to show interior view of
solid areas of cutting plane line.


Technical Lettering and Typography
Technical Lettering is a barren piece of engineering drawing. It gives data

concerning measures, and guidelines, as notes and measurements. On a drawing,
the entire of the composed data is consistently through lettering. It isn't manually
written. Likewise, it very well might be added here, that Lettering is fitting and right
words however not (Printing implies the creation of literature on a print machine)
Lettering
The writing of alphabets and numerals such as A, B, C, D…………………….Z and 1,
2, 3……………9, 0 respectively is called Lettering.
Mainly, there are two types of lettering most commonly used in engineering drawing
viz. Gothic Lettering and Roman Lettering.
Classification Of Lettering
The lettering, in general, is classified in two categories :-
1. Gothic Lettering
2. Roman Lettering.
• Gothic Lettering
Lettering having all the alphabets or numerals of uniform thickness is called Gothic
Lettering.
1. Vertical Gothic Lettering
2. Italic or Inclined Gothic Lettering.
Single Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering

These are vertical letter having thickness of each line of alphabet or numerals etc.
Same as the single stroke of a pencil.Since Stroke means that the letter is written
with one or more stems or curves and each made with single stroke.

Single Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering
Single Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering These are single stroke letter inclined
at 75' to the Horizontal.
Single Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering
Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering
Vertical letter drawn by double Stroke of pencil with uniform thickness between these
strokes are called Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering.

• Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering

Double stroke gothic when inclined at an angle of 75' is called Double Stroke
Inclined Gothic Lettering.
Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering

Lower Case Vertical Single Stroke Gothic Lettering
Lower case vertical gothic lettering is shown along with its sizes. Which is quite self
explanatory.
Lower Case Vertical Single Stroke Gothic Lettering
Lower Case Vertical Double Stroke Gothic Lettering

It is shown along with its size which is quite self explanatory.
Lower Case Vertical Double Stroke Gothic Lettering
Lower Case Inclined Single Stroke Gothic Lettering
It is shown with its sizes which is self explanatory.

Lower Case Inclined Single Stroke Gothic Lettering
Roman Lettering
The lettering in which all the letters are formed by thick and thin elements is
called Roman Lettering.
It may be vertical or inclined or inclined. It can be written with a chisel pointed Pencil
or D-3 type Speed Ball Pen.
Roman Lettering

Free Hand Lettering
The writing of alphabets without the use of drawing instruments and in free hand is
called Free Hand Lettering.
It may be vertical or Inclined Gothic Lettering.
Free Hand Lettering
Free Hand Lettering
Mechanical Lettering
In Mechanical Lettering, standard uniform characters that are executed with a
special pen held in a scriber and guided by a template. Mechanical lettering does not
normally require the use of lettering guidelines. You will use mechanical lettering
principally for title blocks and notes on drawings, marginal data for special maps,
briefing charts, display charts, graphs, titles on photographs, signs, and any other
time that clear, legible, standardized lettering is required. One of the most popular
types of mechanical lettering sets is the LEROY lettering set.

The Mechanical Lettering is some times done using special type of device called a
Pantograph.
A PANTOGRAPH is basically a device consisting of four links which are pinned to

each other in a parallelogram fashion. The links can move about the hinge. The
lowermost link of the parallelogram is fixed to two rigid supports. One vertical link at
one end is connected to a profile tracer which traces the profile of the letter to be
drawn and the second vertical link and the other horizontal link are jointly connected
to a pencil that draws the exact shape of the profile traced.
Height Of Lettering
The height "h" of the capital letter is taken as the base of dimensioning.
The main requirement of lettering on engineering drawing are legibility, uniformity,
ease and rapidity in execution. Both upright and inclined letter are suitable for
general use. All letters should be capital, except where lower case letters are
accepted internationally for abbreviations. The recommended size of lettering is as
under :-
ITEM SIZE h, mm
Drawing number in Title Block and letters denoting Cutting Plane 10, 12
Section
Title of Drawing 6, 8
Sub-titles and Headings 3, 4, 5, 6,
Notes, such as Legends, Schedules, Material list, Dimensioning 3, 4, 5
Alteration, Enteries and Tolerances 2, 3
Guide Lines
The light thin lines drawn to obtain uniform and correct height of letters are
called Guide Lines. Guide line should be drawn very light and thin, so that, they
need not be erased after the lettering is finished. To erase guide lines after finishing
the lettering is not easily possible. Guide line for capital and lower case lettering.

Guide Lines
Guide Lines
• How To Draw Graph For Lettering

The letters are drawn in a graph. Before drawing the alphabets or numerals of 7:4,
5:4 or any other ratio, a graph is needed.

• First of all take the height of the lettering and draw two parallel
horizontal lines.
Draw Graph For Lettering
• Draw an inclined line at A and mark, 7 or 5 or as required number of

vertical squares or rhombii, parts of any suitable size. Join B1 with B.
• Draw parallel line to B1B from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 meeting the line AB at A1,

A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6.

• From A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6 draw horizontal line.
• From point B draw line at 45' to the horizontal.
• Draw the vertical line for making lines for making squares and inclined
line at an angle of 75' for making graph for inclined letters.
Vertical Letters

Inclined Letters

TYPOGRAPHY: ANATOMY OF A LETTERFORM

Typography has deeply ingrained in our lives: it is on our phones, in books, on websites,
in instruction booklets, and even on shop displays and walls on the street. Not only does
it deliver the message, but it also expresses different moods, atmospheres, and
emotions. It is a very powerful and multifunctional tool. However, although it is a hard
nut to crack, it still does not mean you have to be a professional designer to handle it.
Even though this area of study is extensive and requires basic designer skills and
meticulous attention to the tiniest details, to manage it efficiently and benefit from the
type choice, all you need to do is familiarize yourself with typography definition and its
basic principles.
Let us walk through all the key moments, lift the lid on essentials, address the benefits of
good typeface choice, make a good case for the importance of typography, and even
refill your toolset with some beautiful free fonts that are ideal for projects this year.
First things first – what is typography, and why is it important.
What is Typography?
According to Wikipedia, typography is the art and technique of arranging type. It is

applied to the symbols’ style, arrangement, and appearance, including letters and digits.
Its task is to make written language legible, readable, and appealing. Font style,
appearance, and structure are fundamental aspects of typography design used to elicit
certain emotions and deliver specific messages.
Types of Typography
There are thousands of typefaces in the wild. Each one can be classified into five
primary groups: serif, sans serif, script, monospaced, and display. On top of that,
dozens of fonts become self-defining. Based on the Vox system – the historical and
descriptive nomenclature first published in 1954 that is still widely accepted as a
standard – you can define other types of typography inside general groups.
For instance,
• Among Serif Type Styles: Old Style, Transitional, Neoclassical, Slab.
• Among Sans Serif Type Styles: Grotesque, Square, Geometric .
• Among Script Type Styles: Formal, Casual, Calligraphic.
• Among Display Type Styles: Grunge, Psychedelic, Vintage, Graffiti.
This classification system helps identify, choose and combine typefaces to display text,
put accents, emphasize essential details, and create mood in a harmonious way.

Timeline of 10 Famous Fonts – Infographic

Why is Typography important?
Typography is not just about choosing the beautiful font to display text and create a
mood for the project. It is much more than that. It underlies the success of every project.
The deal is, much like color, typeface styles used in a design have a significant impact
on the way a user perceives that design.
Typography design is one of those things that people see and understand first on your
website, mobile app, or print media. Therefore, it plays a vital role in producing the first
impression, creating a general atmosphere, and conveying a message.

What’s more, according to studies, the font’s selection directly affects the reader’s
reaction to and perception of the article. For example, people subconsciously prefer
fonts like Arial, Verdana, and Comic Sans. Therefore, text set in one of these typefaces
may better affect users than others, allowing you to run digital marketing campaigns
more effectively.
That is not all. The right typography design does many important things, such as:
• establish a strong visual hierarchy;
• provide a graphic balance;
• set the overall tone;
• make a design look aesthetic and pleasing;
• guide and inform your users;
• communicate with the audience;
• facilitate audience engagement;
• optimize readability;
• improve accessibility;
• ensure an excellent user experience;
• enhance the website’s personality;
• build brand recognition;
• carry your brand forward;
• make art, design, or interface visually stimulating and memorable;
• hold the attention of the readers;
• reinforce the message of the text;
• influence decision making.
To sum up, typography is not only for displaying text; it is a tool for prettifying interfaces,
establishing mood, and, of course, realizing marketing strategies. It can easily break
your polished website and scare away all your customers, leaving you with nothing. And
on the contrary, when well done, it can take your project to the next level, instill trust,
increase conversions and generate revenue. Therefore, typography is
increasingly important.

The Psychology of Fonts – Infographic

Essential Elements of Typography
Before moving to the anatomy of typography, where we will break characters into
molecules covering their vital parts and constituents, we are going to dive into the
essential typographical design elements to understand better such things as
• Hierarchy, • Alignment,
• Contrast, • Color,
• Consistency, • White space.

Basics: Difference between Font and Typeface, and Main Ways to Style Text
Let us define the difference between font and typeface for starters since, quite often,
people treat these terms as synonymous, but in fact, they are not. So, who is who?
The font is a graphical representation of text character that gives a much deeper notion
about the symbol. It refers to the weights, widths, and styles that constitute a typeface.
As a rule, the font is a collection of letters, numbers, punctuation, and other symbols. It
includes a basic set of characters and alternate characters (non-standard variation of
characters). So, it is more a specific term.
The typeface is a family of related fonts, which comprises a myriad of characters of

varying sizes and weights. It makes up a complete set of types. So, it is more a
general term.
In modern typography terminology, these terms are pretty close and related, so it is not
punishable to use them interchangeably. However, you should know the difference
between them for the sake of clarity.
Ways to Style Text
There are two basic ways to style typeface: italic and bold.
Italic style is a slanted version of a typeface that slants from left to right. It is used mainly
inside the text to emphasize separate words, like words in different languages or
reference links.
Bold style is an overweight version of a typeface that has more visual weight than the
regular one. As a rule, designers use it for headlines or important words inside the text
or buttons.

Hierarchy
You cannot create a well-balanced and visually appealing design without a well-thought-
out and carefully established hierarchy . It is crucial for the design and ipso facto
typography. It performs such vital tasks as:
• it helps readers identify the context of the text without even having to think
about it consciously;
• It provides readers with the ability to quickly consume large amounts of

information by making it easily scannable and quickly digestible;
• It efficiently deals with short attention spans that people have these days by
providing memorable and impactful visual cues and focal points;
• It creates a clear distinction between text and headlines, giving you a chance
to emphasize essential elements without reinventing the wheel;
• It provides readers with a quick way of locating the relevant information;
• It defines organization and direction, creating order out of chaos.
In practice, the hierarchy can be created using sizing, color, contrast, and alignment.
However, it also manifests through headings of various levels, subheadings, and
paragraphs when it comes to typography. Generally, designers use no more than three
different levels of typography, where each one has its designation:
• The first level of typography is for making an impression. It usually reinforces

the hero area or homepage.
• The second one is for headings or breaking text into chunks that help
navigate smoothly across the page.
• The third one is for body copy. While two previous options can be bold and
daring, this one should stay neutral to provide viewers with the best
readability ever.

Contrast
Much like hierarchy, contrast is a powerful tool that can do magic with design and
message. There are five primary areas of its use:
1. First, it is used to provide visitors with the optimal readability experience.

Regardless of the typeface, whether neutral or extravagant, the perfect
contrast will ensure every letter looks legible and stands against the
background.
2. Second, it is used to throw a spotlight on crucial details. It helps to set

priorities by giving some elements greater visual weight.
3. Third, it improves scanning through the text. It is not a secret that people
prefer to skim rather than read. You cannot miss these scanners. Your
message should reach all your users. One way to do this is to use contrast
realized through font size, color, and styles. It will bring the critical
information to the fore providing all visitors with instant value and keeping
them on the project longer.
4. Fourth, it is used to make text meaningful. The more visual weight text has,
the more important it looks.
5. Fifth, it is used to reinforce a sense of urgency, warning, etc.
6. Finally, it is used to make your text look interesting, visually appealing, and
attention-grabbing. The well-done contrast may easily play a decorative role.
It can enhance overall aesthetics and give some unique zest to the design.

Consistency
Whatever grand idea you have in mind, first and foremost, make sure you maintain
consistency for your viewers. Otherwise, you will create room for failure.
Inconsistent use of typography design, even within the small project, may cause
confusion and frustration. No one likes that. People should see patterns to feel
comfortable exploring your content. If they do not see them, they will leave. As a result,
you will start to lose your loyal fans and reduce your chance to onboard more prospects.
The rule of thumb, stick to your guns. Use the same font styles and establish a
consistent hierarchy throughout the place.
Alignment
People tend to believe that alignment is only about arranging text to the left or right side.
At some point, it is true. However, this term means much more than simply moving a
block of text to either side of the layout or evenly spreading it across the page.
In fact, alignment is a process of unifying text, graphics, and other user interface
elements, such as images, videos, sliders, etc., to achieve compositional harmony.
At a minimum, good alignment requires from you to ensure such important things as:
• equal space, size, and distances between each element;
• consistency in margins and paddings;
• alignment between header (especially brand elements like logotype) and

body copy.

When it comes to typography, traditionally, you can align the font in four ways: right, left,
centered, and justified. Thanks to modern features in CSS, now you can align text
whichever way you want. However, it is important not to sacrifice the primary purpose of
the text alignment, aka reinforcing the harmony and securing good readability.
Some good tips on how not to screw up alignment in your project:
• Do not overuse center alignment. According to studies, people find center-

aligned typography frustrating.
• Use hanging alignment for details that do not have the same weight as text,
such as icons or bullet lists.
• Stick to conventions. For example, avoid using right alignment for body text
when display content to people who read from left to right.
• Remember about edge alignment.
• Avoid imbalance.
Color
Much like typography, color is the first thing that people notice. According to stats, more
than 65% of users are visual learners. Therefore, the right choice of color and typeface
can result in a powerful duet that heavily influences the user’s perception of the
message and brand within the first seconds.
What is more, let us be honest, typeface cannot exist without color. Color makes it
visible literally, and that is not all. The proper hue can easily improve the legibility of
characters, make the text stand out from the crowd, and even create the proper tone for
the message. In addition, studies show that color has the capability to trigger shopping
behavior, meaning it stands behind high conversions. Therefore, you cannot take it

lightly. You need to put lots of thought when choosing the right hues for your
typography design.
Five basic rules may help you in this matter:
• Use no more than three colors.
• Stay neutral when it comes to large chunks of text.
• Use bold colors only for headings or focal points.
• Ensure contrast.
• Pay attention to conventions.
Whitespace
Last but not least.
Whitespace is one of the most underestimated elements of design. Quite often, people
consider the use of white space as wasted space. However, it is quite the opposite. The
proper use of white space ensures an excellent user experience and a great readability
experience. It helps to balance design elements and better organize content to improve
the visual communication experience.
Whitespace is a general term. Do not take it literally: it is not only white. It can be any
color or even a texture or background image. It refers to the space around the text,
letters, graphics, objects, etc. It includes margins, paddings, and blank spaces.

When it comes to typography design, we need to consider the micro white space. It can
be found between lines and paragraphs, characters, grid elements, etc. It has a direct
impact on content legibility that influences the user’s reading speed and comprehension.
For example, if micro white space is too small, the text will look too tight and dense; so,
it will be difficult to make out letters and ipso facto understand the meaning. If it is too big,
people will read the text more slowly, which may cause frustration and loss of attention
and interest.
Therefore, it is crucial to find your Zen in the micro white space universe.
Where to start? Perfect these five different areas: paragraph spacing, space between
lines, line-length, letter spacing, and space around numbers.
• Paragraph spacing. Paragraph spacing gives the eye a visual break,

makes text readable, and ensures comfortable reading flow. It also shows
that the new idea is to be introduced to keep user’s interests alive. The
minimum paragraph spacing lies in the range between 0.75x and 1.25x of
the type size.
• Space between lines. If there is no enough space between lines, the text
will look clumsy and dense. This will drastically worsen readability and user
experience. If there is too much space between lines, it may also confuse
and frustrate readers. It is vital to get this space right. The golden rule is, set
line-height to 1.5x of the original font size.
• Line-length. Both desktop and mobile users may be frustrated by poorly
chosen line length. The deal is if the line length is short, there will be many
blank spaces that make the design feel imbalanced and disharmonized. This
will also cause more total lines of text that make mobile users scroll deep
down. If this parameter is too long, the line can be wrapped in a way that
may confuse users. Therefore, ideally, the line length for mobile users
should be set to 40 to 60 characters per line, whereas for desktop, it should
be 120 characters per line.
• Letter-spacing. Mastering letter spacing is a true challenge since some
letters are wide, whereas others are narrow. Add more space between
letters, and you end up with a barely readable word. Reduce the amount of
space, and your letters will be illegible. Therefore, you need to strike the
perfect balance. Some sound advice on letter-spacing:
o Add letter spacing to uppercase text;
o Add letter spacing to small uppercase text;
o Increase letter spacing for small text that is under 16px;
o Play with tracking. Spread or make the word tighter to

accomplish a look that has even edges.
• Space around numbers. Much like with letter-spacing, the problem lies in
the fact that some numbers are wide, whereas others are narrow. However,

they should look harmonious and perfectly aligned. Therefore, ensure there
is enough space between individual digits so that a long number seems well
balanced and agreeable.
The Anatomy of Typography
The anatomy of typography is an area of study that gives you basic knowledge of letters
and their integral parts. It helps to educate your eye to recognize the underlying
structure of various designs.
Understanding the fundamental principles and concepts of typography is the first step to
being a successful typographer. The most basic component of typography is the letter,
and each letter of the alphabet is distinguished by its unique shape or letterform.
Primarily the design classes which I took in college were based on anatomy and
terminology of type. It’s not difficult to recognize serifs, descenders, ascenders but
simultaneously it’s true that for one class one has to learn nearly 100 definitions and
terms. Undoubtedly it’s necessary to possess some basic knowledge of the
terminologies before we step into the arena of type. It can be puzzling if we discuss
about type using informal terms like thingies, slants and squiggles.

1. Baseline
Majority of the characters sit on this imaginary horizontal line.
2. Cap height The capline or cap height is another imaginary line wherein the heights of
all the capital letters are marked in a typeface. However one has to keep in mind that
the cap height is below the maximum height of the typeface.
3. Crossbar The crossbar is a stroke that connects 2 lines in capital letterforms

of “A” and “H”. Again a cross stroke implies a horizontal stroke that does not connect
two lines, for example, the lower case of “f” or “t”.

4. Serif
It is the name assigned to the finishing strokes at the tops and bottoms of some
typefaces. There is a lot to discuss serifs when we would learn about
typeface distinctions.
5. Mean line The mean line better is known as midline is another imaginary horizontal
line that marks the top edges of the lower case letters. You go wrong if you go by the
literal definition of the term “mean line” because it actually doesn’t imply the central line
between the baseline and the cap height.
6. Bowl It is nothing but the rounded curve that covers the negative space in a letter
form. Consider, for example, it can be easily viewed in the following
letters “I”, “e”, “D”, “o” and “g”.
7. Descender
Descender happens to be the bottom part of the lowercase letter (like “g”, “j”, “p”, “q”,
“y” etc) that usually goes below the baseline of a typeface. Some other features that
particularly extend below this baseline comprise of the old style numerals typefaces.
These specific numerals were basically thought to mix appropriately with the lowercase
roman numbers. If used within the body of the text they really look good and beautiful.
8. Counter refers to the negative space within a letter, particularly if you consider letters
like “A”, “o” and “P” etc where the counter is fully enclosed. In letters like “G”,
“u” and “c” the non enclosed negative space is reflected and they are also
called counters.
9. Stem The main vertical or diagonal stroke depicted in a letterform is known as Stem.
They consists of the vertical parts of the letters like “I” and “H” and also simultaneously
all the strokes in the letter “W”.
10. Tittle The title is defined as the dot above the lowercase “j” and “i”.
11. Terminal The terminal is the culmination point of the stroke or stem that has no serif.
12. Ascender It is an extension that goes above the meanline and is generally found in
some lowercase letters. These letters are, “b”, “d”, “f”, “h”, “k”, “l” and “t”.
13. Leg Legs are the lower angled strokes which you can see in the letters “K”,
“R” and “Q”. They are also known as tails.

14. Ligature This addition of two characters to create another character is called
ligature. They are commonly seen in serif faces .It is present to give space between
certain characters and give the characters an aesthetic imprint.
15. X-height The space that exists in the vertical direction for the lowercase “x” in any
typeface is known as X-Height. It is the distance the baseline and mean line of the body
of characters in lowercase form. The X-Height is very important in the context of font
shapes as the fonts with greater X-heights are easier to read.
Typographic parts of a glyph: 1) x-height; 2) ascender line; 3) apex; 4) baseline; 5)

ascender; 6) crossbar; 7) stem; 8) serif; 9) leg; 10) bowl; 11) counter; 12) collar; 13) loop;
14) ear; 15) tie; 16) horizontal bar; 17) arm; 18) vertical bar; 19) cap height; 20)
descender line.
Types of Views
So let’s take a closer look at the different types of views that are often present in a
manufacturing drawing. Each serves a certain purpose. Bear in mind that adding views
should follow the same logic as dimensioning – include as little as possible and as much
as necessary.
A tip for good engineering practice – only include a view if it contributes to the overall
understanding of the design.

Isometric View
Isometric drawings show parts as three-dimensional. All the vertical lines stay vertical
(compared to front view) and otherwise parallel lines are shown on a 30-degree angle.
The lines that are vertical and parallel are in their true length. Which means you can use
a ruler and the scaling of the drawing to easily measure the length straight from a paper
drawing, for example. The same does not apply to angled lines.
Left – perspective; right – isometric
It is important to distinguish the isometric view from a perspective view. A perspective

view is an artistic one that represents an object as it seems to the eye. Engineers stay
true to the dimensions rather than optical illusions.

Orthographic View
This is the bread and butter of an engineering drawing. An orthographic view or

orthographic projection is a way of representing a 3D object in 2 dimensions.
Thus, a 2D view has to convey everything necessary for part production. This kind of
representation allows avoiding any kind of distortion of lengths.

Orthographic projection (ISO standard)
The most common way to communicate all the information is by using three different
views in a multiview drawing:
• Front view
• Top view
• Side view
It may be possible that some additional views are necessary to show all the info. But
again, less is more.
The positioning of the views differs a bit regionally. For example, look at the image below
to compare the US and ISO layouts.

The one on the left is called first-angle projection. Here, the top view is under the front
view, the right view is at the left of the front view, etc. The ISO standard is primarily used
in Europe.
On the right, you can see a third-angle projection. The right view is on the right, top view
on the top of the front view, etc. This system is especially popular in the US and Canada.
Flat Pattern
If you are making a folded sheet metal part, do not forget to add a flat pattern view. The
cutting job comes before bending. When it comes to our customers, the easiest way is
just to upload a STEP file without any accompanying drawings.
Creating a flat pattern view is usually pretty simple. Just be aware that you are using the
sheet metal environment when making sheet metal parts in CAD. There you have the
option to “generate a flat pattern” which you can easily add to the main drawing.
If you are using the standard part environment, the same option is not available. Still,
many CAD programs have the possibility to convert a standard part into sheet metal if
the part properties correspond to sheet metal (e.g. uniform thickness, inside radius, etc.).
Section View
A section view can easily display some of the part features that are not evident when
looking just from the outset. Cross section is the preferred option compared to hidden
lines as it brings more clarity. The cross hatching feature is and indicator for cross
sectional views.

Cutout View
This is the same image we used for illustrating the section view. With one slight
difference – the side view includes cutouts. Cutouts can reduce the number of different
views on a single drawing.
Thus, we could easily delete the section view and add all the necessary dimensions to
cutouts.
Detail View
The detail view gives us a close-up of a selected section of a larger view. This can be
especially useful if an otherwise large part includes many important dimension in a small
area. Using the detail view improves the readability of these measurements.

Auxiliary View
An orthographic view to represent planes that are not horizontal or vertical. It helps to
show inclined surfaces without any distortion.
Dimensions
As said before, new CNC machines are actually able to read the dimensions straight
from the lines. But a traditional manufacturing drawing shows all the necessary
dimensions for producing the parts.
The keyword here is necessary. Avoid using the auto-dimensioning feature that a lot
of CAD programs offer because they tend to show everything they can find. For a
beginner, it may seem like adding it all ensures that no mistakes can be made.
Actually, it can result in a confusing web of measurements that is left for the
manufacturing engineer to untangle. Also, adding all dimensions you can find makes it
hard to pinpoint which ones are the most important.
The image above shows a shaft with all the measurements. In reality, it creates a closed
system whereby the manufacturer cannot guarantee all these dimensions 100%.
Therefore, you have to determine the most important ones. In our case, we chose the

end steps to be more important than the length of the central part. Thus, we should
delete the 120 mm dimension.
One crucial bit of information that is missing from CAD models is geometric dimensioning
and tolerancing (GD & T). For example, when looking to produce a shaft for a bearing
system, limits and fits are of high importance. The right dimensions can guarantee a
longer lifetime with less maintenance.
While you can fetch all the dimensions automatically by clicking the measure button,
adding engineering tolerances needs manual action.
Therefore, adding dimensions with lower and upper limits or fit classes is still important.
Regarding Fractory’s service, we would ask you to enclose a separate drawing with
these parameters. Note that you do not have to provide the whole dimensioning – only
include the tolerances of a single hole on your engineering drawings if necessary.
Information Blocks
BOM and title block in the lower right corner
The little boxes in the bottom right corner show additional information. The title
block includes the author’s name, part name, part number, quantity, coating, scale, etc.
There can be much more info on there but the title blocks vary widely between different
companies.
Information blocks also include a bill of materials, or BOM for short. These blocks list all
the components used in the assembly, along with additional information like quantities,
part names, etc.
Assembly Drawings
Many engineers’ drawings make the mistake of trying to include all the information about
each individual part in an assembly drawing. To avoid this, remember the purpose of

these engineering drawings during the creation process – they must make the
assembling easy.
Exploded views, section views, numbered parts, general dimensions, cutouts, detail
views (or close-ups) are all tools you can use to achieve this goal.
It should be clear where each part goes and how it is attached – whether it needs
welding, bolted connections, riveting or something else. The bill of materials is there to
help you, so make sure the information available there is correct regarding part numbers,
names and quantities.
Keeping everything above in mind will help you create assembly drawings that make life
easier on the shop floor. A piece of great advice I once received goes like this – keep the
thinking in the drawing-room. Avoiding multiple interpretation possibilities at later steps
will significantly decrease the number of errors.
What Does the Future Hold?
Engineering drawings are still a big part of an engineer’s job. All in all, making them
contributes to about 20% of a design engineer’s work time.
We at Fractory are trying to save this time by automating the reading of 3D models for
production. This leaves engineers with the task of producing assembly and GD&T
drawings only. The purpose is to keep the focus on engineering better products.
The engineering community is seeing this movement as a new trend. But as we all know,
taking the whole industry up to a new standard takes a lot of time. Thus, if you still
outsource your production to manufacturing companies who need drawings, you must
know the basics at the very least.
Leaving room for interpretation creates a situation where your idea may not be executed
as planned. And there is nobody else to blame but the author.
So consider this stage of the product development process as an integral part that
requires thinking along. Keep the thinking in the drawing-room.
SIGNINFICAN TERMINORLOGIES FOR DRAFTING VIEWS

Isometric Projection
A form of pictorial sketch in which all
three drawing axes form equal angles
of 120 degrees with the plane of
projection.
Cabinet Pictorial
Oblique pictorial where depth is
represented as half scale compared to
Multi-View Drawing the height and width scale.
A drawing which contains views of an
object projected onto two or more
orthographic planes.

Vanishing Point
A vanishing point is a point in space,
usually located on the horizon, where
parallel edges of an object appear to
converge.
Cavalier Pictorial
Oblique pictorial where height, width,
and depth are represented at full scale.
Auxiliary View means what?

A view that is used to show features
that are located on an inclined surface
in true size and shape.
Perspective Sketch
A form of pictorial sketch in which
vanishing points are used to provide
the depth and distortion that is seen
with the human eye.
Broken-Out Section
A section of an object broken away to
reveal an interior feature for a
sectional drawing.
Projection Plane
An imaginary surface between the
object and the observer on which the
view of the object is projected and
drawn.
Detail View
A view that is used to show a
magnified view of features that are too
small to adequately specify in another
view.

Decision Matrix
Full Section A tool used to compare design
A sectional drawing based on a cutting solutions against one another, using
plane line that extends completely specific criteria.
through an object.
Half Section
A sectional drawing based on a cutting
plane line that cuts through one-
quarter of an object. A half section
reveals half of the interior and half of
the exterior.
Working Drawing
Final 'constructed' drawing(s),
produced as part of the design process.
It usually consists of a front, side and
plan view of the solution. These plans
convey all of the information needed to
manufacture and assemble a design.
Section View
A view that is used to show details not
apparent on the exterior of the part.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
This is such a type of drawing in which Parallel Projection is used for the preparation
of the drawing of an object.
These lines are perpendicular to the plane.

In this drawing, it is assumed that the object is at infinity.
The shape of an object is seen in actual size in such drawing.
A plane is an imaginary surface on which pictures are prepared imaginably. Then it

is transferred to the paper.
This plane is faced toward the object whose view is to be prepared.
Generally, three views of an object are prepared. These are Top View, Front View,
and Side View.
If the plane is kept in a vertical position, then it is called the vertical plane.
If the plane is kept in a horizontal position, then it is called the horizontal plane.
The plane, horizontal or vertical, which are kept perpendicular to each other are
called Principal Planes.
These include the Frontal Plane, Profile Plane, and Horizontal Plane: In addition to
this, if a plane is placed at any other place, then it is called Auxiliary Plane.
These are used to draw inclined surfaces of an object. If these are placed in such a
way that they form four Quadrants, then this figure is called Dihedral angle.
If these are placed in such a way that they form eight quadrants, then this figure is
called Trihedral angle.
If the first Quadrant is used to draw the projections, then this system is called First
Angle System.

If the third quadrant is used, then this system is called the Third Angle System.
In the First Angle System, the top view is placed below while the front view is upward
and the side view is by the side of the front view.
In the Third Angle System, the top view is upward while the front view is downward
and the side view is towards, aside from the front view.
Views of Orthographic Projection.

Following views are formed of an object in Orthographic Projection.
1. Front View.
2. Top View.
3. Back View.
4. Bottom View.
5. Right Side View.
6. Left Side View.
Generally, the Following Three views are prepared in the orthographic drawing.
1. Front View:
This view is prepared by placing the object in front. The length and height of an
object are shown in this view.

2. Top View:
This view is prepared by looking to the object from the upper side. The length and
breadth of the object are shown in it.
3. Side View:
This view is prepared by looking to the object from the right side or left side. The
breadth and height of the object are shown in it.
Principal Plane.
A plane is an imaginary and invisible clear surface. The drawing constructed on this
imaginary curtain is transferred on the drawing sheet.
For example, if we look at some object through glass or plastic piece, then the
picture of the object will be seen there.
This piece will work as a plane.
However, this plane is not a material body.
It is only an imaginary curtain, which is used to give the shape of a drawing by

placing it in different positions.
This plane can be put in different positions.
However, the plane placed in the following positions is called the Principal Plane.
Besides such positions, the plane will be called Auxiliary Plane.
1. Frontal Plane.
2. Profile Plane.
3. Horizontal Plane.
1. Frontal Plane.
Such a plane which is placed in front of an object, while projections are drawn, is
called the Frontal plane.
2. Profile Plane.
Such a plane which is placed to the right or left of an object. Side view of the object
is drawn on this plane.
3. Horizontal Plane.
This is a plane which is placed upward or downward in the horizontal position of an
object. Top view of the object is constructed on this plane.
Drawing of Orthographic Projection.
For drawing Orthographic Projection, different planes are placed in a particular order.
Then a specific view is drawn through every plane.

A plane is placed in the following two Methods.
1. Dihedral Angle.
2. Trihedral Angle.
1. Dihedral Angle.
In this method, two principal planes are kept perpendicular to each other. One of
these planes is Frontal, while other is horizontal.
Four right angles are obtained in this way which is called Dihedral Angle.
Each right angle is called a quadrant. The object is placed in any of these right
angles to take orthographic projection.
The front view is taken on the frontal plane, and the top view is taken on the
horizontal plane.
Profile plane is used to take side views.
This plane is held perpendicular at the ends of the other two planes.
2. Trihedral Angle.
In this method, all the three Principal planes are taken perpendicular to one another,
and eight right angles are formed.
Thus, these are called Trihedral angle.

Each right angle is called an Octant. An object is placed in any of these right angles
to take orthographic projection.
The front view is taken on the frontal plane, and the top view is taken on the
horizontal plane. Profile plane is used to take side views.
Systems of Orthographic Projection.

To prepare an orthographic drawing, the selection of one quadrant of dihedral and or
one octant of a trihedral angle is made.
In this way the following four systems are formed:
1. First Angle System.

2. Second Angle System.
3. Third Angle System.
4. Fourth Angle System.
Generally, First Angle System and Third Angle System are used. It is because in the
Second Angle System and Fourth Angle System, the lines of views of the object
overlap.
Therefore, clear pictures cannot be obtained.

1. First Angle System:

The views of an object should be taken by placing it in the first quadrant of dihedral
and or first octant of a trihedral angle.
Such a system is called First Angle System.

By taking the Front view on the frontal plane, top view on the horizontal plane and
side view on the Profile plane, the planes are then straightened by rotation.
In this way, the front view comes over the top view; side view comes beside the front
view.
Characteristics of First Angle Projection:

1. Front view always comes over the top view.
2. Top view always comes under the front view.
3. Right side view always comes to the left at the front view.
4. Left side view always comes to the right of the front view.
5. The view is always in opposite direction to the observer.
6. The object is always in the middle of the view and the observer.
2. Third Angle System.
If the views of an object are taken by placing it in the third quadrant of dihedral or
third octant of a trihedral tingle.
Such a system is called Third Angle System.

Here, front view forms on the frontal plane, top view forms on the horizontal plane
and side view forms on the profile plane.
After making the views, the planes are set straight by rotation.
In this way, the top view comes over the front view, while side view forms by the side
of front view.
Characteristics of Third Angle Projection:

1. Top view always comes over the Front view.

2. Front view always comes under the top view.

3. Right side view always comes to the right of the front view.
4. Left side view always comes to the left of the front view.
5. The view is always formed to the side of the observer.
6. The view is always in the middle of the object and the observer.
Rules of Orthographic Drawing.

Following rules should be followed while forming orthographic drawing.
1. Front view and top view always form over/under each other.
2. The front view shows the length and height of an object.
3. The side view shows the breadth and height of an object.
4. The top view shows the length and breadth of an object.
5. Side view always forms beside the front view.
6. Projection line always forms by the meeting of two surfaces.
7. The hidden detail of an object is always shown by dotted line.
Selection of View.
Following points should be kept in mind at the selection of view,
1. The more detailed view should be selected.

2. The selection of view with maximum detail should be made.
3. The selection of view with more internal details should be made.
4. The selection of view of required details should be made.
ISOMETRIC DRAWING, PROJECTION – ITS

TYPES, METHODS.
In this article, you’ll learn Isometric Drawing, Isometric Projection – Its Types,
Methods, etc. in details.
So, Let’s Get Started.
Isometric Projection
In an isometric projection, the plane is placed in such a way that all the, three visible
sides of the object make same angle with one another.
In this way, all the three sides meet at a point making an angle of 120° with one
another.
These lines are called Isometric Axes.

In the figure, the lines which are parallel to these lines are called isometric lines, and
those lines which are not parallel to these lines are called Non-isometric Lines.
Two isometric axes make an angle of 30° with the horizontal line. While the third axis
makes an angle of 90°.

Isometric Scale:
Since, in isometric projection, the isometric line makes an angle of 30° with the
horizontal lines, therefore, their length is not equal to the actual length, but it is only
82% of the actual length.
The isometric scale is prepared to form an isometric projection. With the help of this
scale, the actual dimensions are transformed into isometric dimensions.
Method of Drawing Isometric Scale:

Following method is used for drawing isometric scale:
After drawing a horizontal line, draw two lines at 45° and 30° angle with it.
Put marks on the 45° line according to the actual scale.
Now draw perpendicular offsets from 45° line up to 30° line which will represent the
isometric scale.
Difference between Isometric Drawing and Isometric Projection

The method of drawing Isometric Drawing and Isometric Projection is the same.
All the dimensions in the isometric drawing are actual while in the Isometric
projection, the isometric scale is to be used.
As a result, the dimensions are less than the actual ones.
To get isometric dimension from the actual dimension, it is to be multiplied with 82/
100.
Isometric lines, circles, and curves;

The lines which are drawn parallel to the isometric axes in forming isometric
projection are called isometric lines.

The represented length is not equal to the actual length, but it is 82% of it.
In the same way, isometric circles are also not the actual circles, but they are elliptic
ones:
For drawing such circles, first of all, the isometric square is constructed. Then the
four centers of an ellipse are shown.
These are in fact, the points of intersection of the corner of the bigger angle of the
isometric square and the bisector of the sides confronting it.
The circle is completed by drawing arcs from these points. If some other arc is to be
constructed, then the same method is to be adopted.
Methods OF Drawing Isometric Drawing.

Following are the two methods of drawing isometric drawing:
1. Box Method.
2. Off-set Method.
1. Box Method:
This method of drawing isometric drawing is easy and intelligible. However, it takes
much time for the drawing.

In this method, the maximum length, breadth, and height of an object are noted.
A box is constructed in accordance with these dimensions.
These dimensions of the box are represented according to isometric projection.
These make angles of degrees 30, 30 and 90 with the horizontal line.
After this other parts of the object are shown.
For this purpose, isometric lines are drawn parallel to the isometric axis. After this,
non-isometric lines, circles, and other curves are drawn.
Moreover, lastly, extra lines are erased.
BASIC DRATFING TOOLS AND MATERIALS

Drafting is the act and discipline of composing drawings that visually communicate
how something functions or is constructed. Similar with drawing / sketch, it has
several things to be used. Drafting tools, materials, and equipment are the best
friends of the architects. For our 5th Art Guide, we will tackle the different kinds of
drafting materials and their proper maintenance. Well, some of them are commonly
used and are familiar already.
Drafting Materials
Without the drafting tools, materials, and equipment, it will take you a long time or it
is very impossible to finish a work. The following are the basic tools and materials
used in drafting.
Drafting Table and Stand. It is a
special table with a slanted surface
that can be adjusted based on the
desired angle. It is higher than an
ordinary writing table because some
drawings, like mechanical drawing, are
usually done while the draftsman is
standing.
T-square. Guides in drawing parallel

horizontal lines.

Protactor. It is a semicircular tool

used to measure or layout angle/arc.
Triangle. Draws perfect 90, 60, 45, French Curve. It is used as a guide in
and 30 degree angles. drawing irregular curved lines.
Triangular Scale. This guides

horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines.
Erasing Shield. Used to erase ink,
pencil lines, and blots located in space.
Pencil Sharpener. As the name

Compass. Draws large arcs and suggests, it sharpens pencils.
circles in pencil or pen point.
Sandpaper Pad. Makes pencil points

conical and long without breaking.
Divider. Used to equally divide a line

or space by trial and error.
Pencil. Consists of thick graphite used

for writing and drawing.

Drafting Tape. It secures the drawing

paper on the table.
Proper Care and Maintenance
It is essential to take proper care of the
drafting tools, materials, and
equipment. Below are some tips to
properly use and take care of them.
Avoid dropping your tools and
Drafting Paper. A thick paper equipment.
specifically for drafting and sketching. Never use measuring tools in cutting
paper.
Wipe off the surface and edges of
triangles and T-squares.
Sharpen and store your pencils
properly after use.
Find or create and organizer where
you can hang your measuring tools.
Have a separate container for making
tools.
Pencil Eraser. Used to remove Keep your drawing sheets in a plastic
unwanted lines and marks in drawing. tube to protect them from a dust and
dirt.
Never lend or borrow drafting tools and
materials if may.
TYPES OF DRAWING PENCILS
The 14 Different Types of Pencils

Every Drawing Set Needs
Of all the drawing and writing mediums,
are pencils your favorite? Here's all the
different types of pencils you need for
a complete drawing set.

like sticks of graphite were being

enclosed within similar-shaped wood
cases or coverings.
According to history, the first-ever
pencils were mass-produced in
Germany in 1662, making it the
birthplace of these pencils. Soon
enough, companies like Faber-Castell
and Steadtler came into existence,
forming an active global pencil industry
that continued to develop throughout
the period of the 19th Century
Industrial Revolution.
Ever since the pencil industry began to
flourish, different types and kinds of
pencils were discovered and were
categorized according to their
Have you ever wondered where hardness levels and the amount of
pencils come from? Or how graphite black color they were able to produce.
was really discovered, leading to the They were also split in terms of how
development of numerous kinds and light or dark they were, as well as how
types of pencils that are currently heavy or light their lead was.
available? The following are the main categories
If you must know, modern pencils owe of pencils that are still being used in
a great deal to an ancient writing modern times.
instrument that belonged to the Table of Contents
Romans back called a Stylus. Stylus is Types of Pencils Chart
basically a thin metal rod that was
used by the Scribes to leave a light
readable mark on papyrus, which was
a form of paper used in those times.
However, the history of the ever-
evolving pencils doesn’t stop there.
Then came the widespread use of
graphite after a huge graphite deposit
was discovered in Borrowdale,
England in the 1560s. Graphite started
being greatly appreciated for being
really dark, darker than lead. However,
it proved to be really brittle and soft
and required a proper holder for one to
be able to contain it.
Initially, graphite sticks were properly
wrapped in strings, and later, these
graphite sticks were presented in
wood-cases, giving birth to the very
first wood-cased pencil. Basically, the
graphite was inserted in wooden sticks
that were hollowed out. So it looked

3. 6B
B Pencils
These pencils contain darker lines
compared to ‘H’ and ‘F’ however; they
are easily erasable without any effort
being put in. While some people may
use them for note-taking purposes,
they are excellent for doodling and
This pencil is best for those who like to
sketching, as well.
draw, and it is particularly meant for
The darkness of ‘B’ pencils comes
adding dark values to your drawing
from the fact that they are softer,
pieces. This is also a great option for
hence, they leave more graphite on
creating portraits where you would
paper.
want to achieve realistic textures like
skin, fur or fabric.
4. 5B
1. 8B
This pencil produces a darker mark

than the ones after it and is quite softer
than a 2B pencil for example. This is
because the higher number of B that a
pencil is, the softer the pencil will be.
This type of pencil is extremely dark 5. 4B
and comes out as the darkest of grays
on paper. It is best used for drawing
and sketching purposes since it makes
very dark and prominent marks that
end up sticking out on a page.
2. 7B
The 4B pencil is slightly lighter than

the ones before it and is also an
excellent choice for sketching and
drawing purposes. Anyone with an
aptitude for art and drawing will
definitely enjoy using this pencil.
6. 3B
Almost similar to 8B, this type of pencil

is also great for art-related purposes. It
gives off a very dark gray shade that
sticks to the paper and makes
drawings look great on paper.

reasonably hard pencil even for

drawing purposes.
The ‘H’ refers to the hardness of the
pencil, and the letter ‘B’ is used to
denote the blackness of the particular
pencil’s mark.
9. F
This pencil is more like a mix of dark

and light but is more towards a lighter
gray. It is an ideal option for those who ‘F’ stands for fine point. This pencil,
like their drawings to contain light compared to the others is slightly
values with slight shades of dark gray. harder. While it is certainly easier than
a few to keep sharp, it is way too dark
for general and everyday drawing.
H Pencils
7. 2B In this case, ‘H’ refers to the hardness
of the pencil. This is to say that the
higher the value of H a pencil has, the
harder its lead will be. And the harder
the lead is, the lightest the pencil will
be.
The ‘H’ pencils are generally very hard,
and they are able to hold a tip in place,
ensuring extreme precision. They also
make light lines that can be erased
with great ease and convenience so
one can easily use these pencils to
The 2B pencil is best for medium to design products or write things on
dark shading and provides a good paper.
range of tone or value from light to a 10. 2H
dark shade. It is commonly used for art
purposes, especially drawing, shading
and sketching.
8. HB
This pencil type is great for any

This pencil falls in the exact middle of technical work that involves making
the pencil lead scale. HB is a lines that are easily erasable. This is
significantly hard pencil, making it a particularly because 2H contains a
very light amount of lead. It is also a

great option for those who just begun This type of pencil helps create the
to draw and wish to add very light darkest and the thinnest of lines, given
shades to their drawing. its hardness levels. This happens
11. 3H because it falls towards the end of the
“H” or hardness scale, hence, giving a
hard touch. It is a great option
particularly for those who are into
3H is an extremely light shade of gray
drawing and sketching and wish to
that leaves a very light imprint on
draw dark and think lines.
paper. It can be a great choice for
14. 6H
sketches where you need to add light
shades or slightly fill in the empty
spaces with a pencil.
12. 4H
This is a top-quality graphite pencil

that is primarily designed for the
purpose of sketching, writing, and
drawing. It is an ideal pencil for artistic
and technical applications.
Keeping in mind the hardness rule, it
This is an excellent choice of pencil for gives maximum hardness with the
light, fine and even shading. It is more darkest and thinnest look on paper.
towards the gray side and less shiny Isn’t it so strange yet fascinating how
because of the amount of clay it even something so small like a pencil
contains. It is also easier to keep sharp has such a great history and story
so can be easily used for shading and behind it?
sketching. Now that you know all about pencils,
13. 5H which one will you be using for your
drawing and sketching?

REFERENCES
Drafting - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

TECHNICAL DRAWING & ALPHABET OF LINE | SchoolWorkHelper
Engineering Drawing: Technical Lettering (edengdrawing.blogspot.com)
Typography: Anatomy of a Letterform - Designmodo
Engineering Drawing Views & Basics Explained | Fractory
Technical Drawing Types and Views Flashcards | Quizlet
Orthographic Projection, Drawing: A Comprehensive Guide. (civilseek.com)
Isometric Drawing, Projection - Its Types, Methods. (civilseek.com)
Drafting Materials and Their Proper Maintenance | SteemPh.Cebu's 5th Art Guide —
Steemit
The 14 Different Types of Pencils Every Drawing Set Needs (homestratosphere.com)


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ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY- MAIN CAMPUS

Discuss the fundamental concepts of

ABSOLUTE CO-ORDINATES – Using would enter this as @D<A. In this

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

Application Button – This button command. Watch this line while

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

of the most recent Layer– All objects are drawn on a

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

Plot– Also known as print. To make Zoom– To view either a smaller

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

Prototype A function model of a Front view A view that shows that

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

Architect’s scale Full size scale of Window (Left to right selection)

Crossing (Right to left selection) Explode Separates objects into

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

Acad.dwt This is the default Icon A small picture that is a

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL DRAFTING

Drafting is based on the concept of orthographic projection, which in turn is the

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education

the preparation of detail drawings, tables of materials, schedules of subassemblies

It is the responsibility of the manufacturing, fabricating, or construction workers to

The drafting curriculum provides instruction predominately in mechanical drafting,

Objectives of a Drafting student are accuracy, legibility, neatness, and speed.

Technical drawings provide clear and accurate information how an object is to be

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as a universal language understood (readable) by anyone regardless of the

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education 10

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education 11

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education 12

Technical Lettering and Typography

Technical Lettering is a barren piece of engineering drawing. It gives data

Single Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering

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Single Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering

Single Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering

Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering

Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering

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Double Stroke Vertical Gothic Lettering

• Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering

Double Stroke Inclined Gothic Lettering

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education 15

Lower Case Vertical Single Stroke Gothic Lettering

Lower Case Vertical Single Stroke Gothic Lettering

Lower Case Vertical Double Stroke Gothic Lettering

Lower Case Vertical Double Stroke Gothic Lettering

Lower Case Inclined Single Stroke Gothic Lettering

It is shown with its sizes which is self explanatory.

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education 16

Lower Case Inclined Single Stroke Gothic Lettering

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education 17

Free Hand Lettering

It may be vertical or Inclined Gothic Lettering.

Free Hand Lettering

Free Hand Lettering

Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education 18

A PANTOGRAPH is basically a device consisting of four links which are pinned to