XI Study Full

1.
Basic Concepts of Chemistry and Chemical Calculations
1. Define relative atomic mass

The relative atomic mass is defined as the ratio of the average atomic mass factor to the unified
atomic mass unit.
Average mass of the atom
Relative atomic mass (Ar) =
unified atomic mass
Relative atomic mass of hydrogen (Ar)H = 1.008

2. Define molecular mass
Molecular mass is defined as the ratio of the mass of a molecule to the unified atomic mass unit.
Relative molecular mass of hydrogen molecule (H2) = 2.016
3. What do you understand by the term mole.
Mole is the SI unit to represent a specific amount of a substance.
Mole = weight / molar mass
4. Define equivalent mass.
Gram equivalent mass of an element, compound or ion is the mass that combines or displaces
1.008 g hydrogen or 8 g oxygen or 35.5 g chlorine.
5. What do you understand by the term oxidation number.
It is defined as the imaginary charge left on the atom when all other atoms of
the compound have been removed in their usual oxidation states that are assigned
according to set of rules.
6. Distinguish between oxidation and reduction.
Oxidation Reduction
1. Removal of electron 1. Addition of electron
2. Positive charge increases 2. Negative charge increases
3. Addition of oxygen or Removal of 3. Addition of hydrogen or removal of
Hydrogen Oxygen
7. Calculate the molar mass of the following compounds.
i) Urea [CO(NH2)2]
C  1 x 12 = 12
O  1 x 16 = 16
N  2 x 14 = 28
H 4x1 = 4
Molar mass = 60
ii) Acetone [CH3COCH3]
C  3 x 12 = 36
H 6x 1 = 6
O  1 x 16 = 16
Molar mass = 58
iii, Boric acid [H3BO3]
H  1x 3 = 3
B  1 x 11 = 11
O  3 x 16 = 48
Molar mass = 62
iv) Sulphuric acid [H2SO4]
H  2x 1 = 2
S  1 x 32 = 32
O  4 x 16 = 64
Molar mass = 98
8. The density of carbon dioxide is equal to 1.965 kgm-3 at 273 K and 1 atm pressure.
Calculate the molar mass of CO2.
Molecular mass = Density x Molar volume
Molar Volume of CO2 at273K and 1 atm pressure = 2.24 x 10-2m3
Density of CO2 = 1.965 kgm-3= 1.965 x 103gm-3
Molecular mass = 2.24 x 10-2m3x1.965 x 103gm-3
= 1.965 x 101 x2.24
= 44 g
9. Which contains the greatest number of moles of oxygen atoms
i) 1 mole of ethanol ii) 1 mole of formic acid iii) 1 mole of H2O
Compounds No.of moles No.of Oxygen atoms
Ethanol C2H5OH 1 1 x 6.023 x 1023
Formic acid HCOOH 1 2 x 6.023 x 1023
Water H2O 1 1 x 6.023 x 1023
1 mole of Formic acid contains the greatest number of Oxgygen atoms
10. In a reaction X + Y + Z2→ XYZ2identify the Limiting reagent if any, in the following
reaction mixtures.
(a) 200 atoms of x + 200 atoms of y + 50 molecules of Z2
(b) 1mole of x + 1 mole of y+3 moles of Z2
(c) 50 atoms of x + 25 atoms of y +50 molecules of Z2
d) 2.5 moles of x + 5 moles of y+5 moles of Z2
Question Number of moles of reactants Number of moles of reactants Limiting
allowed to react consumed during reaction Reagent
X Y Z2 X Y Z2
a 200 atoms 200 atoms 50 50 atoms 50 atoms 50 Z2
molecules molecules
b 1mole 1mole 3moles 1mole 1mole 1mole X&Y
c 50 atoms 25 atoms 50 25 atoms 25 atoms 25 Y
molecules molecules
d 2.5 moles 5 moles 5 moles 2.5 moles 2.5 moles 2.5 moles X
11.Calculate the average atomic mass of naturally occurring magnesium using the
following data
Isotope Isotopic atomic mass Abundance (%)
Mg-24 23.99 78.99
Mg-26 24.99 10.00
Mg-25 25.98 11.01
(78.99 𝑋23.99)+ (10 𝑋 24.99)+ (11.01 𝑋 25.98)
Average atomic mass =
100
2430.9
= = 24.31
100
Average atomic mass of Mg = 24.31
12. Mass of one atom of an element is 6.645 x 10-23 g. How many moles of element are
there in 0.320 kg.
Given: mass of one atom = 6.645 × 10–23 g
∴ Mass of 1 mole of atom =6.645 x 10-23x 6.023 x 1023
= 40 g
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 1
∴ Number of moles of element in 0.320 kg = = 40 𝑔 x 0.320Kg = 40 x 320g
= 8moles
13. What is the difference between molecular mass and molar mass? Calculate the
molecular mass and molar mass for carbon monoxide.
Molecular mass Molar mass
The ratio of the mass of the molecule to the unified The Mass of the one mole of a substance
atomic mass unit
It can be calculated by adding the relative atomic It is equal to the sum of the relative atomic masses
masses of its constituent atoms of the substance
Unit ; u Unit : g.mol-1
Molecular mass carbonmonooxide is Molar mass of carbon mono oxide is
28u 28 g.mol-1
14. What is the empirical formula of the following ?
i) Fructose C6H12O6found in honey
ii) ii) Caffeine (C8H10N4O2) a substance found in tea and coffee.
Compound Molecular formula Emphirical formula
Fructose C6H12O6 CH2O
Caffeine C8H10N4O2 C4H5N2O
15. How many moles of ethane is required to produce 44 g of CO2 (g) after combustion.
Balanced equation for the combustion of ethane
2C2H6 + 7O2 ⎯→ 4CO2 + 6H2O
To produce 4 moles of CO2, 2 moles of ethane is required
44g of CO2 is equal to 1 mole of CO2
To produce 1 mole of CO2 required = 2 / 4
=
0.5 mole of ethane
16. The reaction between aluminium and ferric oxide can generate temperatures up to
3273 K and is used in welding metals. (Atomic mass of Al = 27 u
Atomic mass of 0 = 16 u)
2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe; If, in this process, 324 g of aluminium is allowed to react
with 1.12 kg of ferric oxide.
i) Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.
ii) How much of the excess reagent is left at the end of the reaction?
2Al + Fe2O3 ⎯→ Al2O3 + 2Fe

Reactants Products
Al Fe2O3 Al2O3 Fe
Amount of reactant allowed to
324g 1.12Kg = 1120g
react
Number of moles allowed to 324 1120
react = 12 = 7
27 160
Stoichiometric Co-efficient 2 1 1 2
Number of moles consumed
during reaction 12 6
Number of moles of reactant
unreacted and number of moles - 1 6 12
of product formed
Molar mass of Al2O3
Molar mass of Al2O3= (2 x 27) + (3 x 16) = 102
Mass of Al2O3 formed= mole x Molar mass = 6 x 102 = 612g
Excess reagent = Fe2O3
Molar mass of Fe2O3= (2 x 56) + (3 x 16) = 160
Mass of Fe2O3 = mole x Molar mass = 1 x 160 = 160g
17.Calculate the empirical and molecular formula of a compound containing 76.6%

carbon, 6.38 % hydrogen and rest oxygen its vapour density is 47.
Element Percentage Atomic Relative number Simple Whole
mass of atoms ratio number
C 76.6 12 76.6 6.38 6
= 6.38 =6
12 1.06
H 6.38 1 6.38 6.38 6
= 6.38 =6
1 1.06
O 17.02 16 17.02 1.06 1
= 1.06 =1
16 1.06
Empirical formula = C6H6O

Molar mass = 2 x vapour density
= 2 x 47 = 94
Molar mass
n =
calculated empirical formula mass
= ( 6 x 12) + ( 6 x 1) + ( 1 x 16) = 94
94
n = =1
94
Molecular formula = (C6H6O)n = (C6H6O)1 = C6H6O
18. Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidising agent. It oxidises ferrous ion to ferric ion and
reduced itself to water. Write a balanced equation.
19. A Compound on analysis gave Na = 14.31% S = 9.97% H= 6.22% and O= 69.5%

calculate the molecular formula of the compound if all the hydrogen in the compound
is present in combination with oxygen as water of crystallization. (molecular mass of
the compound is 322
Element Percentage Atomic Relative number Simple ratio Whole
mass of atoms number
Na 14.31 23 14.31 0.62 2
= 0.62 =2
23 0.31
S 9.97 32 9.97 0.31 1
= 0.31 =1
32 0.31
H 6.22 1 6.22 6.2 20
= 6.2 = 20
1 0.31
O 69.5 16 69.5 4.34 14
= 4.34 = 14
16 0.31
Empirical formula = Na2SH20O14
Empirical formula mass = ( 2 x 23 ) + (1 x 32) + ( 20 x 1) + (14 x 16)
= 322
Molar mass = 322
Molar mass
n =
calculated empirical formula mass
322
n = = 1
322
Molecular formula = (Na2SH20O14)n = (Na2SH20O14)1
= Na2SH20O14
Since all the hydrogen in the compound present as water
Molecular formula = Na2SO4 .10H2O
V.SURESHKANNA., PG.ASST., G.H.S.S. THIRUMANJOLAI.

2 . Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
1. Which quantum number reveal information about the shape, energy, orientation
and size of orbitals?
Principle quantum number : Reveal information about Energy and Size
Azimuthal quantum number :Reveal information about Shape
Magnetic quantum number : Orientation
2. How many orbitals are possible for n =4?
If n= 4 l values are 0,1,2,3 (s,p,d,f)
If l =0 4s orbital = 1 orbital
If l =1 m = -1, 0,1 = 3 orbitals
If l = 2 m = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 = 5 orbitals
If l = 3 m = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 = 7 orbitals
Total number of orbitals are possible = 16 orbtals
3. How many radial nodes for 2s, 4p, 5d and 4f orbitals exhibit? How many angular
nodes?
Orbital n l Radial nodes Angular nodes
(n - l – 1) l
2s 2 0 1 0
4p 4 1 2 1
5d 5 2 2 2
4f 4 3 0 3
4. The stabilisation of a half filled d - orbital is more pronounced than that of the
p-orbital why?
In d- orbital 10 exchanges are possible but in p-orbital 3 exchanges are possible
Greater the number exchanges, greater the stability.
5. Consider the following electronic arrangements for the d5 configuration.
(i) which of these represents the ground state
(ii) which configuration has the maximum exchange energy.
(a) (b) (c)

(i) which of these represents the ground state
(a)
(ii) which configuration has the maximum exchange energy.
(a)
6. State and explain Pauli's exclusion principle.
"No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of values of all four quantum numbers."
Eg. For the electron in Helium [He]2
Valus of Quantum number Ist electron IInd electron
n 1 1
l 0 0
m 0 0
s +½ -½
7. Define orbital? what are the n and l values for 3px and 4dx2−y2 electron?
Orbital is a three dimensional space which the probability of finding the electron is maximum
3px orbital  n = 3 & l = −1
4dx2-y2 orbital  n = 4 & l = −2
8. Explain briefly the time independent schrodinger wave equation?
The time independent Schrodinger equation can be expressed as,
is called Hamiltonian operator

is the wave function
E is the energy of the system
The above schrodinger wave equation does not contain time as a variable
and is referred to as time independent Schrodinger wave equation.
9. Calculate the uncertainty in position of an electron, if Δv = 0.1% and υ = 2.2 x106ms-1
Data Δv = 0.1% , υ = 2.2 x106 ms-1 and m = 9.1 x 10−31Kg
10. The quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom gives the energy value:
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔
En = ev atom-1
𝒏𝟐
i) use this expression to find ΔE between n = 3 and m = 4
ii) Calculate the wavelength corresponding to the above transition.
11. How fast must a 54g tennis ball travel in order to have a de Broglie wavelength that
is equal to that of a photon of green light 5400A0?
Wave length of photon of green light = 5400A0
Mass (m) = 54 g
Planck’sconstant (h ) = 6.626 x 10−34 JS
12. For each of the following, give the sub level designation, the allowable m values and
the number of orbitals
i) n = 4, l = 2, ii) n = 5, l = 3 iii) n = 7, l = 0
n l sub level m values Number of orbitals

designation
4 2 4d +2, +1, 0 ,-1, -2 5 – d orbitals
5 3 5f +3, +2, +1, 0 ,-1, -2, -3 7 – 4f Orbitals
7 0 7s 0 1– 7s orbital
13. Determine the values of all the four quantum numbers of the 8th electron in
O- atom and 15th electron in Cl atom and the last electron in chromium
Atom Electron n l m s
O 8th 2 1 -1 +½
Cl 15 3 1 +1 +½
Cr Last electron 4 2 +2 +½
(24th)
14. Give the electronic configuration of Mn2+ and Cr3+.
Electronic configuration of Mn2+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
Electronic configuration of Cr3+is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
15. Describe the Aufbau principle
In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in the order of their increasing
energies.which is in accordance with (n+l) rule.
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p <

5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s <
6s 6p 6d 5f < 6d < 7p < 8s
7s 7p
8s
16. An atom of an element contains 35 electrons and 45 neutrons. Deduce

i) The number of protons
The number of protons = The number of electrons = 35
ii) The electronic configuration for the element
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
iii) All the four quantum numbers for the last electron
Last electron present in 4Pyorbital
n l m s
4 1 0 -½
17. How that the circumference of the Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom is an integral
multiple of the de Broglie wave length associated with the electron revolving around the
nucleus.
According to the de Broglie concept, the electron that revolves around the nucleus exhibits both
particle and wave character. In order for the electron wave to exist in phase, the circumference of the orbit
should be an integral multiple of the wavelength of the electron wave. Otherwise, the electron wave is out of
phase.
Circumference of the orbit = nλ
2πr = nλ
2πr = nh/mv
Rearranging, mvr = nh/2π
Angular momentum = nh/2π
18. Calculate the energy required for the process.He+(g) → He2+(g) + e-
The ionisation energy for the H atom in its ground state is - 13.6 ev atom-1.
Required Energy = E∞ – E1 = 0 – (– 56.4) = 56.4 ev

19. An ion with mass number 37 possesses unit negative charge. If the ion contains
11.1% more neutrons than electrons. Find the symbol of the ion.
Numbers Atom Uni-negative ion
Number of electron x–1 x
Number of protons x–1 x–1
Number of neutrons y y
Given that y = x + 11.1% of x

11.1
y = x + 100 x
y = 1.11x
mass number = 37
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons = (x - 1) + 1.11x = 37
= x + 1.11x = 38
= 2.11x = 38
38
x= = 18
2.11
number of electron (or) number of protons = (x - 1) = 18 – 1 = 17

𝟑𝟕
symbol of the ion is 𝟏𝟕𝐂𝐥−
20. The Li2+ ion is a hydrogen like ion that can be described by the Bohr model.
Calculate the Bohr radius of the third orbit and calculate the energy of an electron
in 4th orbit.
Bohr radius of the third orbit
(0.529)n2
rn =
𝑧
n = 3 and Z value of Li2+ ion is 3
(0.529)32
rn = = 1.587A0
3
The energy of an electron in 4th orbit.
−13.6Z2
En =
n2
n = 4 and Z value of Li2+ ion is 3
−13.6 x 32 −13.6 x 9
En = = = – 7.65 eV atom–1
42 16
21. Protons can be accelerated in particle accelerators. Calculate the wavelength (in A)
of such accelerated proton moving at 2.85 x 108 ms-1 ( the mass of proton is
1.673 x 10-27 Kg).
Given :-
 = 2.85 x 108ms–1 ; mp = 1.673 × 10–27 Kg ; h = 6. 626 x 10-34
ℎ
λ =
𝑚𝑣
ℎ 6.626 x 10−34
λ= = −27 8 = 1.389 x 10-15m
𝑚𝑣 1.673 ×10 × 2.85 × 10
λ = 1.389 x 10-5A0 ( 1A0 = 10-10m)
22.What is the de Broglie wavelength (in cm) of a 160g cricket ball travelling at140 Kmhr-1.
m = 160 g = 160 × 10–3 kg
140 ×1000
v = 140 km hr–1 = = 38.88 ms–1
60 ×60
h = 6. 626 x 10-34
ℎ 6.626 x 10−34
λ = = = 1.065 10-34
𝑚𝑣 160 ×10−3 × 38.88
λ = 1.065 10-34 m
23. Which has stable electronic configuration ? Ni2+ or Fe3+

Ni ( Z = 28)  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s23d8
Ni2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8
Fe ( Z = 26)  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s23d6
Fe3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
If d – orbital is half filled, Fe3+ is more stable. So is more stable Fe3+ than Ni2+
24. What is meant by nodal surface?
➢ The region where there is probability density function reduces to zero is called nodal surface or a
radial node
➢ For ns orbital, (n-1) nodes are found in it.
25. What are degenerate orbitals?
➢ Three different orientations in space that are possible for a p-orbital. All the three p - orbitals namely
px, py and pz have same energies and are called degenerate orbitals.
➢ In the presence of magnetic or electric filed the degeneracy is lost.
26. State hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
It states that electron pairing in the degenerate orbitals does not take place until all the
available orbitals contain one electron each.
Ex :- Electronic configuration of Carbon ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿
1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1
27. What are the limitations of Bohr’s atom model?
➢ The Bohr’s atom model is applicable only to species having one electron.
➢ It was unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic field (Zeeman’s
effect or an electrical field ( Stark effect).
➢ Bohr’s theory was unable to explain why the electron is restricted to revolve around the nucleus in a
nh
fixed orbit in which the angular momentum of the electron is equal to
2
28. How many unpaired electrons are present in the ground state of Cr3+( Z = 24) and
Ne(Z=10)
Cr (Z=24)  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s13d5
Cr3+  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 it contains 3 unpaired electrons
Ne (Z=10)  1s2 2s2 2p6 no unpaired electrons in it
29. Which is the actual electronic configuration of Cr (Z=24) why?
Cr (Z=24)  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s13d5
5
Cr with 3d is half filled and it will be more stable
30. Which is the actual electronic configuration of Cu (Z=29) why?
Cu (Z=29)  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s13d10
10
Cu with 3d is completely filled and it will be more stable
31. Define Quantum number and what are its types?
The electron in a atom can explained by Quantum numbers
Types of quantum numbers
1, Principal quantum number 2, Azimuthal quantum number 3, magnetic quantum number and 4, Spin
quantum number
32. Write a notes on Principal quantum number
➢ It is denoted by the symbol ‘n’
➢ The ‘n’ can have the values 1,2,3….
Shell K L M N
‘n’ value 1 2 3 4
➢ The maximum number of electrons in a shell can be calculated by the formula 2n2.
➢ The energy of the electron is given by
−1312.8Z2
En = KJmol-1.
n2
(0.529)n2 0
➢ The distance of the electron nucleus is given by rn = A.
𝑧
33. Write a notes on Azimuthal quantum number
➢ It is denoted by the symbol ‘l’
➢ l = (n-1) ,the ‘l’ can have the values 0, 1,2,3….
Sub Shell (orbitals) s p d f
‘n’ value 0 1 2 3
➢ The maximum number of electrons in a orbital can be calculated by the formula 2(2l+1).
➢ It is used to calculate the orbitals angular momentum by using
h
Angular momentum √l(l + 1)
2π
34. Write a notes on Magnetic quantum number
➢ It is denoted by the symbol ‘m’
➢ Its value ranging from –l to + l through 0
i.e, if l =1  m = -1, 0 and +1
➢ The values of ‘l’ represent different orientation of orbitals in space
➢ The Zeeman effect experimental justification of this quantum number.
35. Write a notes on Spin quantum number
➢ It is denoted by the symbol ‘s’
➢ The electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus and also spins in a clockwise direction or in anti-
clockwise direction.
Spin direction clockwise anti-clockwise
‘s’ value +½ -½
36. Write a notes on Zeeman efeect
The spitting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic field.
37. Write a notes on Stark efeect
The spitting of spectral lines in the presence of electrical field.
38. How many unpaired electrons are present in the ground state of Fe3+ (Z = 26),
Mn2+ (Z =25) and Ar (Z = 18)
Fe (Z=26)  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Fe 3+  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5
3d5
Number of unpaired electrons = 5
Mn (Z=26)  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
Mn2+  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5
3d5
Number of unpaired electrons = 5
Ar (Z=18)  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
3p6
No unpaired electrons in it
39. Sketch and explain the shapes of s-orbital.
➢ For s-orbital l = 0 and hence, m can have only one value,i.e., m = 0.
➢ This means that the probability of finding the electron in s-orbital is the
same in all directions at a particular distance.
➢ In other words s-orbitals are spherically symmetrical.
40. Sketch and explain the shapes of p-orbitals.
➢ p-orbitals, l = 1 and the corresponding m values are
−1, 0 & +1.
➢ The three different ‘m’ values indicates that there
are three different possible orientations as px, py and
pz and the angular distribution along the x, y and z
axis respectively.
41. Sketch and explain the shapes of d-orbitals.
➢ For ‘d’ orbital l = 2 and the corresponding m values are
-2, -1, 0,+1,+2.
➢ The shape of the d orbital looks like a 'clover leaf '.
➢ The five m values give rise to five d orbitals namely dxy , dyz,
dzx,dx2-y2 and dz2.
42. Sketch and explain the shapes of f-orbitals.
➢ For 'f ' orbital, l = 3 and the m values are -3, -2,-1, 0, +1, +2, +3 .
➢ Corresponding to seven f orbitals fz3, fxz2, fyz2, fxyz, fz(x2−y2), fx(x2−3y2), fy(3x2−y2)
43. Define Exchange energy
➢ If two or more electrons with the same spin are present in degenerate orbitals, there is a possibility for
exchanging their positions.
➢ During exchange process the energy is released and the released energy is called exchange energy.
➢ For example, in chromium the electronic configuration is [Ar]3d5 4s1. The 3d orbital is
half filled and there are ten possible exchanges.
4 exchanges by electrons 3 exchanges by electrons
2 exchanges by electrons 1 exchanges by electron
Overall electron exchanges ( 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 10)

44. Identify the missing quantum numbers and the sub energy level
n l m Sub energy level

4 2 0 4d
3 1 0 3p
5 1 +1, 0, -1 5p
3 2 -2 3d

3 .PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
1,Define Triads
➢ The atomic weight of the middle element nearly equal to the mean of the atomic weight of the
remaining two elements.
➢ Elements like chlorine, Bromine and Iodine have same chemical properties in the group. These are
called as triads.
2. Define Law of Octaves
On arranging the elements in the increasing order of atomic weights, the property of every eighth
elements is similar to the property of the first element.
3. Define Mendeleev’s Periodic law
The properties of the elements are the periodic functions of the atomic weights.
4. Define Modern Periodic law
The Physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic functions of the atomic
numbers.
5. Give the Anomalies of Mendeleev’s Periodic table
➢ Elements with same properties are placed in different groups
➢ Elements with different properties are placed in same groups.
➢ Elements with higher atomic weights are placed before the lower atomic weights.
6. Define Periodicity
The repetition of the Physical and the chemical properties at regular intervals are called periodicity
7. How Lavoisier classified the elements
Acid making elements Sulphur
Gas like elements Oxygen
Metallic element Gold
Earthly elements Lime
8. What are the basic difference between Mendeleev’s and Modernperiodic table
Sl.No Mendeleev’s periodic table Modern periodic table
1 The properties of the elements are the The Physical and chemicalproperties of the
periodic functions of the atomic elements are theperiodic functions of the atomic
weights. numbers.
2 There 8 groups and 12 periods There 18 groups and 7 periods
3 Contains vacant place for new No vacant place
Elements.
4 Elements of same group contains Elements of same group contains
different properties identical properties
5 Isotopes are not explained Isotopes are explained.
9. Explain the Henry Moseley X-ray spectra experiment
➢ Hendry Moseley studied the X-ray spectra of many elements by bombarding them with high energy
electrons.
➢ He observed a linear correlation between the atomic number and the frequency of the X-ray emitted.
10. Explain the different types of elements in the Periodic table.
There are 4 types of elements
a) S-block elements
➢ The elements of group 1 and group 2 are called as S-block elements
➢ The last valence electron enters into the ns orbital
➢ Group 1 elements are called as Alkali metals and group 2 are called as Alkaline earth metals
➢ They are highly reactive
➢ They are soft metals with low boiling and melting point
b) d-block elements
➢ The elements of group 3 to 12 are called d-block elements
➢
Their general electron configuration is ns2 (n-1)d 1-10
➢ They have high boiling and melting points
➢ They are good conductor of heat and electricity
➢ They are used as catalyst
c) P-block elements
➢ The elements of group 13 to 18 are called P-block elements
➢ Their general electron configuration is ns2np1-6
➢ Group 16 is called as Chalcogens
➢ Group 17 is called as Halogens
➢ Group 18 is called as Noble gases
➢ They form covalent compounds
➢ They have high electron affinity and Ionization energy values
d) f-Block elements
➢ There are 2 series of f-block elements
➢ Lanthanides = 4f 1-14 5d 0-1 6s2
➢ Actinides = 5f 0-14 6d 0-2 7 s2
➢ They have high melting points
➢ Most of the compounds are coloured
➢ They show variable oxidation states
11. Write the electronic configuration of Lanthanides and actinides
Lanthanides = 4f1-14 5d0-1 6s2
Actinides = 5f0-14 6d 0-2 7s2
12. Define atomic radius and explain the variation in the periodic table
The distance between the center of the nucleus and the outer mostshell containing the valence
electron called as atomic radius.
Along the Period :It Decrease along the period.
Reason
➢ As we move along the period the valence electrons are added to the same shell.
➢ So the Nuclear charge increases,
➢ And the attractive force between the valence electron and the nucleus increases
Along the Group: It Increases along the group.
Reason
➢ As we move down the group the valence electrons are added into new shells.
➢ As a result the distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons increases.
13. Define ionic radius
The distance between the center of the nucleus of a ion and the outermost shell containing the
valence electron called as ionic radius.
14. Define metallic radius
The half of the distance between two adjacent metal atoms in a closely packed metallic crystal is
called as Metallic radius
15. Define Covalent radius
The half of the inter nuclear distance between two identical atoms linked by a single covalent bond
is called as Covalent radius
16. Define Shielding effect
The inner shell electrons act as a shield between the nucleus and the valence electrons, this effect is
called as Shielding effect.
17. Explain the Pauling method of calculating Ionic radius
In the Pauling method the Ionic radius was Calculated by using the Inter Ionic Distance
Example for Isoelectronic :
Na+ = 2, 8 ; F− = 2, 8
r( C +) + r(A- ) = d(C+ - A- ) ------ 1
Effective Nucelar charge Zeff = Z – S

1
r( C +) α_ -------------- -------- 2
Zeff( C +)
1
r( A -)α -------------- -------- 3
Zeff( A -)
r( C +) Zeff ( A -)
-------- = ---------- ------- 4
r( A -) Zeff ( C +)
where
r( C+) = ionic radius of the cation ; r( A- ) = ionic radius of the anion
d(C+ - A− ) = inter ionic distance
Z eff( A−) = Effective nuclear charge of the anion
Zeff( C+) = Effective nuclear charge of the cation
Using Eqn 1 and 4 Ionic radius can be calculated.
18. Define is ionization energy and explain the variation in the periodic table.
Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an loosely bounded electron from the
outermost shell of an atom. Unit is eV
Along the Group : It decreases along the group.
Reason
➢ As we move down the group the valence electrons are added into new shells.
➢ As a result the distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons increases.
➢ Hence the nuclear charge decreases and the ionization also decreases.
➢ Along the period : It increases along the period Reason
➢ As we move along the period the valence electrons are added to the same shell.
➢ So the Nuclear charge increases, And the attraction between the valence electron and the nucleus
increases
➢ Hence more energy is required to remove the valence electron, so Ionization energy increases.
19. Define Valence State or Oxidation state
Valence state is the number of electrons present in the valence shell
➢ Along the group the Valence state remains a constant
Because along the group the valence electrons does not changes.
➢ Along the period the Valence State increases.
Because along the period the of valence electrons increases.
20. Define second ionization energy
Second Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove a electron from a uni positive
cation.
21. Why the second ionization energy is always greater than the first ionization energy
➢ The total number of electrons is less in a cation than a neutral atom
➢ So the effective nuclear charge of the cation is greater than the atom
➢ The order is IE1< IE2< IE3< ………
22. Define electron affinity and explain the variation in the periodic table.
Electron affinity is defined as the amount of energy released when a electron is added to the valence
shell of a atom.
Reason
➢ As we move down the group the nuclear charge decreases
➢ The atomic size increases.
➢ The Shielding effect of the inner electrons increase
Along the period : It increases along the period
Reason
➢ As we move along the period the nuclear charge increases
➢ The atomic size decreases.
➢ The attraction between the valence electron and the nucleus increases
23. Define electron negativity and explain the variation in the periodic table.
Electro negativity is a tendency of a element present is covalent molecule to attract the shared pair of
electrons towards itself.
➢ As we move down the group the nuclear charge decreases
➢ The atomic size increases.
➢ Along the period : It increases along the period Reason
➢ As we move along the period the nuclear charge increases
➢ The atomic size decreases.
➢ The attraction between the valence electron and the nucleus increases
24. Explain the Pauling’s method of calculating the Electro Negativity
➢ According the Pauling the EN value of Hydrogen is 2.1 and for Fluorine is 4.0
➢ He calculated by using the Formula
( XA – XB ) = 0.182  EA-B - ( EA-A × EB-B ) ½
Where EA-B, EA-A and EB-B are the bond energy of AB, A2 and B2 molecules.
25. Define Diagonal relationship
The similarities in the properties between the diagonally present elements are called as Diagonal
relationship.
Eg Li and Mg have same properties.
Example lithium and magnesium have similar properties
Li Be B C
Na Mg Al Si
26. Why Beryllium has high Ionisation energy than Boron ?

➢ Be4 = 1s2 2s2
➢ B5 = 1s2 2s2 2p1
➢ Beryllium is having high ionization energy than Boron
➢ Beryllium has high Nuclear Charge
➢ Beryllium has Stable Fully filled ns2 electronic configuration
➢ The force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron is very high in Beryllium
➢ So it is difficult to remove the outermost electrons of Beryllium
27. Why Nitrogen has high Ionization energy than oxygen ?
➢ N7 = 1s2 2s2 2p3
➢ O8 = 1s2 2s2 2p4
➢ Nitrogen has high Nuclear Charge
➢ Nitrogen has Stable Half filled np3 electronic configuration
➢ The force of attraction between the nucleus and the outer most electron is very high in Nitrogen
➢ So it is difficult to remove the 2p electrons of Nitrogen
➢ But if one electron is removed from Oxygen it gives stable 2p3 configuration, so it is easy to remove
the 2p electron of oxygen
28. Why Beryllium has Zero electron affinity ?
➢ Be4 = 1s2 2s2
➢ Beryllium has Stable Fully filled ns2 electronic configuration
➢ If a electron is added it will disturb the stable electronic configuration.
So it will not accept electrons
29. Why Nitrogen has Zero electron affinity ?
➢ N7 = 1s2 2s2 2p3
➢ Nitrogen has Stable Half filled np3 electronic configuration
➢ If a electron is added it will disturb the stable electronic configuration.
30. Why Noble gases ( Neon ) has Zero electron affinity ?
➢ Ne10 = 1s2 2s2 2p6
➢ Neon has Stable Fully filled np6 electronic configuration
➢ If a electron is added it will disturb the stable electronic configuration. And it requires more energy.
31. Why the 17th group ( Halogens ) have high electron affinity ?
➢ Halogens have a unstable np5 electronic configuration.
➢ By gaining one electron it becomes a Stable Fully filled np6 electronic configuration
➢ Hence it accepts one electron and become a stable Noble gas configuration
32. Why the electron affinity of Oxygen and Fluorine is lower than sulphur and chorine
➢ Oxygen and Fluorine is smaller in size.
➢ Oxygen and Fluorine have high electron density.
➢ In oxygen and Fluorine the valence electrons enter into the 2p orbital.
➢ But in Sulphur and chlorine the valence electrons enter into the 3porbital.
33. Define Isoelectronic ions.
Ions having same number of electrons and same electronic configuration are called as
Isoelectronic ions
Example for Isoelectronic:
Na+ = 2, 8 ; F− = 2, 8
34. Define effective nuclear charge
The net nuclear charge experienced by the valence electron in the outer most shell is called as
effective nuclear charge Effective Nuclear charge Zeff = Z - S
Z = atomic number ; S= Shielding constant
35. Why halogens act as oxidizing agents ?
➢ Halogens have high electron negativity and electron affinity values.
➢ Halogens have a unstable np5 electronic configuration.
➢ By gaining one electron it becomes a Stable Fully filled np6 electronic configuration
➢ Hence it accepts one electron and become a stable Noble gas configuration
36. Give any 2 Anomalous properties of 2nd group elements
➢ Lithium and Beryllium form covalent compounds but other forms ionic compounds
➢ The second period has only 2 orbitals ( 2s and 2p ) in the valence shell. So the maximum valency is
4. But others have more orbital in the valence shell and higher valencies.
Example Boron forms BF4− but Aluminum forms AlF6−3
37. Mg+1, Mg+2 and Mg+3 which step required more energy ?
The formation of the Mg+3ion from Mg+2 ion requires more ionization energy because
➢ Mg+2 has stable noble gas configurations of 2,8 electrons
➢ Since the valence orbital is completely filled it requires more energy to remove an electron.
➢ Mg+2ion has more effective nuclear charge.
38. Why the first IE value of sodium is lower than Mg. but the second IE value is higher than
Mg
Na11 = 1s2 2s2 2p63s1 ; Mg12 = 1s2 2s2 2p4 3s2
➢ First IE value of Mg is larger because Mg is smaller in size and has high nuclear charge. So more
energy is required to remove a electron from Magnesium than sodium
➢ But in second IE value is larger for Sodium because Sodium has full filled Stable np6 electronic
configuration. And high nuclear charge.
39. Why the first IE value of Carbon greater than Boron. But the second IE value is reverse.
B5 = 1s2 2s22p1;C6 = 1s2 2s2 2p2
➢ First IE value of Carbon is larger because Carbon is smaller in size and has high nuclear charge. So
more energy is required to remove a electron from Carbon than Boron
➢ But in second IE value is larger for Boron because Boron has full filled Stable ns2 electronic
configuration. And high nuclear charge.
40. Why the EA of Be, Mg and noble gases is zero
Mg12 = 1s2 2s2 2p63s2;Ne10 = 1s2 2s2 2p6; Be4 = 1s2 2s2
Be, Mg and Noble gases are having fully filled stable electronic configuration.
These elements will not accept electrons
41. Why the EA value of Nitrogen and Phosphorous is very low ?
N7 = 1s2 2s22p3 ;P15 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
➢ Nitrogen and Phosphorous has Stable Half filled np3 electronic configuration
➢ If an electron is added it will disturb the stable electronic configuration.
42. Why the covalent radius is less than atomic radius.
During the formation of the covalent bond there is a overlapping of atomic orbitals so the inter
nuclear distance decreases. So covalent radius also decreases.

4 .HYDROGEN
1. Explain why hydrogen is not placed with the halogen in the periodic table.
➢ Hydrogen resembles alkali (group 1 elements) as well as Halogens (Group 17 elements )
➢ Hydrogen resembles more alkali metals than halogens
➢ Electron affinity value of Hydrogen is much less than halogens.
➢ The tendency to form hydride ion is low compound to that of halogens.
➢ In most of its compound hydrogen exists in +1 oxidation state.
2. An the cube at 00 C is placed in some liquid water at 00 C, the ice cube sinks - Why ?
➢ Ice has low density than water.
➢ At 00C Ice and Water are equilibrium
➢ So liquid water at 00 C, the ice cube sinks.
3. Discuss the three types of Covalent hydrides.
Sl.No Covalent hydrides Example
1 Electron Precise Hydride CH4
2 Electron rich hydride NH3
3 Electron deficient hydride B2H6
4. Predict which of the following hydrides is a gas on a solid (a) HCl (b) NaH. Give your
reason.
At room temperature HCl is a colourless gas and the solution of HCl in water is called Hydrochloric
acid and it is in liquid state.
5. Write the expected formulas for the hydrides of 4th period elements. What is the trend in
the formulas? In what way the first two numbers of the series different from the others
The hydrides of 4th period elements
Sl.No Group Type Example
1 1&2 Ionic hydrides KH & CaH2
2 3 to 12 Metallic hydrides TiH1.5-1.8
3 13 Electron deficient hydride GaH3
4 14 Electron Precise Hydride CH4
5 15 Electron rich hydride NH3
First two numbers of the series are Ionic hydrides
6. Write chemical equation for the following reactions.
i) Reaction of hydrogen with tungsten (VI) oxide on heating.
WO3 + 3 H2 ⎯→ W + 3 H2O
ii) Hydrogen gas and chlorine gas.
H2 + Cl2 ⎯→ 2HCl
7. Complete the following chemical reactions and classify them in to (a) hydrolysis (b)redox (c)
hydration reactions.
1) KMnO4 + H2O2 ⎯→
KMnO4 + H2O2 ⎯→ MnO2 + KOH + H2O + O2 (Redox reaction)
2) CrCl3 + H2O ⎯→
CrCl3 + H2O ⎯→ [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 (Hydration reaction)
3) CaO + H2O ⎯→
CaO + H2O ⎯→ Ca(OH)2 (Hydrolysis reaction)
8. Hydrogen peroxide can function as an oxidizing agent as well as reducing agent.
Substantiate this statement with suitable examples.
Oxidation takes place in acidic medium
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + H2O2 ⎯→ Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O
Reduction takes place in basic medium
2KMnO4 + 3H2O2 ⎯→ 2MnO2+ 2KOH + 2H2O +3O2
9. Do you think that heavy water can be used for drinking purposes ?
➢ It is not completely safe to drink.
➢ The bio chemical reaction in our cells are affected by the difference in the mass of hydrogen
atoms.
10. What is water-gas shift reaction ?
➢ The mixture of carbon mono oxide and hydrogen are called Water Gas.
➢ When carbon mono oxide of Water gas can be converted into carbon di oxide by mixing the gas
mixture with more steam (H2O).
Cu  Fe  4000 C
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
11. Justify the position of hydrogen in the periodic table ?
➢ Hydrogen has similarities with alkali metals as well as the halogens
➢ It is difficult to find the right position in the periodic table.
➢ However, in most of its compounds hydrogen exists in +1 oxidation state.
➢ Therefore, it is reasonable to place the hydrogen in group 1 along with alkali metals as shown in
the latest periodic table published by IUPAC.
12. What are isotopes? Write the names of isotopes of hydrogen
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes,
➢ Protium (1H1 or H),
➢ Deuterium (1H2 or D) and
➢ Tritium (1H3 or T).
13. Give the uses of heavy water
➢ It is used as Moderators in Nuclear reactor.
➢ It is used as tracer element to study the mechanisms of organic reactions.
➢ It is used as coolant in nuclear reactors to absorb the heat.
14. Explain the exchange reactions of deuterium.
CH4 + 2 D2 ⎯→ CD4 + 2 H2
2 NH3 + 3 D2 ⎯→ 2 ND3 + 3 H2
15. How do you convert para hydrogen into ortho hydrogen ?
➢ By using catalyst like Iron
➢ By passing electric discharge
➢ By heating at 8000C
➢ By mixing with paramagnetic molecules like oxygen
➢ By mixing with atomic hydrogen
16. Mention the uses of deuterium.
➢ It is used as tracer element to study the mechanisms of organic reactions.
➢ High speed deuterium is used in Artificial radio activity
➢ It is used in the preparation of heavy water which used as Moderators in Nuclear reactor
17. Explain preparation of hydrogen using electrolysis.
➢ Hydrogen is prepared by the electrolysis of water containing small amount of NaOH.
➢ Anode : Nickel
➢ Cathode : Iron
Anode:- 2OH- -⎯→ H2O+½O2+2e-
Cathode:- 2 H2O+2 e- ⎯→ 2OH-+H2
Over all reaction H2O ⎯→ H2 + ½ O2

18. A groups metal (A) which is present in common salt reacts with (B) to give compound
(C) in which hydrogen is present in –1 oxidation state. (B) on reaction with a gas (C) to
give universal solvent (D). The compound (D) on reacts with (A) to give ((F)), a strong
base. Identify A, B, C, D, E and F. Explain the reactions.
2Na + H2 ⎯→ 2NaH
(A) (B) (C)
2H2 + O2 ⎯→ 2H2O
(A) (D) (E)
2Na + 2H2O ⎯→ 2NaOH + H2O
(F)
Compounds Molecular Formula Name
A Na Sodium
B H2 Hydrogen
C NaH Sodium Hydride
D O2 Oxygen
E H2O Water
F NaOH Sodium Hydroxide
19. An isotope of hydrogen (A) reacts with diatomic molecule of element which occupies
group number 16 and period number 2 to give compound (B) is used as a modulator in
nuclear reaction. (A) adds on to a compound (C), which has the molecular formula C3H6
to give (D). Identify A, B, C and D.
2D2 + O2 ⎯→ 2D2O
(A) (B)
3D2 + CH3-CH=CH2 ⎯→ CH3-CHD-CH2D + 3H2
(A) (C) (D)
Compounds Molecular Formula Name
A D2 Deuterium
B D2O Heavy Water
C CH3-CH=CH2 Propene
D CH3-CHD-CH2D Deutride propene
20. NH3 has exceptionally high melting point and boiling point as compared to those of the
hydrides of the remaining element of group 15 - Explain.
➢ Nitrogen has more electronegative value other than 15th group element.
➢ NH3 has inter molecular Hydrogen bonding.
➢ So It has high melting point and boiling point.
21. Why interstitial hydrides have a lower density than the parent metal.
➢ Most of the hydrides are non-stoichiometric with variable composition (TiH1.5-1.8 and PdH0.6-0.8)
➢ So it have lower density than parent metal
22. How do you expect the metallic hydrides to be useful for hydrogen storage ?
➢ In metallic hydrides, Hydrogen is absorbed as hydrogen atoms due to adsorption of hydrogen atoms
the metal lattice expands and becomes unstable.
➢ Thus when metallic hydride is heated it decomposes to form hydrogen and finally divided metal.
23. Compare the structures of H2O and H2O2.
H2 O H2O2
Bent structure The hydrogen atoms would lie on the pages of a partly opened
H-O-H bond angle is104.50 book, and the oxygen atoms along the spine.
H2O2 has a non-polar structure. The molecular dimensions in
the gas phase and solid phase differ as shown in fig
O H H
o
94.8 101.9
o
H 104.50 H 0.95A o
115.5 0.98 A o
90.2
1.47A 1.46A
H H
H
24. Arrange NH3, H2O and HF in the order of increasing magnitude of hydrogen bonding and
explain the basis for your arrangement. H
➢ Increasing magnitude of Hydrogen bonding NH3 < H2O < HF
➢ Increasing order of their electro negativities are N < O < F
Other questions
1. Explain Ortho and Para hydrogen
➢ In hydrogen molecule, if the two nuclei rotates in the same direction is called
H as Ortho hydrogen
➢ In a hydrogen molecule, if the two nuclei rotates in the opposite direction is called as Para hydrogen
Orthohydrogen Para hydrogen

2. Give the difference ( Compare ) between Ortho and para hydrogen
Sl.No Ortho hydrogen Para hydrogen
1 Both the nuclei rotates in the samedirection Both the nuclei rotates in theopposite direction
2 75% at room temperature 25% at room temperature
3 It is more stable It is less stable
4 It has a net magnetic moment It has Zero magnetic moment
3. Give the preparation of Tritium
Tritium is prepared by bombarding Lithium with slow neutrons.
+ 0n1→1T3 + 2He4
3Li
6
4. Show that Tritium is a Beta emitter. ( Give the Properties )

1T →2He + -1e (-1e is Beta ray)
3 3 0 0
The Half life period of Tritium is 12.3 years

5. Explain the Lab preparation of hydrogen
Hydrogen is prepared by heating Zinc with dilute Acids
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 
6. Give the industrial preparation of hydrogen
Hydrogen is prepared by mixing methane with steam at 9000C
and35 atm pressures in the presence of Nickel catalyst.
Ni  35atm  9000 C
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2H2
7. Give the preparation of Deuterium by the electrolysis of
heavy water
➢ The dissociation of water faster than heavy water
➢ When water is electrolyzed hydrogen is liberated faster than deuterium
➢ The electrolysis is continued till the solution rich in heavy water and finally gives deuterium.
electrolyzed
2D2O→ 2D2 + O2
8. Explain any three chemical properties of Hydrogen.
a)Hydrogen with chlorine gas
H2 + Cl2 ⎯→ 2 HCl
b) Hydrogen reaction with oxygen
2H2 +O2 ⎯→ 2 H2O
c) Hydrogen reaction with Lithium
2Li + H2 ⎯→ 2LiH
9. Give any three chemical properties of Water
a)Water with sodium metal
2Na + 2H2O ⎯→ 2 NaOH + H2
b)Water with Barium metal
Ba + 2H2O ⎯→ Ba(OH)2 + H2
c)Steam with Red hot Iron

3 Fe + 4H2O ⎯→ Fe3O4 + H2
10. Give the preparation of Lithium Aluminium Hydride ( LiAlH4 )
4 LiH + AlCl3 ⎯→ LiAlH4 + 3 LiCl
11. Give the preparation of Sodium Boro Hydride
4 NaH + B(OCH3)3 ⎯→ NaBH4 + 3 CH3ONa
12. Give the action of Heavy water with the following
a)Aluminium Carbide , b)Calcium Carbide and c) Magnesium Nitride
a) Aluminium Carbide
Al4C3 + 12 D2O ⎯→ 4 Al(OD)3+ 3 CD4
b) Calcium Carbide
CaC2 + 2 D2O ⎯→ Ca(OD)2 + C2D2
c) Magnesium Nitride
Mg3N2 + 6 D2O ⎯→ 3 Mg(OD)2 + 2 ND3
13. List the uses of Hydrogen
➢ Liquid hydrogen is used as Rocket Fuel
➢ Hydrogen is used for preparing Fertilizer and explosives
➢ It is used as catalyst for the preparation of Vanaspati.
➢ It is used for the preparation of Methanol and industrial solvent.
14. What is Temporary hardness and how it is removed?
➢ Temporary hardness is due to the presence of Bicarbonates of Magnesium and Calcium.
➢ It can be removed by boiling and filtration.
Ca(HCO3)2 ⎯→ CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 ⎯→ MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O
MgCO3 + H2O ⎯→ Mg(OH)2 + CO2
15. Explain the Clark’s method of removing temporary hardness? Give the equation.
In Clark’s method calculated amount of lime is added to hard water and filtered-off.
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O
16.What is permanent Hardness and how it is removed?
➢ Permanent hardness is due to the presence of Chlorides and Sulphates of Magnesium and Calcium.
➢ It is removed by adding washing soda. (Na2CO3)
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 ⎯→ CaCO3 + 2NaCl
MgSO4 + Na2CO3 ⎯→ MgCO3 + Na2SO4
17. Explain the Ion Exchange method of Softening hard water.
➢ In this method the hard water is passed through an ion exchange Zeolites.
➢ The Zeolites are hydrated Sodium Alumino Silicates (Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O)
➢ The Zeolites contains porous structure of mono valent sodium ions, which is exchanged with
Calcium and Magnesium ions in water.
Na2-Z + Ca2+⎯→ 2Na+ + Ca – Z
➢ The Zeolites can be reused by treating with sodium chloride.
Na2- Z + Mg2+ ⎯→ 2Na+ + Mg– Z
18. What is 30% solution of hydrogen peroxide? Or what is 100 volume of hydro peroxide?
➢ 30 % solution of hydrogen peroxide is called as ‘100-volume’ hydrogen peroxide.
➢ At STP on heating 1 ml of hydrogen peroxide liberated 100 ml of oxygen.
19. List the used of Hydrogen peroxide
➢ It is used as Antiseptic
➢ It is used to bleach paper and textile
➢ It is used in water treatment to oxidize pollutant in water.
20. How Hydrogen peroxide is used to restore the colour of old paintings
➢ Hydrogen peroxide is used to restore the white colour of the old paintings
➢ Hydrogen sulphide in air reacts with the white pigment to form a black colored lead sulphide.
➢ Hydrogen peroxide reacts lead sulphide to give white coloured lead sulphate.
21. What is hydrogen bonding
➢ When hydrogen is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as fluorine, oxygen and
nitrogen, the bond is polarized.
➢ The polarized hydrogen forms a weak electrostatic force of interaction with another electronegative
atom.
➢ This interaction is called as a hydrogen bond and is denoted by dotted lines (…..…)
22. What are intra and inter molecular hydrogen bonding. ( Types )
➢ The hydrogen bonding which occur within the molecule is called as Intra molecular hydrogen
bonding. Eg. Ortho Nitro Phenol
➢ The hydrogen bonding which occur between two or more molecules of same or different types is
called as Inter molecular hydrogen bonding. Eg. Water.
23. What are the importance of Hydrogen bonding
➢ It plays an important role in bio molecules like proteins.
➢ It plays a important role in the structure of DNA,
➢ It holds the two helical Nucleic acid chains of the DNA together.
24. Why hydrogen peroxide is store in Plastic bottles not in Glass bottles
➢ It dissolves the Alkali metals present in glass.
➢ It undergoes a Catalyzed disproportionation reaction.
➢ So it is stored in Plastic bottles.
H2O2 ⎯→ H2O + ½O2
25. Give the preparation of Hydrogen peroxide.
a) When Barium peroxides reacts with sulphuric acid, it gives hydrogen peroxide.
BaO2 + dil.H2SO4 ⎯→ BaSO4 + H2O2
b) When Sodium peroxides reacts with sulphuric acid, it gives hydrogen peroxide.
Na2O2 + dil.H2SO4 ⎯→ Na2SO4 + H2O2
26. What is Soft water and Hard water
➢ Water free from calcium and magnesium salts is called soft water.
➢ Water containing chlorides and sulphate of magnesium & calcium ions is called as Hard water.
27. Explain the exchange reaction of Heavy water
HCl + D2O ⎯→ DCl + HOD
NaOH + D2O ⎯→ NaOD + HOD
NH4Cl + 4D2O ⎯→ ND4Cl + 4HOD
28. Explain the exchange reaction of Deuterium
CH4+ 2D2 ⎯→ CD4+ 2H2
NH3 + 3D2 ⎯→ 2ND3 + 2H2

5 . Alkali and Alkaline earth metals
1. What are S-block elements

The Elements of Group 1 and 2 are called as S-Block elements. Group 1 is called as Alkali metals
and group 2 are called as Alkaline earth metals
2. What are the general characteristics of the Alkali metals
➢ Alkali metals are highly reactive
➢ Francium is radio active
➢ Their general electronic configuration is ns1.
➢ Their common oxidation state is +1.
➢ As we move down the group, the IE value decrease with the increase
in the atomic number
➢ As we move down the group, the Atomic radius increases.
3. Explain the flame colour and the Spectra of Alkali metals
➢ When Alkali metal salts is mixed with Concentrated Hydrochloric acid and heated on a Platinum
wire it give the characteristic colour flame.
➢ When heated the valence electrons are excited to the higher energy level
➢ When drops back to the ground state the energy is emitted as light in the visible region.
4. Why the second ionization enthalpy of Alkali metals are very high ?
When a electron is removed from the alkali metals, it gives a monovalent cation with fully filled
stable np6 electronic configuration. So it is very difficult to remove the electrons .
5. Why lithium salts are more soluble than the other metals in group 1 ?
Lithium is more soluble because of high solvation and Smaller size of lithium ion.
6. What is the reason for the distinctive behavior of lithium
➢ Lithium is smaller in size
➢ Lithium is having high polarizing power.
➢ Lithium is having high hydration energy
➢ Lithium do not have any D-orbitals
7. Compare the properties of lithium and other elements
S.No. Lithium Other elements
1 Hard, high melting and boiling Soft, low melting and boiling point
point
2 Less reactive More reactive
3 Reacts with nitrogen to give No reaction
Li3N
4 Reacts with bromine slowly Reacts violently
Compounds are less soluble Compounds are Highly soluble in
in water Water
5 Lithium nitrate decomposes to Decomposes to give Nitrite
give Oxides
8. What are similarities ( Diagonal relation ) between Lithium and Magnesium
➢ Both lithium and Magnesium are Hard
➢ Both lithium and Magnesium reacts slowly with water.
➢ Both forms Nitrides with nitrogen. Eg. Li3N and Mg3N2.
➢ Both do not form Super oxides.
➢ Both forms only Oxides like Li2O and MgO.
➢ Their carbonates decompose on heating giving CO2 gas and Oxides.
➢ Both do not forms Bicarbonates
9. Why lithium and magnesium shows Diagonal relation ?
➢ Both lithium and magnesium are similar in size.
Li+ = 0.766 A0 and Mg+2 = 0.720 A0
➢ Both Lithium and Magnesium have similar Electro negativity value Li = 1.0 and Mg = 1.2
10. Give the action of Alkali metals with Oxygen.
➢ Lithium
4 Li + O2 ⎯→2 Li2O ( Simple Oxides )
➢ Sodium
2 Na + O2 ⎯→Na2O2 ( Peroxides )
➢ Potassium
K + O2 ⎯→ KO2 ( Super Oxides )
11. Why the Alkali metals have high conductivity in Ammonia solution
➢ This is because the alkali metals loses its valence electrons in ammonia solution.
➢ The cation and the electron are ammoniated to give ammoniated cation and ammoniated
electron.
M + (x+y) NH3 ⎯→ [M( NH3 )X]+ + [e( NH3)y]−
12. Why the Alkali metals give deep blue colour in Ammonia solution
The blue colour is because the ammoniated electron absorbs energy in the visible region of the light.
( The concentrated solution is Bronze colour and diamagnetic )
13. Give the action of Lithium with Acetylene ( Ethyne )
H – C  C – H + Na ⎯→ Na – C  C–H + ½H2
Na – C C–H + Na ⎯→ Na – C  C – Na + ½H2
14. Give the action of Lithium with water
Lithium reacts with water to give lithium hydroxide
2Li + 2H – OH ⎯→ 2LiOH + H2
15. Why Lithium Iodide is covalent in nature
➢ Lithium is smaller is size.
➢ The larger Iodide ion is greatly polarized by the lithium ion
16. Give the action of Lithium with carbon
Lithium reacts with carbon to give lithium carbide.
2Li + 2C ⎯→ Li2C2
17. Give the uses of Alkali metals
➢ Lithium used for making alloys.
Ex: Li-Al alloy is used for making Aircraft parts.
➢ Lithium carbonate is used in medicines
➢ Lithium is used for making electro chemical cells
➢ Cesium is used in Photo chemical cells.
➢ Potassium chloride is used in Fertilizers.
➢ Liquid sodium is used as coolant in nuclear reactors.
18. Give the action of heat of Lithium carbonate. And why it is less stable
Lithium carbonate is less stable because due to the large size difference between Lithium and the
Carbonate ion. It makes the crystal less stable.
∆
Li2CO3 → Li2O + CO2
19. Why the solubility carbonate and bicarbonates in water increases rapidly moving down
the group
This is because moving down the group, the Lattice energy decreases more rapidly than the
hydration energy
20. Give the preparation of Sodium Carbonate by Solvay process.
➢ In the Solvay process, sodium carbonate is prepared from Ammonia.
➢ The ammonia is recovered by adding Calcium Hydroxide.
2NH3 + H2O + CO2 ⎯→ (NH4)2CO3
(NH4)2CO3 + H2O + CO2 ⎯→ 2NH4HCO3
2NH4HCO3 + 2NaCl ⎯→ 2NH4Cl + 2NaHCO3
2NaHCO3 ⎯→ Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
21. What is Soda Ash ( Give the action of heat of Sodium Carbonate).
When Sodium carbonate is heated, it loses a water molecule to become mono hydrate.
∆
Na2CO3 .10H2O → Na2CO3 .H2O + 9 H2O
∆
Na2CO3 .H2O → Na2CO3 + H2O
On heating at 373K it becomes a white powder called as Soda Ash.
22. List the uses of Sodium Carbonate
➢ Sodium carbonate is called as Washing soda, which used in Laundry.
➢ It is used in Volumetric analysis
➢ It is used in water treatment to convert hard water to soft water.
➢ It is used to prepare Glass, Paper and Paints
23. List the uses of Sodium chloride
➢ It is used as common salt
➢ It is used to prepare NaOH and Sodium Carbonate
24. Give the preparation of Sodium hydroxide.
➢ Sodium hydroxide is prepared by the electrolysis of Brine solution byusing Castner - Kellner cell.
➢ Cathode - Mercury
➢ Anode - Carbon rod
➢ Sodium metal is liberated at the cathode and reacts with mercury to form Sodium Amalgam
➢ Sodium amalgam is treated with water to give Sodium Hydroxide.
➢ Chorine is liberated at the anode
At the cathode
Na+ + e- ⎯→ Na-amalgam
At the anode
Cl- ⎯→ ½ Cl2 + e -
2 Na-amalgam + 2 H2O ⎯→ 2 NaOH + 2 Hg + H2
25. Give the used of Sodium hydroxide.
➢ It is used as laboratory reagent.
➢ It is used in refining Petroleum
➢ It is used to prepare soap and paper.
➢ It is used in textile industry
26. Why sodium bicarbonate is used in Baking Cakes.
When sodium bicarbonate is heated it decomposes to gives carbon-di-oxide bubbles and makes the
cake light and fluffy.
27. List the used of Sodium bicarbonate.
➢ It is used in Fire Extinguisher
➢ It is used as a Antiseptic for skin infections
➢ It used in Baking.
28. Explain the Amphoteric nature of Beryllium Hydroxide.
Beryllium Hydroxide reacts both with Acid and Base.
Be(OH)2 + 2NaOH ⎯→ Na2BeO2 + 2H2O
Be(OH)2 + 2HCl ⎯→ BeCl2 + 2H2O
29. Give the biological importance of Sodium and Potassium
Biological importance to sodium ions:-
➢ Sodium ions are found outside the cell in the blood plasma.
➢ Sodium ions are used in the transmission of Nerve signal.
➢ The sodium ions are used in the transport of sugar and amino acids into the cell
➢ The sodium ins are used to regulate the flow of water across the cell Membranes Biological
importance to Potassium ions:-
➢ Potassium ions are used to activate the enzymes.
➢ Potassium ions participate in the Oxidation of Glucose to ATP
➢ Potassium ions is used in the transmission of Nerve signal
➢ Potassium ion is found in Biological fluids.
30. What are Alkaline earth metals
➢ Group 2 elements Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra are called as Alkaline earth metals
➢ The oxides and hydroxides are alkaline in nature and the metal oxides are found in the earth crust.
So they are called as Alkaline earth metals
31. Explain the important common features of Group 2 elements
➢ Group 2 elements Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra are called as Alkaline earth metals
➢ Their general electronic configuration is ns2.
➢ Their common oxidation state is +2.
➢ Moving down the group the ionic radius increases
➢ Moving down the group the Ionization enthalpy decreases.
➢ Moving down the group the electro negativity decreases.
➢ Moving down the group the hydration enthalpy decreases.
32. Why the ionic radius of Alkaline earth metals are smaller than alkali metals ?
➢ Alkaline earth metals have high Nuclear charge
➢ The force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron is very high in Alkaline earth
metals.
33. Why the Ionization enthalpy of Alkaline earth metals are larger than alkali metals ? ( less
electro positive than alkali metals )
➢ Alkaline earth metals are smaller in size
➢ Alkaline earth metals have high Nuclear charge
➢ The force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron is very high in Alkaline
earth metals.
34. Why the Alkaline earth metals have +2 Oxidation state
By losing 2 electrons Alkaline earth metals get fully filled stable noble gas configuration. So they
have +2 Oxidation state
35. Why the IE1 of alkaline metals is high but the IE2 is less than alkali metals ?
➢ In alkali metals the second electron has to be removed from fully filled stable noble gas
configuration
➢ But in alkaline earth metals, the second electron is removed from a monovalent cation which gave
still one electron.
36. Why the Alkaline metals are more hydrated than the alkali metals
The hydration enthalpy of Alkaline earth metals ions is larger than alkali metals.
37. Explain the flame colour and the Spectra of Alkaline earth metals
➢ When Alkaline earth metal salts is mixed with Concentrated Hydrochloric acid and heated on a
Platinum wire it give the characteristic colour flame.
➢ When heated the valence electrons are excited to the higher energy level
➢ When drops back to the ground state the energy is emitted as light in the visible region.
Element Colour Wave length (nm)
Calcium Brick red 622
Strontium Crimson 689
Barium Apple green 554
38. Why beryllium shows anomalous behavior.
➢ Smaller in size
➢ High polarizing power
➢ Absence of d-orbitals in the valence shell
➢ High electro negativity and high ionization energy.
39. Compare the properties of Beryllium and other elements ( How Beryllium differs from rest
of the member of the family )
S.No Beryllium Other elements
1 Forms covalent compounds Forms Ionic compounds
2 High melting and Boiling point Low melting and Boiling point
3 Do not reacts with water Reacts with water
4 Do not reacts with hydrogen directly Reacts with hydrogen directly
5 Do not reacts with Halogen directly Reacts with Halogen directly
6 Do not attacked by acid Attacked by acids
7 Hydroxides are Amphoteric Hydroxides are Basic
40. Why Beryllium shows diagonal relation with Aluminium
➢ Both the Beryllium and Aluminium are similar in size
➢ Both have same electro negativity values
➢ Both have similar charge per unit area
41. Explain the diagonal relation ( Similarities ) between Beryllium and Aluminum
➢ Both beryllium chloride and aluminium chloride forms dimeric structure with chloride bridges.
➢ Both beryllium and Aluminium forms complexes. BeF4-2 and AlF6-3
➢ Beryllium carbide and Aluminium carbide give methane on hydrolysis
➢ Both beryllium and Aluminium renders passive with Nitric acid
➢ Both beryllium and Aluminium Hydroxides are Amphoteric in nature.
42. List the uses of Beryllium
➢ It is used as radiation windows in X-ray tubes and X-ray detector
➢ It used as sample holders in X-Ray emission studies.
➢ It used to built Beam pipes in accelerators
➢ It used in Detectors.
43. List the uses of Magnesium
➢ It is used to remove sulphur from Iron and steel
➢ It is used in Refining of Titanium in Kroll Process
➢ It is used in Printing Industry
➢ Magnesium allow in used in Aero plane construction
➢ It is used as Desiccant
44. List the uses of Calcium
➢ It is used a reducing agent in the metallurgy of Uranium.
➢ It is used for making cement
➢ It is used for making Fertilizers
➢ It is used in Vacuum Tubes
➢ It is used in dehydrating oils
➢ It is used to prepare Plaster of Paris
45. List the uses of Strontium
➢ Sr-90 is used in Cancer Treatment
➢ It is used in Dating Rocks
➢ It is used as Radioactive tracer in determining the source of ancient coins.
➢ Sr-87 / Sr-86 ratio is used in Criminal Forensic science.
46. List the uses of Barium
➢ It is used in Metallurgy and Radiology
➢ It is used as De-Oxidizer in refining Copper
➢ Ba-133 is used in the calibration of Gamma rays detectors in nuclear chemistry
➢ It is used to remove Oxygen in Television and Electronic tubes.
47. List the uses of Radium
It is used as self luminous paint in watches, clocks, Dials and Aircraft switches.
48. Why alkaline earth metals are less ionic than alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals have high nuclear charge and they are smaller in size.
49. BeO is covalent but others are ionic. Explain.
BeO is covalent, because the Be+2 ion is smaller in size.
50. Give the preparation of Barium Peroxide
2BaO + O2 ⎯→ 2BaO2
51. Why BeSO4 and MgSO4 is soluble in water ?
Because the Mg+2 and Be+2 ions have high hydration enthalpy which overcomes the lattice enthalpy.
So it is soluble in water.
52. Give the preparation of Calcium Hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide is prepared by mixing water with quicklime
CaO + H2O ⎯→ Ca(OH)2
53. What is Quick lime give the preparation
➢ Cao - Calcium Oxide is called as Quick lime.
➢ It is prepare by heating lime stone at 1070K
CaCO3 ⇌ CaO + CO2
54. Explain the structures of Beryllium chloride
Beryllium chloride is having the following structures
Chain structure- in the solid state
Linear monomer structure – (b) at high temperature of 1200K
Chloro Bridged dimer structure – c in the Vapour state
55. What is Slaking of lime or Slaked lime.

When water is added to quicklime, it breaks the lumps of lime. This process
is called Slaking of lime.
CaO + H2O ⎯→ Ca(OH)2
56. Give the action of Quick lime ( Calcium Oxide ) with Silicon dioxide and Phosphorous
pent oxide
a) Action of Calcium Oxide with Silicon dioxide
CaO + SiO2 ⎯→ CaSiO3 (Calcium Silicate)
b) Action of Calcium with Phosphorous pent oxide
6 CaO + P4O10 ⎯→ 2Ca3(PO4)2 (Calcium Phosphate)
57. List the used of Calcium Oxide – Quick lime
➢ It is used to prepare cement and glass
➢ It is used to prepare Slaked lime
➢ It is used in the purification of sugar
➢ It is used as a dehydration agent
58. When carbon di oxide is passed through lime water, it turns milky.
Explain why?
This is due to the formation of Calcium carbonate.
CaO + CO2 ⎯→ CaCO3
59. Give the action of milk of lime ( calcium carbonate ) with chlorine and give its uses ?
When milk of lime reacts of chlorine it gives Hypo chlorite.
It is used in Bleaching Power
2 Ca(OH)2 + 2 Cl2 ⎯→ CaCl2 + CaO2Cl2 + 2H2O
60. List the used of Calcium Hydroxide
➢ It is used as Building material
➢ It is used to White wash
➢ It is used for making Glass
➢ It is used in the purification of Sugar
➢ It is used to make Bleaching powder
61. List the uses of Gypsum (CaSO4 .2 H2O)
➢ It is used for making Plaster Boards, which is used for walls and ceilings
➢ It is used to make Plaster of Paris, which is used in Sculptures
➢ It used in making surgical and orthopedic casts
➢ In agriculture, it is used as soil conditioner and fertilizer.
➢ It is used in tooth paste, Shampoos and hair products
➢ It is used to make Portland cement
62. Give the role of Gypsum in Agriculture
➢ In agriculture, it is used as soil conditioner and fertilizer.
➢ It provide calcium and sulphur, which is required for plant growth
➢ It is used to remove excess sodium from the soil.
63. What is Dead Burnt Plaster
When gypsum is heated above 393K , no water molecules are left for crystallization. It forms
anhydrous calcium sulphate. This is called Dead Burnt Plaster.
64. Define Retrograde Solubility
When the temperature increases, the solubility of gypsum in water decreases. This property is called
as Retrograde Solubility
65. List the properties of Gypsum
➢ Gypsum is soft and soluble in water.
➢ Gypsum is white or Grey in colour. But due to the presence of impurities it is pink, yellow, brown
and light green.
➢ Gypsum crystals occur like petals of a flower, called as Desert Rose.
➢ Gypsum has low thermal conductivity, so it is used for making Dry Walls
➢ Alabaster is variety of Gypsum, which is opaque and Granular. It is an ornamental stone used for
making Sculptors.
66. Give the preparation of Plaster of Paris ( CaSO4.½ H2O )
When gypsum is heated at 393K , Plaster of Paris is formed.
393K
CaSO4.2 H2O → CaSO4.½H2O + 1½H2O
Plaster of Paris
67. List the used of Plaster of Paris
➢ In Building industry it is used as Plasters
➢ It is used in the treatment of Bone fracture and Sprains
➢ It is used for making Statues
➢ It is used in Dentistry
68. Define Efflorescence
The spontaneous loss of water by a hydrated salt is called Efflorescence.
69. Why Alkaline metals are harder than alkali metals
➢ Alkaline earth metals are smaller in size
➢ They have high density.
➢ So they form strong metallic bonds.
70. Give the Biological importance of Magnesium and Calcium Magnesium
➢ Magnesium plays a important role in Bio-chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes
➢ Magnesium is essential for DNA synthesis
➢ Magnesium is essential for the stability and functioning of the DNA
➢ Magnesium is used for balancing the electrolyte in the body
➢ Magnesium is present in Chlorophyll and play a main role in Photosynthesis
➢ Deficiency of Mg caused Neuro -Muscular irritation.

6 - GASEOUS STATE
1. State Boyle’s law

At constant temperature the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure
𝟏
Vα
𝐏
2. Define pressure
Pressure is defined as force divided by the area to which the force is applied
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
Pressure = (unit pascal )
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚
3. Charles law
At constant pressure the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature.
VαT
4. Define Gay-Lussac’s law

At constant volume the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature.
P α T
5. Define Avogadro hypothesis

Equal volume of all gases under same temperature and pressure contains equal number of molecules
Vα n
6. Derive the ideal gas equation

1
Boyles law  Vα
P
Charles law  V αT
Avogadro law  Vαn
nT
Vα
P
nRT
V=
P
PV = nRT
P =Pressure ; R= Gas constant ; T =Temperature ; V=Volume

7. Dalton law of Partial pressure
The total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the gases present
in the mixture.
PTot = p1 + p2 + p3 + …………
PTot = Total pressure ; p1 + p2 + p3 = Partial pressure

8. What are the applications of Dalton law
In a reaction, involving a collection of gases by the downward displacement of water. The pressure
of the Dry vapour can be calculated by using
PTotal = P Dry Gas + PWater Vapour
PDry Gas = PTotal - PWater Vapour

9. Define Grahams law of Diffusion
The Rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass.
𝟏
Rate of Diffusion( r ) α
√𝐌
10.Define Joules Thomson effect.
The lowering of temperature, when a gas is made to expand adiabatically form high pressure to low
pressure is called as Joules Thompson effect.
11.What is inversion temperature
The temperature below which a gas obeys Joules Thomson effect is called as Inversion temperature.
2a
Ti = R = Gas constant ;a & b – are van der waals constant
Rb
12.What are the consequence of Boyles law
The pressure-density relationship can be derived from the Boyle’s law as shown below.
P1V1 = P2V2 (Boyle’s law)
𝑚
V=
𝑑
𝑚 𝑚
P1 = P2
𝑑1 𝑑2
where “m” is the mass, d1 and d2 are the densities of gases at pressure P1 and P2.
𝑃1 𝑃
= 𝑑2
𝑑1 2
In other words, the density of a gas is directly proportional to pressure.

13.Give the mathematical expression that relates the gases Volume, and moles.
The ideal gas equation is PV = nRT
P=Pressure ; V=Volume ; T=Temperature ; R=Gas Constant
14.Give the difference between diffusion and Effusion
Diffusion Effusion
The movement of the gas molecules through another The movement of the gas molecules through a small
gasfrom high concentration to low concentration is hole from high concentration to low concentration is
called as Diffusion. called as Effusion
15.Define Boyle’s temperature or Boyles point
The temperature at which a real gas obeys the ideal gas law over a wide range of pressure is called as
Boyle’s temperature.
16.What are ideal gases?
Ideal gases are gases that obey the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT.
P=Pressure ; V=Volume ; T=Temperature ; R=Gas Constant
17.Give the difference between Ideal and real gases.
SL.No. IDEAL GAS REAL GAS
1 Ideal gases obeys the gas law under all Real gases only obey at low pressure and
conditions of temperature and pressure temperature
2 The volume occupied by the gas is very The volume occupied by the gas is not small
small compare to the total volume of the compare to the total volume of the gas
gas
3 There is no force of attraction There is a force of attraction
between the gas molecules between the gas molecules
4 They obey Ideal gas equation They obey the Van der waals equation.
PV = nRT
18.Show that the partial pressure and the total Pressure is related to the mole fraction of the
gas
According to Daltons law of partial pressure
PTot = p1 + p2 + p3 + …………
Assuming that the gases be have ideally,
RT RT RT
P1 = n1
V
; P2 = n2
V
; P3 = n3 V
RT RT RT
PTot = n1 + n2 + n3
V V V
RT
= ( n1 + n 2 + n3 )
V
RT
PTotal = nTotal
V
The partial pressure can also be expressed as
RT P1 P2 P3
can be expressed as or or
V n1 n2 n3
Pi nTotal
PTotal = nTotaln = ni
Pi
i
ni ni
Pi =
nTotal
PTotal = XiPTotal Xi =
nTotal
where Xi is the mole fraction of the ith component.
19.Explain the following observations
a) Aerated water bottles are kept under water during summer
➢ During summer, the temperature increases, so the solubility of the gas in water decreases.
➢ So the pressure inside the Aerated water bottles increases and explodes.
b) Liquid ammonia bottles is cooled before opening.
➢ At room temperature the vapour pressure of liquid ammonia is very high.
➢ If the bottle is opened suddenly the pressure decreases and the volume increases.
➢ This cause the breakage of the bottle.
c) The tyre of Automobile is inflated slightly lesser pressure in summer.
➢ The Pressure is directly proportional to the temperature.
➢ During summer, the temperature increases and the Pressure of air inside the tube increases.
➢ So the tube will burst.
d) The size of weather balloons becomes larger and larger as it ascends up into altitude.
➢ When the balloons ascents, the atmospheric pressure decreases,
➢ So the volume of the balloons increases according to Boyles Law.
e) Why does gases don’t settle at the bottom of the container.
➢ Gases have less density and the molecules can freely move.
➢ All gases molecules have high inter molecular force of attraction the gases molecules are constantly
bombarding with one another and on the wall on the container.
➢ So they don’t settle down.
f) Why there is no gas in the atmosphere? And why moon has no atmosphere.?
➢ Hydrogen gas is light in weight. So it escapes high from the earth’s atmosphere.
➢ The moon is having very low gravity and low escape velocity
➢ The gases have higher thermal velocity.
g) Why aerosol cans carry warning of heating ?
On heating the gas inside the aerosol cans expands and the pressure inside the cans increases, leading
to an explosion.
20.Why the gas behaves ideally in low pressure and High temperature or Give the effect of T
and P on a ideal gas or Real gas.
➢ At high temperature the kinetic energy of the molecules increases hence the inter molecular force of
attraction decreases. So the gas behaves ideally.
➢ At high pressure the density of the gas increases and the molecules come closer to one another. The
inter molecular force of attraction increases. Hence the gas do not behaves ideally

7.THERMODYNAMICS
1. State the first law of thermodynamics
"Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to
another".
2. Define Hess's law of constant heat summation.
It states that “the enthalpy change of a reaction either at constant volume or constant pressure is the
same whether it takes place in a single or multiple steps”.
3. Explain intensive properties with two examples
The properties which do not depend upon the quantity of matter present in the system are called
Intensive properties Ex. Boiling point, Melting point
4. Define the following terms:
a. isothermal process b. adiabatic process
c. isobaric process d. isochoric process
a. isothermal process : - The thermodynamic process in which temperature remains constant throughout
are called isothermal process.
b. adiabatic process :- The thermodynamic process in which heat exchange between system and
surrounding is not possible.
c. isobaric process :- The thermodynamic process occurring at constant pressure.
d. isochoric process :- The thermodynamic process occurring at constant volume.
5. What is the usual definition of entropy? What is the unit of entropy?
➢ Entropy is a thermodynamic state quantity which is a measure of randomness or disorder of the
system.
➢ The SI unit of entropy is JK−1
6. Predict the feasibility of a reaction when
i) both ΔH and ΔS positive ii) both ΔH and ΔS negative
iii) ΔH decreases but ΔS increases
ΔH ΔS ΔG= ΔH−TΔS Description Example
+ (at low T) non-spontaneous at low
temperature
i, +ve +ve Melting of a solid
− (at high T) spontaneous at high temperature
− (at low T) spontaneous at low temperature
ii, -ve -ve + (at high T) non-spontaneous at high Adsorption of gases
temperature
iii, -ve +ve − (at all T) Spontaneous at all temperature 2O3 (g) ⎯→3O2 (g)
7. Define is Gibb’s free energy.

G is expressed as G = H - TS,
G → Gibb’s free energy ; H → Enthalpy ; T → Temperature ; S → Entropy
Free energy change of a process is given by the relation ΔG= ΔH - TΔS.
8. Define enthalpy of combustion.
➢ The enthalpy change when one mole of any substance is completely burnt in excess of oxygen.
➢ Ex:- the heat of combustion of methane is – 87.78 kJ mol-1
9. Define molar heat capacity. Give its unit.
➢ “The amount of heat absorbed by one mole of the substance to raise its temperature by 1 kelvin”.
➢ The SI unit of molar heat capacity is JK−1mol-1
10. Define the calorific value of food. What is the unit of calorific value?
➢ The calorific value is defined as the amount of heat produced in calories (or joules) when one gram
of the substance is completely burnt.
➢ The SI unit of calorific value is J kg−1.
➢ It is usually expressed in Cal g-1.
11. Define Heat of neutralization.
➢ It is the amount of heat liberated when one gm-equivalent of acid completely neutralizes by one gm
equivalent of base.
➢ Enthalpy of neutralization for strong acid and strong base is constant . H = –57.27 kJ/mol.
12. What is lattice energy?
It is defined as the amount of energy required to completely remove the constituent ions from its
crystal lattice to an infinite distance. It is also referred as lattice enthalpy.
13. What are state and path functions? Give two examples.
State Function Path Function
A state function is a thermodynamic property of a A path function is a thermodynamic property of the
system, which has a specific value for a given state system whose value depends on the path by which
and does not depend on the path (or manner) by the system changes from its initial to final states.
which the particular state is reached.
Example : Pressure (P), Volume (V), Example: Work (w), Heat (q).
Temperature(T), Internal energy (U),
Enthalpy (H), free energy (G) etc.
14. Give Kelvin statement of second law of thermodynamics.
“It is impossible to construct an engine which operated in a complete cycle will absorb heat from a
single body and convert it completely to work without leaving some changes in the working system”.
15. The equilibrium constant of a reaction is 10, what will be the sign of ΔG? Will this reaction
be spontaneous?
Van’tHoff equation. G = - 2.303RTlogK
Equilibrium constant K = 10  G = - 2.303RTlog10 = - 2.303RT
G is –ve ; so the reaction is Spontaneous.
16. Enthalpy of neutralization is always a constant when a strong acid is neutralized by a
strong base - account for the statement.
The reason for this can be explained on the basis of Arrhenius theory of acids and bases which states
that strong acids and strong bases completely ionise in aqueous solution to produce H+ and OH−ions
respectively.
17. State the third law of thermodynamics.

The entropy of a perfectly crystalline material at absolute zero ( T = 0 K (or) -2730C) is zero.
18. Write down the Born-Haber cycle for the formation of CaCl2
ΔH1 = heat of sublimation of Ca(S)

ΔH2 = dissociation energy of Cl2(g)
ΔH3 = ionisation energy of Ca(S)
ΔH4 = Electron affinity of Cl (g)
ΔH5 = the lattice enthalpy for the formation of CaCl2(S)
ΔHf = enthalpy change for the formation of CaCl2(S) directly form elements
ΔHf = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3 + ΔH4 + ΔH5

19. Identify the state and path functions out of the following: a)Enthalpy b)Entropy c) Heat
d) Temperature e) Work f) Free energy.
a) Enthalpy state function
b) Entropy state function
c) Heat path function
d) Temperature state function
e) Work path function
f) Free energy state function
20. State the various statements of second law of thermodynamics.

Entropy statement:-
➢ Entropy is a measure of the molecular disorder (randomness) of a system.
➢ The entropy of an isolated system increases during a spontaneous process.
➢ Entropy is state function
Kelvin-Planck statement:-
“It is impossible to construct an engine which operated in a complete cycle will absorb heat from a
single body and convert it completely to work without leaving some changes in the working system”.
Clausius statement:-
It is impossible to transfer heat from a cold reservoir to a hot reservoir without doing some
work.
Efficiency :-
work performed
Efficiency =
heat absorbed
21.What are spontaneous reactions? What are the conditions for the spontaneity of a process?
Spontaneous reaction:- A reaction that occurs under the given set of conditions without any external
driving force is called spontaneous reaction.
Conditions for the spontaneity : Δ𝐻 = −𝑣𝑒, Δ𝑆 = + 𝑣𝑒, Δ𝐺 = −𝑣𝑒
22.List the characteristics of internal energy.
The internal energy of a system is an extensive property.
The internal energy of a system is a state function.
The change in internal energy of a system is expressed as
U= Uf – Ui
ΔU = Uf − Ui = −ve (Uf < Ui)
ΔU = Uf − Ui = +ve (Uf >Ui)
23.Explain how heat absorbed at constant volume is
measured using bomb calorimeter with a neat
diagram.
➢ For chemical reactions, heat evolved at constant volume,
is measured in a bomb calorimeter.
➢ The inner vessel (the bomb) and its cover are made of
strong steel.
➢ The cover is fitted tightly to the vessel by means of metal
lid and screws.
➢ A weighed amount of the substance is taken in a
platinum cup and pressurized with excess oxygen.
➢ The bomb is immersed in water, in the inner volume of
the calorimeter.
➢ The reaction is started by striking the substance through
electrical heating.
➢ Heat evolved during the reaction is absorbed by the
calorimeter as well as the water in which the bomb is
immersed.
➢ The change in temperature is measured using a Beckman thermometer. Since the bomb is sealed its
volume does not change and hence the heat measurements is equal to the heat of combustion at a
constant volume (Uc0 ).
➢ The amount of heat produced in the reaction Uc0 is equal to the sum of the heat abosrbed by the
calorimeter and water.
Heat absorbed by the calorimeter :-
q1 = k T
k - calorimeter constant
k = mcCc
mc- mass of the calorimeter ; Cc- heat capacity of calorimeter.
Heat absorbed by the water :-
q2 = mwCwT
mw- molar mass of water
Cw- molar heat capacity of water (75.29 JK-1mol-1)
Uc0 = q1 + q2
Uc0 = kT + mwCwT
= (k +mwCw)T
➢ Calorimeter constant can be determined by burning a known mass of standard sample (benzoic acid)
for which the heat of combustion is known (-3227 kJmol-1) The enthalpy of combustion at constant
pressure of the substance is calculated from the equation .
𝐇𝐜𝟎 (Pressure) = 𝐔𝐜𝟎 (volume) + RTn(g)
24.Calculate the work involved in expansion and compression process.
Work involved in compression processes :
➢ The essential condition for expansion or compression of a system is that there should be difference
between external pressure (Pext) and internal pressure (Pint).
➢ Let us consider a cylinder which contains 'n' moles of an ideal gas fitted with a frictionless piston of
cross sectional area A.
➢ The total volume of the gas inside is Vi and pressure of the gas inside is (Pint)
➢ If the external pressure (Pext) is greater than (Pint), the piston moves inward till the pressure inside
becomes equal to (Pext).
➢ Let this change be achieved in a single step and the final volume be Vf.
➢ In this case, the work is done on the system (+w). It can be calculated as follows
W = - F.x …..(1)
where x is the distance moved by the piston during the compression and F is the force
acting on the gas.
F = Pext .A ….(2)
Substituting (2) in (1)
W = - Pext .A.x
A.x = change in volume
A.x = (Vf – Vi)
W = - Pext .(Vf – Vi) -V = (Vf – Vi)
W = - Pext .-V
W = Pext .V
Since work is done on the system, it is a positive quantity.
If the pressure is not constant,
At each stage of compression, the volume decreases by an infinitesimal amount, dV.
In such a case we can calculate the work done on the gas by the relation
In a compression process, Pext the external pressure is always greater than the pressure of the
system.
(Pext) = (Pint+ dP)
Work involved in expansion processes:-

➢ In an expansion process, the external pressure is always less
than the pressure of the system
(Pext) = (Pint−dP)
➢ When pressure is not constant and changes in infinitesimally
small steps (reversible conditions) during compression from
Vi to Vf , the P-V plot looks like in the fig
➢ Work done on the gas is represented by the shaded area.
➢ In general case we can write, (Pext) = (Pint + dP). Such processes are called reversible
processes.
➢ For a compression process work can be related to internal pressure of the system under
reversible conditions by writing equation.
➢ For a given system with an ideal gas
➢ If (Vf > Vi) (expansion), the sign of work done by the process is negative.
➢ If (Vf < Vi) (compression) the sign of work done on the process is positive.
25.Derive the relation between ΔH and ΔU for an ideal gas. Explain each term involved in the
equation.
When the system at constant pressure undergoes changes from an initial state with H1, U1 and V1 to a
final state with H2, U2 and V2 the change in enthalpy ΔH, can be calculated as follows:
H = U + PV
In the initial state 
H1 = U1 + PV1 …….(1)
In the final state 
H2 = U2 + PV2 …….(2)
change in enthalpy is (2) - (1) 
(H2 -H1) = (U1 – U2) + P(V2-V1)
H = U + PV …. (3)
Consider a closed system of gases which are chemically reacting to form gaseous products at constant
temperature and pressure with V1 and V2 as the total volumes of the reactant and product gases
respectively, and n1 and n2 as the number of moles of gaseous reactants and products, then,
For reactants (initial state) :

PV1 = n1RT ….. (4)
For products (final state) :
PV2 = n2RT ….. (5)
(5) – (4) 
P(V2-V1) = (n2-n1) RT
PV = n(g)RT ….. (6)
Substituting (6) in (3)
H = U + n(g)RT …. (7)
H- Change in Enthalpy ;U – Change in Internal Energy ;
n(g) – Change in number of Moles ; R- Gas constant ; T- Temperature.
26.Suggest and explain an indirect method to calculate lattice enthalpy of sodium chloride
crystal.
ΔH1 = Heat of sublimation of Na(S)

ΔH2 = Ionisation energy of Na(S)
ΔH3 = Dissociation energy of Cl2(g)
ΔH4 = Electron affinity of Cl (g)
U = The lattice Energy of NaCl(S)
ΔHf = Enthalpy change for the formation of NaCl(S) directly form its elements
ΔHf = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3 + ΔH4 + U
27.List the characteristics of Gibbs free energy.

➢ Free energy is defined as G = H – TS
(where G – free energy, H – enthalpy and S – entropy).
➢ G is a state function.
➢ G – Extensive property, ΔG – intensive property.
➢ G has a single value for the thermodynamic state of the system.
Process Spontaneous Non - spontaneous Equilibrium
ΔG – ve +ve zero

8. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
1. Define Physical equilibrium and give its types

A system in which the amount of matter does not changes with time is
called as Physical equilibrium
There are 3 types
a) Solid ⇌ liquid equilibrium. Ex Melting
b) Solid ⇌ Vapour equilibrium. Ex Sublimation
c) Liquid ⇌ Vapour equilibrium. Ex Boiling
2. Why chemical equilibrium is considered as dynamic equilibrium (OR)
( What is Dynamic Equilibrium)
At equilibrium the forward and the backward reactions will proceed at
the same rate. So no macroscopic changes is observed.
3. Define Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibrium
When the reactant and the product are in the same phase it is called as
Homogeneous Equilibrium
Ex:- .H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
When the reactant and the product are in the different phase it is called as
Heterogeneous Equilibrium
Ex:- CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
4. Define equilibrium constant
Equilibrium constant is defined as the ratio between the product of the
active masses of the products and the reactants raised to a stoichiometric coefficient.
xA(g) + yB(g) ⇌ mC(g) + nD(g)
[𝐶]𝑚 [𝐷]𝑛
Kc =
[𝐴]𝑥 [𝐵]𝑦
5. Define Reaction Quotient ‘Q’
Reaction Quotient is defined as the ratio between the product of the active masses of the products
and the reactants raised to a Stoichiometric coefficient under non equilibrium conditions
xA(g) + yB(g) ⎯→ mC(g) + nD(g)
Q =
6. Define Law of Mass action
At a given temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the product of the
active masses of the reactants.
Rate  [Reactant]x
7. Derive the relation between Kp and Kc.
Let us consider a reaction
xA(g) + yB(g)⇌mC(g) + nD(g)
Kc = ------------- 1
𝑃𝑚 𝑛
𝐶 𝑥 𝑃𝐷
Kp = 𝑦 ------------- 2
𝑃𝐴𝑥 𝑥𝑃𝐵
From Ideal gas equation,

PV = nRT
𝑛
P=( )RT ------------------- 3
𝑣
Ci
Pi = Ci RT = Ci
v
Substituting the partial pressure terms in eqn (3)
𝑦
𝑃 𝐴𝑥 = [A]x(RT)x 𝑃𝐵 = [B]y(RT)y
𝑃𝑚 m
𝐶 = [C] (RT)
m
𝑃𝑛𝐷 = [D]n(RT)n
Substitute the above pressure terms in eqn( 2 )
[C]m [D]n (RT)m × (RT)n
Kp = X
[A]x [B]y (RT)x × (RT)y
Kp = Kc(RT)(m+n)− (x+y)
n(g) = (m+n) – (x+y)
Kp = Kc(RT)n(g)
8. List the application of Equilibrium constant
➢ It is used to find the direction of the reaction taking place
➢ It is used to find the extend of the reaction
➢ It is used to find the equilibrium concentration of the reactant and the product.
9. Explain how the equilibrium constant Kc is used to find out the Extend of the reaction
➢ If Kc is large, the reaction reaches equilibrium with high product concentration.
➢ If Kc is small, the reaction reaches equilibrium with low product concentration.
➢ If Kc is greater than 103, the reaction is near to completion, and favours the forward reaction.
➢ If Kc is greater than 10–3, the reaction will never proceed, and favours the backward reaction.
➢ If Kc is between 103 to 10–3 the reaction is in equilibrium.
10.Explain how the equilibrium constant Kc is used to find out the direction of the reaction
➢ If Q = Kc, Equilibrium reaction
➢ If Q > Kc, the reaction proceeds in the Reverse direction.
➢ If Q < Kc, the reaction proceeds in the Forward direction.
11.For a given reaction the equilibrium constant has a constant value. If the value of Q also
constant ?. explain.
➢ As the reaction proceeds, there is a change in the concentration of the reactant and the products.
➢ The Q value also changes until the equilibrium is reached.
➢ At equilibrium the Q value is equal to Kc.
➢ Once the equilibrium is reached there is no change in the Q value.
12.Derive the Kp and Kc for the following equilibrium reaction. H2 (g)+ I2 (g)⇌ 2HI(g)
H2 (g)+ I2 (g)⇌ 2HI(g)
H2 I2 HI
Initial number of moles a b 0
Number of x x 0
moles reacted
Number of moles remaining (a-x) (b-x) 2x

Molar concentration (a − x) (b − x) 2x
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Applying law of mass action
[HI]2
Kc = ----------(1)
[ H2 ] [ I 2 ]
Substitute the above Molar concentration terms in eqn(1)

2𝑥 2
(V)
= (a−x) (b−x)
( V )( V )
4x2
= (a−x) (b−x)
𝟒𝐱 𝟐
Kc =
(𝐚−𝐱)(𝐛−𝐱)
Kp = Kc(RT)n(g)
n(g) = 2- (1+1) = 0
For this reaction n(g) = 0
𝟒𝐱 𝟐
So Kp = Kc =
(𝐚−𝐱)(𝐛−𝐱)
13.Derive the Kp and Kc for the following equilibrium reaction

PCl5(g)⇌ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
PCl5 PCl3 Cl2
Initial number of moles a 0 0
Number of moles reacted x 0 0
Number of moles remaining (a-x) x x
Molar concentration (a − x) x x
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
[ PCl3 ] [ Cl2 ]
Kc = ----------(1)
[PCl5]
Substitute the above Molar concentration terms in eqn(1)

x x
( )×( )
V V
Kc = (a−x)
V
𝐱𝟐
Kc =
𝐕(𝐚−𝐱)
Kp = Kc(RT)n(g)
n(g) = (2-1) = 1
For this reaction n(g) = 1
Kp = Kc(RT)
PV = nRT
PV
RT =
n
Where n is the total number of moles at equilibrium.

n = (a-x) + x + x = (a+x)
𝑃𝑉
RT =
(a+x)
x2
Kp = (RT)
V(a−x)
x2 𝑃𝑉
Kp = X (a+x)
V(a−x)
𝐱𝟐 𝑷
Kp = X
(𝐚−𝐱) (𝐚+𝐱)
14.Derive the Kp and Kc for the following equilibrium reaction

N2(g) + 3H2(g)⇌2NH3(g)
N2 H2 NH3
Initial number of moles a b 0
Number of x x 0
moles reacted
Number of moles remaining (a-x) (b-3x) 2x

Molar concentration (a − x) (b − 3x) 2x
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
[ NH3 ]2
Kc = ---------(1)
[ N2 ][ H2 ]3
Substitute the above Molar concentration terms in eqn (1)

2𝑥 2
( )
𝑉
Kc =(a−x) (b−3x) 3
( )
𝑉 𝑉
𝟒𝐱 𝟐 𝐕 𝟐
Kc =
(𝐚−𝐱)(𝐛−𝟑𝐱)𝟑
Kp = Kc(𝑅𝑇)𝑛(𝑔)
n(g) = (2 − 4) = − 2
For this reaction n(g) = − 2

Kp = Kc(RT)−2
Kc
Kp =
(RT)2
PV = nRT
PV
RT =
n
Where n is the total number of moles at equilibrium.
n = 2x + (a-x) + (b −3x) = (a+b −2x)
𝑃𝑉
RT =
(a+b−2x)
4x2 V2
x ((a+b−2x))−2
𝑃𝑉
Kp =
(a−x)(b−3x)3
= 4x2 V2 (a+b−2x) 2
(a−x)(b−3x)3
x( 𝑃𝑉
)
𝟒𝐱 𝟐 (𝐚+𝐛−𝟐𝐱)𝟐
Kp=
(𝐚−𝐱)(𝐛−𝟑𝐱)𝟑 𝐏𝟐
15.Define Le-Chatelier Braun principle

If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a disturbance, then the system will move in the direction
to nullify the effect of the disturbance.
16.Explain the effect of catalyst on a Equilibrium reaction
➢ A catalyst has no effect on a equilibrium reaction.
➢ A Catalyst increases the rate of both forward and backward reactions to the same extent.
➢ The catalyst helps to decrease the activation energy
17.Effect of inert gas on a equilibrium reaction
➢ When a inert gas is added to a equilibrium reaction at constant
➢ volume, the total number of moles and the total pressure of the gas will increase.
➢ But the partial pressure of the reactants and the products remains unchanged.
➢ Hence at constant volume the inert gas has no effect on Equilibrium
18.Derive the Van’t Hoff equation
Van’t Hoff equation gives the effect of temperature of the equilibrium Constant.(K)
ΔG° = –RTln K ……………. (1)
We know that
ΔG° = ΔH° – TΔS° …………… (2)
Substituting (1) in equation (2)
–RTln K= ΔH° – TΔS°

Rearranging
1
ln K= (ΔH° – TΔS°)
–RT
−ΔH° −ΔS°
ln K= + …………… (3)
RT R
Differentiating equation (3) with respect to temperature,
d(lnK) ΔH°
= …………… (4)
dT RT2
Rearranging
ΔH° dT
d(lnK)= . T2
R
Equation (4) is known as differential form of van’t Hoff equation.
On integrating the equation 4, between T1and T2with their respective equilibrium constants K1 and K2.
Equation (5) is known as integrated form of van’t Hoff equation.

9 . SOLUTIONS
1. Define Molality and its unit

Number of moles of solute
Molality =
Mass of the solvent (Kg)
unit : Mole / Kg
2. Define Molarity and its unit
Number of moles of solute

Molarity=
volume of solution (L)
unit : Mole / Lit

3. Define Equivalent Weight and its unit
Number of gram equivalent of solute
Equivalent Weight =
mass of solute
=
Equivalent weight of solute X volume of solution (L)
unit : N
4. Define Formality and its unit
Number of Formula weight of solute

Formality =
unit : F
5. Define Mole fraction of Component and its unit
Mole fraction ( of Component)
Number of moles of the component
= Total number of moles of all the component present in solution
Unit : No unit
6. Define Mole fraction of Solute and its unit
Number of moles of Solute

Mole fraction of solute =
Total number of moles of solute and solvent
Unit : No unit
7. Define Mole fraction of Solvent and its unit
Number of moles of Solvent
Mole fraction of solvent =
Total number of moles of solute and solvent
Unit : No unit
8. Define Mass percentage
Mass of the Solute (in g)
Mass percentage (%W/W) =
Mass of Solution (in g)
x 100
9. Define Volume percentage
Volume of the Solute (in mL)
Volume percentage (%V/V) =
Volume of Solution (in mL)
x 100
10.Define Mass / Volume percentage
Mass / Volume percentage (%W/V) =
Volume of Solution (in mL)
x 100
11.Define Parts per Million
Number of parts of the Component
Parts per Million (ppm) = x 106
Total number of all components
= x 106 ppm
Mass of Solution (in g)
12.Write a notes on Standard solution
A standard solution or a stock solution is a solution whose concentration is accurately known. A
standard solution of required concentration can be prepared by dissolving a required amount of a solute, in a
suitable amount of solvent.
13.What are the Advantages of using standard solutions?
➢ The error due to weighing the solute can be minimized by using concentrated stock solution that
requires large quantity of solute.
➢ We can prepare working standards of different concentrations by diluting the stock solution, which
is more efficient since consistency is maintained.
➢ Some of the concentrated solutions are more stable and are less likely to support microbial growth
than working standards used in the experiments.
14.What is Solubility of the solutes
Solubility of a solute is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a specific amount of
solvent at a specified temperature.(or)
The solubility of a substance at a given temperature is defined as the amount of the solute that can be
dissolved in 100 g of the solvent at a given temperature to form a saturated solution.
15.Define Saturated solution
When maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a solvent, any more addition of solute will result in
precipitation at a given temperature and pressure. Such a solution is called as a saturated solution.
16.What are Factors influencing the solubility
1, Nature of solute and solvent:
2, Effect of temperature:
a, Solid solute in liquid solvent:
b, Gaseous solute in liquid solvent:
3, Effect of pressure
17.Define Henry's law
“The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (vapour pressure of the solute) is directly
proportional to the mole fraction(x) of the gaseous solute in the solution at low concentrations”.
Psolute α Xsolute in solution
Psolute= KH Xsolute in solution
18.Mention the limitations of Henry’s law
➢ Henry’s law is applicable at moderate temperature and pressure only.
➢ Only the less soluble gases obeys Henry’s law
➢ The gases reacting with the solvent do not obey Henry’s law. For example, ammonia or HCl reacts
with water and hence does not obey this law.
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH-
➢ The gases obeying Henry’s law should not associate or dissociate while dissolving in the solvent.
19.Write a notes on Evaporation
Generally, liquids have a tendency to evaporate. If the kinetic energy of molecules in the liquid state
overcomes the intermolecular force of attraction between them, then the molecules will escape from the
liquid state. This process is called 'evaporation' and it happens on the surface of the liquid.
20.Write a notes on Condensation
If evaporation is carried out in a closed container then the vapour remains in contact with the surface
of the liquid. These vapour molecules are in continuous random motion during which they collide with each
other and also with the walls of the container. As the collision is inelastic, they lose their energy and as
result the vapour returns back to liquid state. This process is called as 'condensation'.
21.Write a notes on Vapour Pressure
Evaporation and condensation are continuous processes. If the process is carried out in a closed
system, a stage is reached when the rate of evaporation becomes equal to the rate of condensation. Thus, an
equilibrium is established between liquid and its vapour. The pressure of the vapour in equilibrium with its
liquid is called vapour pressure of the liquid at the given temperature.
22.State and explain Raoult’s Law.
This law states that “in the case of a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each
component (A & B) of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction”.
PAα XA
PA= k XA
whenXA= 1, k = P0A
PA= P0AXA
Similarly, for component ‘B’
PB= P0BXB
23.What are Ideal Solutions and Non-ideal solutions
Ideal Solutions: The solute as well as the solvent obeys the Raoult’s law over the entire range of
concentration. eg ;benzene & toluene
Non-ideal solutions: The solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of
concentration,
24.What Factors responsible for deviation from Raoult’s law
i, Solute-solvent interactions
ii) Dissociation of solute
iii)Association of solute
iv) Temperature
v) Pressure
vi) Concentration
25.Write a notes on Colligative properties
Depends only on the number of solute particles (ions/molecules) present in the solution. The
properties, namely, relative lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression in freezing
point and osmotic pressure
26.Write a notes on Relative lowering of vapour pressure
0
𝑃𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 −𝑃𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Relative lowering of vapour pressure (ΔP)= 0 = X(Solute)
𝑃𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
27.State boiling point
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure (1 atm).
28.Write a notes on elevation of boiling point
The solution boils at a higher temperature (Tb) than the boiling point of the pure solvent (Tb°). This
increase in the boiling point is known as elevation of boiling point. The elevation of boiling point
(ΔTb)= Tb - Tb°
29.Write a notes on Freezing point
Freezing point is defined as “the temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of the substance
have the same vapour pressure”.
30.Write a notes on depression in freezing point
The lowering of the freezing point of the solvent when a solute is added is called depression in
freezing point (ΔTf).
Depression in freezing point (ΔTf)=Tf°- Tf
31.What is Osmosis
Which is a spontaneous process by which the solvent molecules pass through a semi permeable
membrane from a solution of lower concentration to a solution of higher concentration.
32.Explain the term osmotic pressure
“The pressure that must be applied to the solution to stop the influx of the solvent (to stop osmosis)
through the semi permeable membrane”
33.What are the Significances of osmotic pressure over other colligative properties
The osmotic pressure can be measured at room temperature enables to determine the molecular mass
of bio molecules which are unstable at higher temperatures.
34.Explain the term Isotonic solutions
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotonic solutions.
35.Explain Reverse osmosis
It can be defined as a process in which a solvent passes through a semi permeable membrane in the
opposite direction of osmosis, when subjected to a hydrostatic pressure greater than the osmotic pressure.
Use: Purification of water
36.State van’t Hoff factor
It is defined as the ratio of the actual molar mass to the abnormal (calculated) molar mass of the
solute.
Normal ( actual) molar mass
van’t Hoff factor (i) =
Observed (abnormal) molar mass
37.Explain the effect of pressure on the solubility.

According to Le-Chatelier principle, the increase in pressure will shift the equilibrium in the
direction which will reduce the pressure. Therefore, more number of gaseous molecules dissolves in the
solvent and the solubility increases.

10 . CHEMICAL BONDING
1. Explain Sp2hybridisation in BF3

Consider boron trifluoride molecule. The valence shell electronic configuration of boron atom is
[He]22s2 2P1 1s 2s 2p
➢ Electronic configuration of boron in Ground state ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿
1s 2s 2p
➢ Electronic configuration of boron in Excited state ↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿
sp2 Hybridisation
Overlap with 2pz orbitals of Fluorine:
The three sp2 hybridised orbitals of Boron now overlap with the 2pz orbitals of Fluorine
(3 atoms). This overlap takes place along the axis as shown below.
2. Draw the M.O diagram for oxygen molecule calculate its bond order and show that O 2 is
paramagnetic.
3. What do you understand by Linear combination of atomic orbitals in MO theory.

The formation of bonding molecular orbital can be considered as the result of constructive
interference of the atomic orbitals and the formation of anti-bonding molecular orbital can be the
result of the destructive interference of the atomic orbitals.
4. What is dipole moment?
➢ The polarity of a covalent bond can be measured in terms of dipole moment
➢ which is defined as μ = q × 2d
➢ Where μ is the dipole moment, q is the charge and 2d is the distance between the two charges.
➢ The dipole moment is a vector and the direction of the dipole moment vector points from the
negative charge to positive charge.
5. Draw MO diagram of CO and calculate its bond order.
.
6. Discuss the formation of N2 molecule using MO Theory
7. Linear form of carbondioxide molecule has two polar bonds. yet the molecule has Zero
dipolement why?
➢ The linear form of carbon dioxide has zero dipole moment,
➢ Even though it has two polar bonds. In CO2,
➢ The dipole moments of two polar bonds (CO) are equal in magnitude but have opposite direction.
➢ Hence, the net dipole moment of the CO2 is, μ = μ1 + μ2 = μ1 + (-μ1) = 0
8. Draw the Lewis structures for the following species.
i) iii)
NO3- HNO3
ii) iv)
SO42- O3
9. Explain the bond formation in BeCl2 and MgCl2.

1s 2s 2p
➢ Electronic configuration of Beryllium in Ground state ↿⇂ ↿⇂
1s 2s 2p
➢ Electronic configuration of Beryllium in Excited state ↿⇂ ↿ ↿
sp Hybridisation
BeCl2::- Each of the sp hybridized orbitals linearly overlap with pz orbital of the chlorine to form a
covalent bond between Be and Cl as shown in the Figure.
MgCl2: In MgCl2, Mg will lose its electrons and Chlorine will accept those electrons to form MgCl2.
Hence ionic boding is present in MgCl2 .
10. Which bond is stronger σ or π? Why?

σ -Bond the bonding occurs by the linear overlap of the orbitals, where as in the π- bond parallel
overlapping occurs.
Electron density is maximum between the nuclei of bonded atoms in σ -bond as compound to the π –
bond
Sigma (σ ) bond is stronger bond
11. Define bond energy.
The minimum amount of energy required to break one mole of a particular bond in molecules in
their gaseous state.
The unit of bond energy is KJ.mol-1
12. Hydrogen gas is diatomic where as inert gases are monoatomic – explain on the basis of
MO theory.
Bond order of Hydrogen molecule is ONE,
where as Bond order of Inert gases are ZERO. So it does not form molecule.
13. What is Polar Covalent bond? explain with example.
Covalent bond formed between atoms having different electronegativities, the atom with higher
electro negativity will have greater tendency to attract the shared pair of electrons more towards itself
than the other atom. As a result the cloud of shared electron pair gets distorted.
Example: Let us consider the covalent bond between hydrogen and fluorine in hydrogen fluoride. The
electronegativities of hydrogen and fluorine on Pauling's scale are 2.1 and 4 respectively. It means that
fluorine attracts the shared pair of electrons approximately twice as much as the hydrogen which leads
to partial negative charge on fluorine and partial positive charge on hydrogen. Hence, the H-F bond is
said to be polar covalent bond.
14. Considering x- axis as molecular axis, which out of the following will form a sigma bond.
i) 1s and 2Py , ii) 2Px and 2Px , iii) 2Px and 2Pz, iv) 1s and 2Pz
15. Explain resonance with reference to carbonate ion?
When we write Lewis structures for a molecule, more than one valid Lewis structures are possible in
certain cases.
For example resonance structure of carbonate ion [CO3]2-.
16. Explain the bond formation in ethylene and acetylene.

Bonding in ethylene:
The molecular formula of ethylene is C2H4. The valency of carbon is 4. Th e electronic configuration
of valence shell of carbon in ground state is 1s22s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0.
➢ Electronic configuration of Carbon in Ground state ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2p
➢ Electronic configuration of Carbon in Excited state ↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
sp2 Hybridisation
➢ Hybridised state  ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
sp2 sp2 sp2 2pz
Formation of sigma bond: One of the sp2 hybridised orbitals of each carbon lying on the
molecular axis (x-axis) linearly overlaps with each other resulting in the formation a C-C sigma bond.
Other two sp2 hybridised orbitals of both carbons linearly overlap with the four 1s orbitals of four
hydrogen atoms leading to the formation of two C-H sigma bonds on each carbon.
Formation of pi bond: The unhybridised 2Pz orbital of both carbon atoms can overlap only
sideways as they are not in the molecular axis. This lateral overlap results in the formation a pi bond
between the two carbon atoms as shown in the figure.
Bonding in acetylene:
The molecular formula of acetylene is C2H2. The electronic configuration of valence shell of
carbon in ground state is 1s22s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0.
➢ Electronic configuration of Carbon in Ground state ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿
1s 2s 2p
➢ Electronic configuration of Carbon in Excited state ↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
sp Hybridisation
➢ Hybridised state  ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
sp sp 2py 2pz
Formation of sigma bond:

One of the two sp hybridised orbitals of each carbon linearly overlaps with each other resulting in
the formation a C-C sigma bond. The other sp hybridised orbital of both carbons linearly overlap with
the two 1s orbitals of two hydrogen atoms leading to the formation of one C-H sigma bonds on each
carbon.
Formation of pi bond:
The unhybridised 2Py and 2Pz orbitals of each carbon overlap sideways. This lateral overlap
results in the formation of two pi bonds ( Py-Py and Pz-Pz) between the two carbon atoms
17. What type of hybridizations are possible in the following geometries?
a) octahedral
b) tetrahedral
c) square planer.
SL.No. Structure Hybridization
a octahedral sp3d2 , d2sp3
b Tetrahedral sp3
c square planer dsp2
18. Explain VSEPR theory. Applying this theory to predict the shapes of IF7, and SF6
The lone pair of electrons are localized only on the central atom and interacts with only one nucleus
whereas the bond pairs are shared between two atoms and they interact with two nuclei. Because of this
the lone pairs occupy more space and have greater repulsive power than the bond pairs in a molecule.
shapes of SF6
No.of bond
No.of lone
Molecular
Molecule
geometry
Number of
Shape
electron
pairs
pairs
pairs
7 AB7 7 -
19. CO2 and H2O both are triatomic molecule but their dipole moment values are different.
Why?
Dipole moment of the CO2 is, μ = μ1 + μ2 = μ1 + (-μ1) = 0
In case of water net dipole moment is the vector sum of μ1+ μ2 as shown
20. Which one of the following has highest bond order? N2, N2+ or N2–
SL.No Molecule Bond order

1 N2 3
2 N2+ 2.5
3 N2– 2.5
21. Explain the covalent character in ionic bond.
➢ The partial covalent character in ionic compounds can be explained on the basis of a phenomenon
called polarization.
➢ We know that in an ionic compound, there is an electrostatic attractive force between the cation and
anion.
➢ The positively charged cation attracts the valence electrons of anion while repelling the nucleus.
➢ This causes a distortion in the electron cloud of the anion and its electron density drift s towards the
cation, which results in some sharing of the valence electrons between these ions.
➢ Thus, a partial covalent character is developed between them. This phenomenon is called polarisation
22. Describe Fajan's rule
The charge density on metal cation increases it form ionic compound with large covalent
character polarising power of cation depends on charge density of cation, ie. Similar the size and
greater the charge more will be polarising power.

11. FUNDAMENTAL OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. Give the general characteristics of organic compounds?

➢ They are covalent compounds insoluble in water and readily soluble in organic solvent such as
benzene, toluene, ether, chloroform etc...
➢ Many of the organic compounds are inflammable (except CCl4).Organic compounds are
characterised by functional groups. They exhibit isomerism
2. Describe the classification of organic compounds based on their structure.
Organic Compunds
Acyclic or open chain or aliphatic Cyclic compounds

compounds
Example :CH3–CH2–CH3 (propane)
Homocyclic compounds Heterocyclic compounds
Alicyclic Compounds Aromatic compounds

Or carbocyclic
Ex:- Cyclopropane
Alicyclic Alicyclic
Compounds compounds
Ex:- THF Ex:- Pyridine
Benzenoid compounds or Non-Benzenoid compounds

Aromatichomocyclic also aromatic homocyclic
Ex:- Phenol Ex:- Azulene
3. Write a note on homologous series.

➢ A series of organic compounds each containing a characterised functional group and the successive
members differ from each other in molecular formula by a - CH2- group is called homologous series.
➢ Eg. Alkanes: Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), etc..Alcohols: Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (C2H5OH)
etc..
➢ Compounds of the homologous series are represented by a general formula
Alkanes CnH2n+2, Alkenes CnH2n, Alkynes CnH2n-2
➢ It can be prepared by general methods.
➢ They show regular gradation in physical properties but have almost similar chemical property
4. What is meant by a functional group? Identify the functional group in the following
compounds.
(a) acetaldehyde (b) oxalic acid (c) di methyl ether (d) methylamine
Compound Functional group
(a) acetaldehyde - CHO Aldehyde
(b) oxalic acid - COOH Carboxylic acid
(c) di methyl ether -O- Ether
(d) methylamine - NH2 amine
5. Give the general formula for the following classes of organic compounds
(a) Aliphatic monohydric alcohol (b) Aliphatic ketones. (c) Aliphatic amines.
Compound General molecular formula
R-OH
(a) Aliphatic monohydric alcohol
Ex. CH3-OH, CH3-CH2-OH
R-CO-R
(b) Aliphatic ketones
Ex. CH3-CO-CH3
R-NH2
(c) Aliphatic amines
Ex. CH3-NH2, CH3-CH2-NH2
6. Write the molecular formula of the first six members of homologous series of nitro
alkanes.
Molecular formula NAME
CH3-NO2 Nitro methane
CH3-CH2-NO2 Nitro ehtane
CH3-CH2-CH2-NO2 1-Nitro propane
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-NO2 1-Nitro butane
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-NO2 1-Nitro pentane
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-NO2 1-Nitro hexane
7. Write the molecular and possible structural formula of the first four members of
homologous series of carboxylic acids.
Molecular formula NAME
H-COOH Methanoic acid
CH3 - COOH Ethanoic acid
CH3 - CH2- COOH Propanaoic acid
CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - COOH Butanoic acid
CH3 - CH(COOH )CH3 2-Methyl propanoic acid
8. Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds.

i,(CH3)2CH-CH2-CH(CH3)-CH(CH3)2
6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3 – CH–CH2– CH – CH – CH3
  
CH3 CH3 CH3 2,3,5-Trimethylhexane
ii, CH3 – CH – CH - CH3
 
CH3 Br
4 3 2 1
CH3 – CH – CH - CH3
 
CH3 Br 2 – Bromo – 3 – Methylbutane
iii, CH3 – O – CH3
CH3 – O – CH3 Methoxymethane

iv, CH3 – CH2 –CH – CHO

OH
4 3 2 1
CH3 – CH2 –CH – CHO 2-Hydroxybutanal

OH
v, CH3= CH – CH = CH2
1 2 3 4
CH2 = CH – CH = CH2 Buta-1,3-diene (or) 1,3-butadiene
vi, CH3 – C  C – CH – CH3

Cl
1 2 3 4 5
CH3 – C  C – CH – CH3

Cl 4-Chloropent-2-yne (or) 4-Chloro-2-pentyne
vii,
4 3 2 1
CH3 – CH = CH – CH2 – Br 1-Bromobut-2-ene (or) 1-Bromo-2-butene
viii, O O
HO
1 2 3 4 5 6
HOOC – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 - CO – CH3 5-Oxohexanoic acid
ix,
CH2 CH3
1
 
2 CH CH2
 
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH – CH2 – CH3 4-Ethyl-3-prpopyl-1-hexene
3 4 5 6
x,
CH3 CH3
 
CH3 – C – CH = C – CH3 2,4,4-Trimethyl-2-pentene
5 4
 3 2 1
CH3
xi,
NH2 CH3
 
C6H5 – CH – CH – CH3 2,- Methyl-1-phenylpropane-1-amine
1 2 3
xii,
1CN
5 4 3 2
CH3 – C – CH2 – C - CH3 2,2 –Dimethyl-4-Oxopentanenitryl
 
O CH3
xiii,
CH3 1

CH3 – CH2 – O – CH – CH3 Ethoxy-2-propane(or) 2-Ethoxypropane
2 3
xiv, O2N CH3
F
O2N 3 CH3
2 4
1 5 1 –Fluro-4-methyl-2-nitrobenzene
F 6
xv, Br
OHC.
CH3 Br
 
OHC – CH – CH – CH3 3-Bromo–2-Methylbutanal
1 2 3 4
xvi,
C6H5 – CO – CH3 Acetophenone
9. Give the structure for the following compound.

(i) 3- ethyl - 2 methyl -1-pentene
1 2 3 4 5
CH2 = C – CH – CH2 – CH3

 
CH3 CH2 –CH3
(ii) 1,3,5- Trimethylcyclohex - 1 -ene
CH3
C
1
6CH2 2 CH
5CH 3 CH
CH3 CH3
4CH2
(iii) tertiary butyl iodide
CH3

CH3 - C - I I

CH3
(iv) 3 - Chlorobutanal
4 3 2 1 O
CH3 - CH - CH2 - CHO

Cl Cl
(v) 3 - Chlorobutanol
4 3 2 1 OH
CH3 - CH - CH2 - CH2OH

Cl Cl
(vi) 2 - Chloro - 2- methyl propane

3 2 1
CH3 - C - CH3
Cl CH3 Cl
(vii) 2,2-dimethyl-1-chloropropane
CH3 Cl

CH3 - C - CH2– Cl

CH3
(viii) 3 - methylbut -1- ene
CH3 - CH - CH = CH2

CH3
(ix) Butan - 2, 2 - diol
OH OH

CH3 - C - CH2 - CH3

OH OH
(x) Octane - 1,3- diene
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CH2 = CH - CH = CH–CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3
(xi) 1,5- Dimethylcyclohexane
CH3
CH
1
6CH2 2CH2
5CH 3 CH2
CH3
4 CH2
(xii) 2-Chlorobut - 3 –ene
CH3 - CH - CH = CH2

Cl Cl
(xiii) 2 - methylbutan- 3 - ol
OH
CH3 - CH - CH - CH3
 
OH CH3
(xiv) acetaldehyde
CH3 – CHO
O
10.Describe the reactions involved in the detection of nitrogen in an organic compound by

Lassaigne method.
➢ If nitrogen is present it gets converted to sodium cyanide
➢ which reacts with freshly prepared ferrous sulphate and ferric ion followed by conc. HCl and gives a
Prussian blue color or green color or precipitate.
➢ It confirms the presence of nitrogen.
Na +C + N ⎯→NaCN(sodium fusion extract)
FeSO4 +2NaOH ⎯→ Na2SO4 +Fe(OH)2
6NaCN +Fe(OH)2 ⎯→ 2NaOH + Na4[Fe(CN)6]
Na4[Fe(CN)6] +4 FeCl3 ⎯→ 12NaCl + Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
Prussian blue color precipitate.
11.Give the principle involved in the estimation of halogen in an organic compound by carius
method.
➢ A known mass of the organic compound is heated with fuming HNO3 and AgNO3.
➢ C,H & S get oxidized to CO2, H2O & SO2 and halogen combines with AgNO3 to form a precipitate
of silver halide.
➢ The ppt of AgX is filtered, washed, dried and weighed.
➢ From the mass of AgX and the mass of the organic compound taken,percentage of halogens are
calculated.
𝐅𝐮𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐇𝐍𝐎𝟑 +𝐀𝐠𝐍𝐎𝟑
X → AgX
12.Give a brief description of the principles of
i) Fractional distillation
➢ This is one method to purify and separate liquids present in the mixture having their boiling point close
to each other
➢ The process of separation of the components in a liquid mixture at their respective boilingpoints in the
form of vapours and the subsequent condensation of those vapours is called fractional distillation
ii) Column Chromatography
➢ This is the simplest chromatographic method carried out in long glass column having a stop cock
near the lower end.
➢ This method involves separation of a mixture over a column of adsorbent (Stationery phase)
packed in a column.
➢ In the column a plug of cotton or glass wool is placed at the lower end of the column to support
the adsorbent powder.
➢ The tube is uniformly packed with suitable absorbent constitute the stationary phase. (Activated
aluminum oxides (alumina), Magnesium oxide, starch are also used as absorbents).
13.Explain paper chromatography
➢ This method involves continues differential portioning of components of a mixture between
stationary and mobile phase.
➢ In paper chromatography, a special quality paper known as chromatography paper is used. This
paper act as a stationary phase.
➢ Paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot orline of sample solution
onto a strip of chromatography paper.
➢ The paper is placed in a jar containing a shallow layer of solvent and sealed. As the solvent rises
through the paper, it meets the sample mixture,
➢ which starts to travel up the paper with the solvent.
14.Explain varions types of constitutional isomerism (structural isomerism) in organic
compounds
Chain Isomerism:
Chain isomers possess the same molecular formula, but different number of carbon in parent–chains
(ie. Straight or branched)
Ex:-
CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - CH3 CH3 - CH - CH3
n Butane  Isobutane
CH3
Position Isomerism:
Compounds having same molecular formula but the position of functional group, multiple bond or branches
along the same chain length of carbon atoms varies.
Ex:-
CH3 - CH2 - CH2 - OH CH3 - CH - CH3
1-Propanol  2-Propanol
OH
Functional Group Isomerism:
When isomers have the same molecular formula but different functionalgroups,
Ex:-
CH3 - CH2 - OH CH3 - O - CH3
Ethylalcohol Dimethylether
15.Describe optical isomerism with suitable example.
Compounds having same physical and chemical property but differ only in the rotation of plane of the
polarized light are known as optical isomers and the phenomenon is known as optical isomerism.
Ex:- d- Lactic acid & l – Lactic acid
16.Briefly explain geometrical isomerism in alkene by considering 2- butene as an example.
➢ The cis isomer is one in which two similar groups are on the same side of the double bond.
➢ The trans isomers is that in which the two similar groups are on the opposite side of the double bond,
➢ Hence this type of isomerism is often called cis-trans isomerism.
H CH3 H CH3
C C
|| ||
C C
H CH3 H3C H
Cis 2-butene Trans 2- butane

12. BASIC CONCEPT OF ORGANIC REACTIONS
1. Write short notes on

(a) Resonance
Certain organic compounds can be represented by more than one structure and they differ only in
the position of bonding and lone pair of electrons. Such structures are called resonance structures and
this phenomenon is called resonance.
(b) Hyper conjugation
➢ The delocalization of  bond is called as hyper conjugation
➢ Hyper conjugation is a permanent effect
2. What are electrophiles and nucleophiles? Give suitable examples for each.
Electrophiles:
➢ Electron deficiency species
➢ Positive changed ions
➢ All Lewis acids act as electrophiles
➢ Ex. Cl-, CN-, Br-, I-, NH3
Nucleophiles :
➢ Electron rich species having a lone pair of electron
➢ Negatively charged ions
➢ All Lewis bases act as nucleophiles
➢ Ex. NO2+, AlCl3 , BF3
3. Show the heterolysis of covalent bond by using curved arrow notation and complete the
following equations. Identify the nucleophile is each case.
(i) CH3 - Br + KOH ⎯→
(ii) CH3 - OCH3 + HI ⎯→
(i) CH3 - Br + KOH ⎯→ CH3 - OH + KBr
nucleophile  OH−
Step – 1  CH3 - Br ⎯→ CH3++ +Br-
Step – 2  CH3++ OH- ⎯→ CH3– OH

(ii) CH3– O - CH3 + HI ⎯→CH3– OH + CH3-I
nucleophile  I−
Step – 1  CH3– O - CH3⎯→ CH3+ + -O–CH3
Step – 2  CH3+ + I- ⎯→ CH3– I

4. Explain inductive effect with suitable example.
Inductive effect is defined as the change in the polarisation of a covalent bond due to the presence
of adjacent bonds, atoms or groups in the molecule. This is a permanent phenomenon.
5. Explain electromeric effect.

It is defined as the complete transfer of shared pair of  electrons of multiple bonds to one of the
atoms in presence of an attaching reagent.
O O−
|| |
CN− + – C – → –C–
|
CN
6. Give examples of the following types of organic reactions
(i) β–elimination
A chemical reaction in which atoms or groups are eliminated from adjacent atoms resulting in a new
 bond.
alcoholic KOH
CH3 – CH = CH2 + H2O + Br−
ii) Electrophilic substitution.
7. Write a note on Homolytic Cleavage

The process in which a covalent bond breaks symmetrically in such way that each of the bonded
atoms retains one electron.
.
CH3 – CH3 → CH3 + .CH3
8. Write a note on Heterolytic Cleavage
The process in which a covalent bond breaks unsymmetrically such that one of the bonded atoms
retains the bond pair of electrons.
9. What is Positive Mesomeric effect ? Give example.
➢ Positive resonance effect occurs, when the electrons move away from substituent attached to the
conjugated system.
➢ The electron releasing substituent are attached to the conjugated system.
➢ These electron releasing groups are usually denoted as +R or +M groups.
Ex :- −OH, −SH, −OR, −SR, −NH2
10. What is Negative Mesomeric effect? Give example.
➢ Negative resonance effect occurs, when the electrons move towards the substituent attached to
the conjugated system.
➢ The electron withdrawing substituents are attached to the conjugated system.
➢ These electron withdrawing groups are usually denoted as –R or –M groups.
Ex:- − NO2, − COOH, > C = O, − C  N

13 . HYDROCARBONS
1. Give IUPAC names for the following compounds

1) 1CH3 – 2CH = 3CH – 4CH = 5CH – 6C ≡ 7C – 8CH3 Oct – 6 –yne –2,4–diene
C2H5 CH3
| |
2) 6CH3– 5C – 4C – 3C ≡ 2C – 1CH3 5- Ethyl-4,5-dimethylhex-2-yne
| |
CH3 H
3) (CH3)3 C – C ≡ C – CH (CH3)2
CH3 CH3
| |
1CH3– 2C – 3C ≡ 4C – 5CH – 6CH3 2,2’5-Trimethylhex-3-yne
|
CH3
4) Ethyl isopropyl acetylene
CH3
|
1CH3– 2CH – 3C ≡ 4C – 5CH – 6CH3 2-Methylhex-3-yne
5) CH ≡ C – C ≡ C – C ≡ CH
1 CH ≡ 2C – 3C ≡ 4C – 5C ≡ 6CH Hex-1,3,5-triyne
2. Identify the compound A, B, C and D in the following series of reactions

alc.KOH Cl2 /CCl4 NaNH2
CH3– CH2–Br → A→ B → D
O3 /Zn−H2 O
→ C
alc.KOH
CH3– CH2–Br → CH2 = CH2 (A)
Cl2 /CCl4
CH2 = CH2 → CH2Cl - CH2Cl (B)
NaNH2
CH2Cl - CH2Cl → CH2 = CHCl (D)
O3 /Zn−H2O
CH2 = CH2 → 2 H-CHO (C)
(A) CH2 = CH2 Ethylene
(B) CH2Cl - CH2Cl Ethylene chloride
(C) H-CHO Formaldehyde
(D) CH2 = CHCl Vinyl chloride
3. Write short notes on ortho, para directors in aromatic electrophilic substitution reactions.
➢ All the activating groups are ‘ortho - para’ directors.
➢ Eg. –OH, –NH2, –CH3 etc.
➢ In Phenol the (-) charge residue is present on ortho and para position of ring structure.
➢ It is quite evident that the lone pair of electron on the atom which is attached to the ring involves in
resonance and makes the ring more electron rich than benzene.
➢ The electron density at ortho and para positions increases as compared to the meta position.
➢ Therefore phenolic group activates the benzene ring for electrophilic attack at ‘ortho’ and ‘para
positions and hence –OH group is an ortho-para director and activator.
4. How is propyne prepared from an alkyne dihalide ?
Br Br
| |
alc.KOH alc.KOH
CH3 – C – CH3→ CH3 – C = CH2 → CH3 – C ≡ CH
| propyne
Br
5. Describe the mechanism of Nitration of benzene.
Reagent Conc HNO3 + ConcH2SO4
Electrophiles -NO2+
Total reaction
Nitrobenzene
Mechanism HNO3 + H2SO4→ NO2+ + HSO4- + H2O
6. An alkyl halide with molecular formula C6H13Br on dehydro halogenation gave two
isomeric alkenes X and Y with molecular formula C6H12. On reductive ozonolysis, X and Y
gave four compounds CH3COCH3, CH3CHO, CH3CH2CHO and (CH3)2 CHCHO. Find the
alkyl halide.
CH3 Br CH3
| | |
alc.KOH
CH3– CH– CH – CH2 – CH3→ CH3– C = CH – CH2 – CH3(X)
2-Methylpent-2-ene
CH3
|
+ CH3– CH– C = CH – CH3(Y)
4-Methylpent-2-ene
CH3 CH3
| |
O3
CH3– C = CH – CH2 – CH3→ CH3– C– O – CH – CH2 – CH3
2-Methylpent-2-ene | |
O –– O
Zn / H2O
CH3 – CO – CH3+ CH3 – CH2 – CHO

Acetone Propanaldehyde
CH3 CH3
| |
O3
CH3– CH - CH = CH – CH3→ CH3– CH –CH - O - CH – CH3
4-Methylpent-2-ene | |
O –– O
Zn / H2O
CH3
|
CH3 – CH – CHO + CH3 – CHO
Isobutanaldehyde Acetaldehyde
7. How does Huckel rule help to decide the aromatic character of a compound
➢ The molecule must be co-planar
➢ Complete delocalization of π electron in the ring
➢ Presence of (4n+2) π electrons in the ring where n is an integer (n=0,1,2….)
8. Suggest the route for the preparation of the following from benzene.
1) 3 – chloro nitrobenzene
NO2
|
𝐂𝐨𝐧.𝐇𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒 /𝟑𝟑𝟎𝐊

+ HNO3 → Nitrobenzene
Cl2 / FeCl3
→ Cl 3 – chloro nitrobenzene
2) 4 – chlorotoluene
CH3
|
𝐀𝐧𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐀𝐥𝐂𝐥𝟑
+ CH3Cl → Toluene
Cl2 / FeCl3
→ 4 – chlorotoluene
Cl
3) Bromo benzene
Br
Br2 / FeCl3
→ 𝐁𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐨 𝐛𝐞𝐧𝐳𝐞𝐧𝐞
4) m - dinitro benzene NO2
|
𝐂𝐨𝐧.𝐇𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒 /𝟑𝟑𝟎𝐊

+ HNO3→ Nitrobenzene
HNO3
→ NO2 m - dinitro benzene
9. Suggest a simple chemical test to distinguish propane and propene.

TEST PROPANE PROPENE
(CH3-CH2-CH3) (CH3-CH=CH2)
1,With bromine water No colour change Colourless
2, Addition Reaction No reaction Takes place
3, With Ozone No reaction Aldehyde Form
10.What happens when isobutylene is treated with acidified potassium permanganate ?

CH3 CH3
| |
CH3 – CH = CH2+ acidified KMnO4 ⎯→ CH3 – C = O
Isobutylene Acetone
11.How will you convert ethyl chloride in to
i) Ethane
Pt / H2
CH3 – CH2 – Cl → CH3 – CH3
Ethyl chloride Ethane
ii) n – Butane
Ether
CH3 – CH2 – Cl + 2Na + CH3 – CH2 – Cl → CH3 – CH2 –CH2 – CH3 + 2NaCl
Ethyl chloride n – Butane
12.Describe the conformers of n - butane.
➢ The two tetrahedral groups can rotate about the carbon – carbon bond axis yielding several
arrangements called conformers. The extreme conformations are staggered and eclipsed conformation.
➢ Eclipsed conformation:
In this conformation, the distance between the two methyl group is minimum. So there is maximum
repulsion between them and it is the least stable conformer.
Eclipsed conformations
➢ Anti or staggered form
In this conformation, the distance between the two methyl groups is maximum and so there is
minimum repulsion between them. And it is the most stable conformer.
Gauche Planar Gauche
13.Write the chemical equations for combustion of propane.
∆
CH3- CH2- CH3 + O2 → 3CO2 + 5H2O
14.Explain Markownikoff's rule with suitable example.
“When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with hydrogen halide, the hydrogen adds to the carbon that
has more number of hydrogen and halogen add to the carbon having fewer hydrogen”.
2-methylpropene 2-methyl-2-proponal
15.What happens when ethylene is passed through cold dilute alkaline potassium
permanganate.
𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑨𝒍𝒌𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 KMnO4
CH2 = CH2 + H2O + (O) → CH2-OH
Ethylene |
CH2-OH Ethylene glycol
16.Write the structures of following alkanes.

1) 2, 3 – Dimethyl – 6 – (2 – methyl propyl) decane
CH3
|
CH3 CH3 CH2–CH–CH3
| | |
CH3 – CH – CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH2 –CH2 – CH3
2) 5 – (2 – Ethyl butyl) – 3, 3 – dimethyl decane
CH2 - CH3
|
CH3 CH2-CH- CH2 - CH3
| |
CH3 – CH2 – C – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 –CH2 – CH3
|
CH3
3) 5 – (1, 2 – Dimethyl propyl) – 2 – methyl nonane
CH3 CH3
| |
CH3 CH– CH –CH3
| |
CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 –CH3
17.How will you prepare propane from a sodium salt of fatty acid ?
soda lime / 
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – COONa → CH3 – CH2 – CH3
𝐇 + /∆
18.CH3–CH(CH3)–CH(OH)–CH3 → (A) major product
HBr
(B)major product
Identify A and B
CH3 OH CH3
| | |
𝐇+ /∆
CH3–CH – CH–CH3 → CH3–CH–CH = CH2 (A)
3-methyl-1-butene
CH3 CH3 Br
| | |
HBr
CH3–CH–CH = CH2 → CH3–CH–CH – CH3 (B)
3-methyl-1-butene 2-Bromo-3-methylbutane
19.Complete the following :
𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐂𝐚𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐬𝐭
i) 2 – butyne → ?
H H
Lindlar Catalyst
CH3− C ≡C− CH3 → C = C
CH3 CH3 Cis-2-butene
𝑰𝟐
ii) CH2 = CH2→ ?
I2 − I2
CH2 = CH2 → [ CH2I- CH2I] → CH2 = CH2
Unstable Ethylene
iii) CH2 – CH2
| | + Zn / C2H5OH → ?
Br Br
CH2 – CH2
| | + Zn/C2H5OH ⎯→ CH2 = CH2+ ZnBr2
Br Br Ethylene
𝐇𝟐 𝐎
iv) CaC2→ ?
CaC2+ 2H2O ⎯→ CH ≡ CH + Ca(OH)2
Acetylene
20.How will you distinguish 1 – butyne and 2 – butyne?
Test 1-butyne 2-butyne
1, With It gives silver butynide No reaction
AgNO3 + NH4OH
2, With It gives formic acid and propanoic acid It gives two molecules Acetic acid.
O3 + H2O/H2O2
21.Explain Anti-Markovnikoff ’s Rule (Or) Peroxide Effect (Or) Kharasch Addition
The addition of HBr to an alkene in the presence of organic peroxide, gives the anti Markovnikoff’s
product. This effect is called peroxide effect (Or) Kharasch Addition reaction.
PEROXIDE
CH3-CH=CH2 + HBr → CH3-CH2-CH2-Br
Propene 1-Bromopropane
22.Write a notes on Wurtz reaction
When a solution of halo alkanes in dry ether is treated with sodium metal higher alkanes are produced
Ether
CH3−Br + 2Na + CH3-Br → CH3−CH3 + 2NaBr
23.Write a notes on Corey- House Mechanism
An alkyl halide and lithium dialkyl cuprate are reacted to give higher alkane.
CH3CH2 Br + (CH3)2LiCu ⎯→ CH3CH2CH3 +CH3CuLiBr
Additional Questions
1. How will you prepare ethane from Kolbe’s method?
2. Write steam reforming process
3. Write Aromatisation reaction?
4. Convert vicinal dihalides to Alkene?
5. Write Kharasch Addition reaction
6. How Benzene prepared from Coal Tar?.
7. Write a notes on Friedel Craft’s Alkylation.
8. Write a notes on Friedel Craft’s Acylation
9. Convert Acetlyne to Benzene
10.Write a notes on Wurtz – Fittig Reaction
11.Explain Birch reduction reaction
12.How will you prepare ethene from Kolbe’s method?
13.Why benzaldehyde act as meta director? Give reasons.

14. HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES
1. Classify the following compounds in the form of alkyl, allylic, vinyl, benzylic halides.
a, CH3 – CH = CH – Cl vinyl halide
b, C6H5 – CH2 – I benzylic halide
c, CH3 – CH – CH3 alkyl halide

Br
d, CH2 = CH – Cl vinyl halide
2. Why chlorination of methane is not possible in dark?

➢ Chlorination of methane is Free Radical substitution reaction.
➢ Chlorine is not able to convert into free radicals in the dark.
3. How will you prepare n propyl iodide from n-propyl bromide?
Acetone
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – Br + NaBr → CH3 – CH2 –CH2 –I + NaBr
n -propylbromide n –propyl iodide
4. Which alkyl halide from the following pair is i) chiral ii) undergoes faster SN2 reaction?
i) chiral
2-Bromo butane
ii) undergoes faster SN2 reaction
4-Chloro butane
5. How does chlorobenzene react with sodium in the presence of ether? What is the name of
the reaction?
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
C6H5 – Cl + 2Na + C6H5 – Cl → C6H5 – C6H5 + 2NaI
Chlorobenzene Chlorobenzene Biphenyl
Reaction Name : - Fittig Reaction.
6. Give reasons for polarity of C-X bond in halo alkane.
➢ Carbon Halogen bond is a Polar bond as halogens are more electronegative than carbon.
➢ The carbon atom exhibits a partial positive charges (+) and halogen atom a partial negative
charge (−) + −
R – CH2 – X
7. Why is it necessary to avoid even traces of moisture during the use of Grignard reagent?
Grignard reagent react with water to give Alkane.
R – Mg – X + H – OH ⎯→ R – H + X – Mg – OH
Grignard reagent water Alkane
8. What happens when acetyl chloride is treated with excess of CH3MgI?
Acetyl chloride is react with excess of methyl magnesium iodide to give tertiary butyl alcohol.
O O–MgI O
𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝟐 𝑶/𝑯+
CH3 –MgI + CH3 –C–Cl → CH3–C–CH3 → CH3 – C– CH3 +Mg(Cl)I
Acetyl chloride Acetone
O O–MgBr OH
𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝐇𝟐 𝐎/𝐇+
CH3 –MgI + CH3 –C– CH3 → CH3–C–CH3 → CH3 – C– CH3 +Mg(OH)I
Acetone
CH3 CH3
tertiary butyl alcohol
9. Arrange the following alkyl halide in increasing order of bond enthalpy of RX
CH3Br, CH3F, CH3Cl, CH3I.
The order is  CH3I < CH3Br < CH3Cl < CH3F
10. What happens when chloroform reacts with oxygen in the presence of sunlight?
Chloroform reacts with oxygen in the presence of sunlight to give Phoshgene.
Sun Light
2CHCl3 + O2→ 2 COCl2 + 2HCl
Phoshgene
11. Write down the possible isomers of C5H11Br and give their IUPAC and common names.
Molecular Formula Common Name IUPAC Name
CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2– CH2–Br n-pentyl bromide 1-Bromo pentane
CH3–CH2–CH2–CH– CH3 2- pentyl bromide 2- Bromo pentane
Br
CH3–CH2– CH–CH2– CH3 3- pentyl bromide 3- Bromo pentane
Br
CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH2 – Br Iso pentyl bromide 1- Bromo -3-methyl butane
CH3
CH3 – CH – CH – CH3 Sec iso pentyl bromide 2- Bromo -3-methyl butane
CH3 Br
CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH2 – Br 2-Methyl butyl bromide 1- Bromo -2-methyl butane
CH3
Br Tertiary pentyl bromide 2- Bromo -2-methyl butane
CH3 – CH2 – C – CH3
CH3
CH3 1-Neo pentyl bromide 1- Bromo -2,2’-dimethyl propane
CH3 – C – CH2 –Br
CH3
12. Mention any three methods of preparation of haloalkanes from alcohols.
1, Reaction with Hydrogen halide :-
Anhydrous ZnCl2 / ∆
CH3–CH2–OH + HCl → CH3–CH2–Cl + H2O
Ethyl alcohol Ethyl chloride
2, Reaction with Phosphorous Halide :-
CH3–CH2–OH + PCl5 ⎯→ CH3–CH2–Cl + POCl3 + HCl
Ethyl alcohol Ethyl chloride
3, Reaction with Thionyl chloride :-
Pyridine
CH3–CH2–OH + SOCl2 → CH3–CH2–Cl + SO2 + HCl
Ethyl alcohol Ethylchloride
13. Compare SN1 and SN2 reaction mechanisms.
SN1 SN2
1. It is a Unimolecular reaction 1. It is a bimolecular reaction
2. It follows a First order kinetic mechanism 2. It follows the second order kinetic mechanism
3. It involves two steps 3. It is a single step process
4. The rate of the reaction depends on the 4. The rate of the reaction is depends on the
concentration of the substrate. concentration of both the substrate and
nucleophile.
5. The substrate form carbon cation intermediate. 5. Dose not form carbon cation intermediate.
6. Optically active substrate becomes optically 6. Inversion in configuration.
inactive.
14. Reagents and the conditions used in the reactions are given below. Complete the table by
writing down the product and the name of the reaction.
Reaction Product Name of the reaction
CH –CH –OH + SOCl →
𝑃𝑦𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 CH3–CH2–Cl
3 2 2
Ethyl chloride Darzen’s reaction.
CH3–CH2–Cl + SO2 + HCl
CH3 – CH2 –Br + AgF ⎯→ CH3 – CH2 –F
Swartz reaction
CH3 – CH2 –F + AgBr Ethyl fluride
C6H5–Cl +2Na+ C6H5– Cl →
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 C6H5 –C6H5
Bi phenyl Fittig reaction.
C6H5 –C6H5 + 2NaI
15. Discuss the aromatic nucleophilic substitutions reaction of chlorobenzene.
➢ Chlorobenzene does not give nucleophilic substitution reaction.
➢ C- Cl bond in chlorobenzene is Short and Strong.
➢ So it is substituted by OH-, NH2- (or) CN- with appropriate nucleophilic reagents at high temperature
and pressure.
Ex :-
Chlorobenzene Phenol
Chlorobenzene Phenyl cyanide

16. Account for the following
(i) tertiary-butyl chloride reacts with aqueous KOH by SN1 mechanism while n-butyl chloride
reacts with SN2 mechanism.
➢ SN1 reaction proceeds through the formation of carbocation.
➢ The tertiary-butyl chloride readily loses Cl- ion to form stable tertiary carbocation.
➢ It prefers to undergo SN1 mechanism.
➢ n-Butyl chloride does not undergo ionization to form n-butyl carbocation, because it is unstable.
➢ It prefers to undergo SN2 mechanism.
(ii) p-dichloro benzene has higher melting point than those of o-and m- di chloro benzene.
It is due to its symmetry which leads to more close packing of its molecules in the crystal
lattice and consequently strong intermolecular attractive force which requires more energy for
melting.
17. In an experiment ethyl iodide in ether is allowed to stand over magnesium pieces.
Magnesium dissolves and product is formed
a) Name the product and write the equation for the reaction.
𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
C2H5I + Mg → C2H5MgI (Methyl magnesium iodide)
b) Why all the reagents used in the reaction should be dry? Explain
Because the reagent react with water to give alkane.
c) How is acetone prepared from the product obtained in the experiment.
O O–MgBr O
𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝟐 𝑶/𝑯+
CH3 –MgI + CH3 –C–Cl → CH3–C–CH3 → CH3– C– CH3 +Mg(Cl)I
Acetyl chloride Acetone
18. Write a chemical reaction useful to prepare the following:
i) Freon-12 from Carbon tetrachloride
Carbon tetrachloride Freon-12

ii) Carbon tetrachloride from carbon disulphide
Carbon disulphide Carbon tetrachloride

19. What are Freons? Discuss their uses and environmental effects
Freons :- The chloro fluro derivatives of methane and ethane are called freons.
Uses :- Freons are used as a refrigerants in refrigerators and air conditioners.
It is used as a propellant for aerosols and foams.
It is used as propellant for foams to spray out deodorants, shaving creams, and insecticides.
Environmental effects :- Highly toxic in nature and affects nervous system.
20. Predict the products when bromoethane is treated with the following i) KNO2 ii) AgNO2
i) KNO2
CH3 – CH2 – Br + KNO2 ⎯→ CH3 – CH2 – O – N = O + KBr
ii) AgNO2 Ethyl nitride
CH3 – CH2 – Br + AgNO2 ⎯→ CH3 – CH2 –NO2 + AgBr
Nitro ethane
21. Explain the mechanism of SN1 reaction by highlighting the stereochemistry behind it
➢ It is a Unimolecular reaction
➢ It follows a First order kinetic mechanism.
➢ It involves two steps.
➢ The rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of the substrate.
➢ The substrate form carbon cation intermediate.
➢ Optically active substrate becomes optically inactive.
➢ Ex:- Reaction between tertiary butyl bromide with aqueous KOH.
➢ Step -1 :-
Carbon cation
➢ Step -2 :-
22. Write short notes on the the following
i) Raschig process ii) Dows Process iii) Darzens process
𝐂𝐮𝐂𝐥𝟐 /𝟓𝟐𝟓𝐊
C6H5 –H + HCl + ½O2 → C6H5 – Cl + H2O
i) Raschig process
Benzene Chlorobenzene
𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐚𝐭𝐦 /𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐂
ii) Dows Process C6H5 –Cl + NaOH → C6H5 – OH + NaCl
Chlorobenzene Phenol
𝑷𝒚𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒆
iii) Darzens process C6H5 – OH + SOCl2 → C6H5 – Cl + SO2 + HCl
Phenol Chlorobenzene
23. Starting from CH3MgI, How will you prepare the following?
i) Acetic acid, ii) Acetone, iii) Ethyl acetate, iv) Iso propyl alcohol, v) Methyl cyanide
i) Acetic acid:-
O O – MgI OH
𝐇𝟐 𝐎/𝐇+
CH3 –MgI + C = O ⎯→ CH3 – C = O → CH3 – C = O + Mg(OH)I
Carbon dioxide Acetic acid
ii) Acetone:-
O O – MgI O
𝐇𝟐 𝐎/𝐇+
CH3 –MgI + CH3 –C –Cl ⎯→ CH3 – C – Cl → CH3 – C – CH3 + Mg(Cl)I
Acetyl chloride CH3 Acetone
iii) Ethyl acetate:-
O O – MgI O
𝐇𝟐 𝐎/𝐇+
CH3 –MgI + C2H5O –C –Cl ⎯→ C2H5O– C – Cl → C2H5O– C – CH3 + Mg(Cl)I
Ethyl chloroformate CH3 Ethyl acetate
iv) Iso propyl alcohol:-
O O – MgI OH
𝐇𝟐 𝐎/𝐇+
CH3 –MgI + CH3 –C –H ⎯→ CH3 – C – H → CH3 – C – H + Mg(OH)I
Acetaldehyde CH3 CH3 Iso propyl alcohol
v) Methyl cyanide:-
CH3 –MgI + CNCl ⎯→ CH3 – CN + Mg(Cl)I
Cyanogen chloride Methyl cyanide
24.Complete the following reactions

Peroxide
i) CH3 – CH = CH2 + HBr → ?
Peroxide
CH3 – CH = CH2 + HBr → CH3 – CH2 – CH2–Br (n-propyl bromide)
Alcohol / H2 O
ii) CH3 – CH2 –Br + NaSH → ?
Alcohol / H2 O
CH3 – CH2 –Br + NaSH → CH3 – CH2 –SH + NaBr
(Ethyl thioalcohol)
𝐓𝐇𝐅
iii) C6H5Cl + Mg → ?
𝐓𝐇𝐅
C6H5Cl + Mg → C6H5MgCl (Phenyl magnesium chloride)
∆
iv) CHCl3 + HNO3 → ?
∆
CHCl3 + HNO3 → CCl3NO2 + H2O (Chloropicrin)
∆
iv) CCl4 + H2O → ?
∆
CCl4 + H2O → COCl2 + 2HCl (Phoshgene)
25. Explain the preparation of the following compounds

i) DDT, ii) Chloroform, iii) Biphenyl, iv) Chloropicrin & v) Freon-12
i) DDT :-
(p,p’-DichloroDiphenylTrichloroethane)
ii) Chloroform:-
This reaction proceeds in three steps as shown below.
Step -1 :- (Oxidation)
CH3–CH2–OH + Cl2 ⎯→ CH3 – CHO + 2HCl
Ethyl alcohol Acetaldehyde
Step -1 :- (Chlorination)
CH3 – CHO + 3Cl2 ⎯→ CCl3 – CHO + 3HCl
Acetaldehyde Trichloro acetaldehyde
Step -1 :- ( Hyrolysis)
CCl3 – CHO + Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ 2CHCl3 + (HCOO)2Ca
Trichloro acetaldehyde Chloroform
iii) Biphenyl :-
Ether
C6H5–Cl +2Na+ C6H5– Cl → C6H5 –C6H5 + 2NaI (Fittig Reaction)
Chloro benzene Biphenyl
v) Freon-12:-
Carbon tetrachloride Freon - 12
26. An organic compound (A) with molecular formula C2H5Cl reacts with KOH gives
compounds (B) and with alcoholic KOH gives compound (C). Identify (A),(B), and (C).
dil KOH
CH3 – CH2 – Cl → CH3 – CH2 – OH + KCl
(A) (B)
Alcoholic KOH
CH3 – CH2 – OH → CH2 = CH2 + KCl + H2O
(B) (C)
Compound Molecular Formula Name
(A) CH3 – CH2 – Cl Ethyl chloride
(B) CH3 – CH2 – OH Ethyl alcohol
(C) CH2 = CH2 Ethylene
27. Simplest alkene (A) reacts with HCl to form compound (B).Compound (B) reacts with
ammonia to form compound (C) of molecular formula C2H7N.Compound (C) undergoes
carbylamine test. Identify (A), (B), and (C).
CH2 = CH2 + HCl ⎯→ CH3 – CH2 – Cl
(A) (B)
CH3 – CH2 – Cl + NH3 ⎯→ CH3 – CH2 – NH2 + HCl
(B) (C)
(A) CH2 = CH2 Ethylene
(B) CH3 – CH2 – Cl Ethyl chloride
(C) CH3 – CH2 – NH2 Ethyl amine
28. A hydrocarbon C3H6 (A) reacts with HBr to form compound (B). Compound (B) reacts
with aqueous potassium hydroxide to give (C) of molecular formula C3H6O.what are (A)
(B) and (C). Explain the reactions.
CH3 –CH = CH2 + HBr ⎯→ CH3 – CHBr – CH3
(A) (B)
dil KOH
CH3 – CHBr – CH3 → CH3 – CHOH – CH3 + KBr
(B) (C)
(A) CH3 –CH = CH2 Propylene
(B) CH3 – CHBr – CH3 Isopropyl bromide
(C) CH3 – CHOH – CH3 Isopropyl alcohol
29. Two isomers (A) and (B) have the same molecular formula C2H4Cl2. Compound (A) reacts
with aqueous KOH gives compound (C) of molecular formula C2H4O. Compound (B)
reacts with aqueous KOH gives compound (D) of molecular formula C2H6O2. Identify
(A),(B),(C) and (D).
CH3-CHCl2 + 2KOH ⎯→ CH3 – CH(OH)2 + 2KCl
(A) -H2O
CH3 – CHO (C)
CH2-Cl CH2-OH
CH2-Cl + 2KOH ⎯→ CH2-OH + 2KCl

(B) (D)
(A) CH3-CHCl2 Ethylidene chloride
(B) CH2Cl – CH2Cl Ethylene dichloride
(C) CH3 – CHO Acetaldehyde
(D) CH2OH – CH2OH Ethylene glycol

15. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
1. Dissolved oxygen in water is responsible for aquatic life. What processes are responsible
for the reduction in dissolved oxygen in water?
The microorganisms which oxidize organic matter also used oxygen dissolved in water. more
over during night, photosynthesis stops but the aquatic plants continue to respire, resulting in dissolved
oxygen in water
2. What would happen, if the green house gases were totally missing in the earth’s
atmosphere?
In the absence of green house gases, the average earth temperature will decrease. At very
low temperature, life is impossible.
3. Define smog.
Smog is a combination of smoke and fog which forms droplets that remain suspended in the
air.
4. Which is considered to be earth’s protective umbrella? Why?
Ozone layer is earth’s protective umbrella because it prevents the ultraviolet radiation from
the sun.
5. What are degradable and non-degradable pollutants?
Degradable Pollutants :-
The pollutants which can be decomposed by natural biological processes Ex :- Plants
wastes, animal wastes.
Non -Degradable Pollutants :-
The pollutants which cannot be decomposed by natural biological processes Ex :- Metal
wastes, Plastics, nuclear wastes.
6. From where does ozone come in the photo chemical smog?
➢ The NO2 present in the pollutants emitted by automobiles, industries etc..,gives NO and oxygen
atoms.
➢ These oxygen atoms combine with atmospheric dioxygen to give ozone.
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
NO2 → NO + (O)
(O) + O2 ⎯→ O3
7. A person was using water supplied by corporation. Due to shortage of water he started
using underground water. He felt laxative effect. What could be the cause?
Excessive concentration (> 500ppm) of sulphates in drinking water causes laxative effect.
8. What is green chemistry?
Green chemistry is a chemical philosophy encouraging the design of products and processes
that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances.
9. Explain how does greenhouse effect cause global warming
➢ The heating up of the earth’s surface due to trapping of infrared radiations reflected by earth’s
surface by CO2 layer in the atmosphere is known as green house effect.
➢ Hence we can understand that green house effect causes global warming.
10. Mention the standards prescribed by BIS for quality of drinking water
S.No Characteristics Desirable limit
I Physico-chemical Characteristics
i) PH 6.5 to 8.5
ii) Total Dissolved Solids(TDS) 500 ppm
iii) Total Hardness (asCaCO3) 300 ppm
iv) Nitrate 45ppm
v) Chloride 250 ppm
vi) Sulphate 200 ppm
vii) Fluoride 1 ppm
II Biological Characteristics
i) Escherichia Coli Not at all
ii) Coliforms Not to exceed 10 (In 100 ml water
sample)
11. How does classical smog differ from photochemical smog?
Classical smog Photochemical smog
occurs in cool humid climate occurs in warm and dry climate
combination of SO2, SO3 and combination of smoke, fog,
humidity. dusts and air pollutants
reducing smog oxidising smog
causes acid rain and bronchial causes irritation of eyes, skin
irritation and lungs
12. What are particulate pollutants? Explain any three.
Particulate Pollutant are small solid particles suspended in air. Ex. Smoke, mists and dust.
(i) Smoke:-
➢ Smoke particulate consists of solid particles (or) mixture of solid and liquid particles formed by
combustion of organic matter.
➢ Example:- Cigarette smoke, oil smoke,
(ii) Dust :
➢ Dust composed of fine solid particles produced during crushing and grinding of solid materials.
➢ Example:- Saw dust from wood works, cement dust from cement factories
(iii) Mists:
➢ They are formed by particles of spray liquids and condensation of vapours in air.
➢ Example:- Sulphuric acid mist, herbicides and insecticides sprays can form mists.
13. Even though the use of pesticides increases the crop production, they adversely affect the
living organisms. Explain the function and the adverse effects of the pesticides.
Pesticides are the chemicals that are used to kill or stop the growth of unwanted organisms. But these
pesticides can affect the health of human beings. These are further classified as
Pesticides Example Function Effects
Insecticides: DDT, BHC, aldrin etc., It can stay in soil They contaminate root
for long period of time and are crops like carrot,
absorbed by etc.,
soil.
Fungicide: Organo mercury It used as most common They dissociate in soil to
compounds fungicide. produce mercury which
is highly toxic.
Herbicides: Sodium chlorate + It is used to control unwanted Toxic to mammals.
Sodium arsenide plants.
14. Ethane burns completely in air to give CO2, while in a limited supply of air gives CO. The
same gases are found in automobile exhaust. Both CO and CO2 are atmospheric
pollutants
i) What is the danger associated with these gases
(a) Carbon monoxide: Poisonous gas produced as a result of incomplete combustion of coal are
firewood.
(b) Carbon dioxide: Responsible for global warming.
ii) How do the pollutants affect the human body?
(a) Carbon monoxide:
➢ It binds with hemoglobin and form carboxy hemoglobin which impairs normal oxygen transport by
blood and hence the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is reduced.
➢ This oxygen deficiency results in headache, dizziness, tension, Loss of consciousness, blurring of
eye sight and cardiac arrest.
(b) Carbon dioxide: It causes headache and nausea.
15. On the basis of chemical reactions involved, explain how do CFC’s cause depletion of
ozone layer in stratosphere?
In the presence of uv radiation, CFC’s break up into chlorine free radical
h
CF2Cl2 → CF2Cl + Cl.
h
CFCl3 → CFCl2 + Cl.
Cl. + O3 → ClO. + O2
ClO. + O → Cl. + O2
Chlorine radical is regenerated in the course of reaction. Due to this continuous attack of Cl.
thinning of ozone layer takes place which leads to formation of ozone hole.
16. How is acid rain formed? Explain its effect
The oxides of sulphur and nitrogen is absorbed by the water in the clouds and converted into sulphuric
acid and nitric acid.
2SO2+ O2+ 2H2O ⎯→ 2H2SO4
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O ⎯→ 4HNO3
The pH of rain water becomes 5.6. This is called as Acid rain.
Effects of acid rain:
➢ Damage to building (stone leprosy)
➢ Affects plants and animal life in aquatic ecosystem
➢ Harmful for agriculture as it removes nutrients
➢ Corrodes water pipes
➢ Respiratory ailment in humans and animals.
17. Differentiate the following
(i) BOD and COD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
The total amount of oxygen in milligrams It is defined as the amount of oxygen required
consumed by microorganisms in decomposing by the organic matter in a sample of water for its
the waste in one liter of water at 20̊ C for a oxidation by a strong oxidizing agent like
period of 5 days and its value is expressed in K2Cr2O7 in acid medium for a period of 2 hrs.
ppm.
(i) Viable and non-viable particulate pollutants

Viable particulate pollutants non-viable particulate pollutants
The viable particulates are the small size living The non-viable particulates are small solid
organisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, etc. particles and liquid droplets suspended in air.
Which are dispersed in air. Example: Smoke, dust, mists, fumes etc
18. Explain how oxygen deficiency is caused by carbon monoxide in our blood? Give its effect
➢ Poisonous gas produced as a result of incomplete combustion of coal are firewood.
➢ It binds with hemoglobin and form carboxy hemoglobin which impairs normal oxygen transport by
blood and hence the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is reduced.
➢ This oxygen deficiency results in headache, dizziness, tension, Loss of consciousness, blurring of
eye sight and cardiac arrest.
19. What are the various methods you suggest to protect our environment from pollution?
➢ Waste management and proper disposal of wastes
➢ Recycling waste materials and reusing them.
➢ Growing more trees
➢ Controlling vehicle emission
➢ Using fuels with low sulphur content.

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1.

Basic Concepts of Chemistry and Chemical Calculations

1. Define relative atomic mass

Relative atomic mass of hydrogen (Ar)H = 1.008

2Al + Fe2O3 ⎯→ Al2O3 + 2Fe

17.Calculate the empirical and molecular formula of a compound containing 76.6%

Empirical formula = C6H6O

Molecular formula = (C6H6O)n = (C6H6O)1 = C6H6O

19. A Compound on analysis gave Na = 14.31% S = 9.97% H= 6.22% and O= 69.5%

Since all the hydrogen in the compound present as water

Molecular formula = Na2SO4 .10H2O

V.SURESHKANNA., PG.ASST., G.H.S.S. THIRUMANJOLAI.

(a) (b) (c)

is called Hamiltonian operator

Data Δv = 0.1% , υ = 2.2 x106 ms-1 and m = 9.1 x 10−31Kg

n l sub level m values Number of orbitals

5s 5p 5d 5f 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p <

16. An atom of an element contains 35 electrons and 45 neutrons. Deduce

Required Energy = E∞ – E1 = 0 – (– 56.4) = 56.4 ev

Given that y = x + 11.1% of x

number of electron (or) number of protons = (x - 1) = 18 – 1 = 17

23. Which has stable electronic configuration ? Ni2+ or Fe3+

Fe 3+  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5

4 exchanges by electrons 3 exchanges by electrons

2 exchanges by electrons 1 exchanges by electron

Overall electron exchanges ( 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 10)

n l m Sub energy level

V.SURESHKANNA., PG.ASST., G.H.S.S. THIRUMANJOLAI.

Effective Nucelar charge Zeff = Z – S

26. Why Beryllium has high Ionisation energy than Boron ?

V.SURESHKANNA., PG.ASST., G.H.S.S. THIRUMANJOLAI.

Cathode:- 2 H2O+2 e- ⎯→ 2OH-+H2

Over all reaction H2O ⎯→ H2 + ½ O2

Orthohydrogen Para hydrogen

4. Show that Tritium is a Beta emitter. ( Give the Properties )

The Half life period of Tritium is 12.3 years

c)Steam with Red hot Iron

V.SURESHKANNA., PG.ASST., G.H.S.S. THIRUMANJOLAI.

1. What are S-block elements

Chain structure- in the solid state

Linear monomer structure – (b) at high temperature of 1200K

Chloro Bridged dimer structure – c in the Vapour state

55. What is Slaking of lime or Slaked lime.

V.SURESHKANNA., PG.ASST., G.H.S.S. THIRUMANJOLAI.

1. State Boyle’s law

4. Define Gay-Lussac’s law

5. Define Avogadro hypothesis

6. Derive the ideal gas equation

Avogadro law  Vαn

P =Pressure ; R= Gas constant ; T =Temperature ; V=Volume

PTot = Total pressure ; p1 + p2 + p3 = Partial pressure

PTotal = P Dry Gas + PWater Vapour

PDry Gas = PTotal - PWater Vapour

In other words, the density of a gas is directly proportional to pressure.

V.SURESHKANNA., PG.ASST., G.H.S.S. THIRUMANJOLAI.

7. Define is Gibb’s free energy.

17. State the third law of thermodynamics.

ΔH1 = heat of sublimation of Ca(S)

ΔHf = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3 + ΔH4 + ΔH5