96

Melting (Changing Solid to Liquid)

HEAT

Condensation (Changing Vapour to Liquid) Evaporation produces cooling

 97

CHAPTER 6
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

The study of heat and thermal properties of matter is actually a study of energy and
energy transfer.
It has long been recognized that heat is a form of energy. When heat is applied to various
kinds of engines, it can supply forces that do work. The internal structure of matter is
examined by the study of the effects of heat energy upon matter. It suggests that all
matter consists of tiny particles such as atoms and molecules. Heat is closely associated
with the motions of such tiny particles. Therefore heat must be studied on molecular
basis.

6.1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

The motions and positions of molecules in matter result in the kinetic energy and
potential energy. The total energy, that is, the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic
energy, of molecules in matter is in fact the internal energy of that matter. Temperature is
related to that internal energy. Temperature is a measure of the internal energy of
molecules.
The concept of temperature is very important for the physical and biological sciences.
This is because the temperature of an object is directly related to the energies of
molecules composing the object. Natural processes often involve energy changes and the
temperature is an indicator for these changes.
The sensations of hotness, warmness and coldness can be experienced by touching the
objects. Temperature is the quantity that determines how cold or how hot the object is.
The temperature of a hot body is higher than that of a cold body. The temperature of the
object cannot be known accurately by experiencing the sensations of hotness or coldness.
For example, if one touch the metal knob of a wooden door with one hand and touch the
wood of the door with the other hand, he will feel that the metal knob is colder than the
wood. This is so even though both the metal knob and the wood of the door are at the
same temperature. This is just like saying that the mass of an object cannot be known
accurately by lifting that object. Just as there are balances to measure the mass of the
object, there are thermometers to measure temperatures accurately.
There is a relation between heat and temperature. The energy exchanged between an
object and its surrounding due to different temperatures is defined as heat.
Heat and temperature are different quantities. When a body at a higher temperature is in
contact with a body at a lower temperature heat flows from the first to the second body.
Although the temperature of the first body is known, it is impossible to know how much
heat has been transferred to the second body which is not as hot as the first one. Two
bodies may have the same temperature, but may not be able to supply the same quantities
of heat when put into contact with colder bodies under the same condition. Generally, the
quantities of heat that can be supplied by different bodies at the same temperature are not
 98

the same. For example, a gallon of boiling water and half a gallon of boiling water may
have the same temperature. However, under the same condition, the heat which can be
supplied to a large block of ice by a gallon of boiling water is twice the amount supplied
by half a gallon of boiling water.
The units used to measure temperature will be discussed before describing the units used
to measure heat.
6.2 UNITS OF TEMPERATURE OR TEMPERATURE SCALES
The thermometers marked with Celsius (Centigrade) scale and Fahrenheit scale are used
for ordinary cases such as measuring room-temperature, measuring body-temperature and
measuring the temperature of hot water. Temperature is usually expressed by writing °C
and °F just after the number of degrees. C stands for Celsius and F for Fahrenheit. The
third temperature scale, the Kelvin or the absolute temperature is used in scientific work.
Temperature is expressed by writing K just after the number. K stands for Kelvin.
The values of physical quantities remain the same at a given temperature. For example,
the density of water at 4 °C is 1000 kg m-3. The values of many physical quantities vary
with temperature. The length of an iron bar varies with temperature. But the length of that
iron bar is the same whenever it is put into a container having a mixture of ice and water.
A temperature scale can thus be defined by using such properties. A liquid such as
mercury or alcohol is used in home thermometers to indicate temperature. The
thermometer consists of a glass tube attached to a bulb. The bulb and part of the glass
tube are filled with mercury. As the temperature increases the volume of mercury
increases faster than that of the bulb. And the mercury rises in the glass tube.
To calibrate a thermometer, two reference points are chosen and the interval between
these points is subdivided into a number of equal parts. The freezing point and boiling
point of water under normal atmospheric pressure are chosen as reference points which
are marked on the thermometer. The interval between these two points is divided into one
hundred equal parts for the Celsius scale. If the freezing point of water or ice point is
marked 0° and the boiling point of water or steam point is marked 100°, the thermometer
scale is the Celsius scale. On the Celsius scale, the ice point is 0 °C and the steam point is
100 °C. On the Fahrenheit scale the ice point is 32 °F and the steam point 212 °F.
The relationship between the Celsius temperature Tc and the Fahrenheit temperature TF is
given by the equation
Tc= (TF-32) (6.1)
For example, normal body temperature is 98.6 ° F. On the Celsius scale, this is
Tc= (TF-32)

= ( 98.6 - 32 )
= 37.0 °C
The relationship between the Celsius temperature T c and Kelvin temperature TK is given
by
Tc+273=TK
(6.2)
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Celcius Kelvin
scale scale

200 ˚C 473 K

temperature 100 ˚C 373 K temperature

difference difference
100 ˚C 0 ˚C 273 K 100 K

-100 ˚C 173 K

-200 ˚C 73 K

-273 ˚C 0K

Fig.( 6.1 ) Celsius scale and the corresponding Kelvin scale

In line with the decisions of the General Conference of the International Committee of
Weights and Measures, the symbols °C, °F and K are used throughout this book to
represent both the temperature difference and the temperature.

6.3 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SUBSTANCES

When a substance is heated, its volume usually increases. The dimensions of the
substance increase correspondingly. This increase in size can be explained in terms of the
increased kinetic energy of the molecules. The additional kinetic energy results in each
molecule colliding more forcefully with its neighbours. Therefore, the molecules push
each other further apart and the substance which is heated increases in size.
With few exceptions, substances expand when heated and if there is an obstruction to the
expanding bodies, very large forces may be exerted on that obstruction by the expanding
bodies.
If concrete road surfaces were laid down in one continuous piece, cracks would appear
due to the difference between summer and winter temperatures. To avoid this, the
concrete road surface is laid in small sections, each one being separated from the next by
a small gap. The gap must be filled with a compound of pitch. On hot days, expansion of
concrete squeezes the compound of pitch out of the gap. It goes back into the gap when
the concrete contracts.
pitch
concrete
pavement

Fig.6.2 Making allowance to the expansion of concrete pavements and road surface
 100

In laying railway tracks, gaps must be left between successive lengths of rail. The
buckling of the track as the rails expand due to temperature rise may thereby be
prevented. This method of laying railway tracks is an old one. In a new method, railway
lines are welded together as shown in Fig. 6.3. (Note that the welded ends are cut into
wedge shapes.) The last fifty to one hundred metres of both ends of such welded rail
show expansion which is of a few centimetres. Concrete sleepers are used for these
railway tracks.

taper joint

Fig. 6.3 Taper joint on a railway line

Although expansion can be troublesome for some practical work, it has man beneficial
effects.
The steel tyres of locomotive wheels have to be renewed from time to time. To ensure a
tight fit the tyre is made slightly smaller in diameter than the wheel. Before being fitted,
the tyre is heated uniformly. The tyre expands and slips over the wheel. When the tyre
cools it contracts and makes a tight fit. This idea is also used in fitting the wheel of a
bullock-cart with an iron tyre. The thermal expansion property is utilized in riveting
together steel plates and girders used in the dockyards and other constructional works.
tyre wheel

the tyre is too small when cold the tyre is too big when hot the tyre is tight fit when cold again

Fig. 6.4 Fixing a steel tyre onto the wheel of a locomotive wheel

6.4 LINEAR EXPANSION

When two different metal bars of the same length are heated so that the increase in
temperature is the same, the magnitudes of their expansion may not be the same. For
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example, the expansion of copper is one and a half times that of steel. Aluminium
expands twice as much as steel does.
A relation between the change in length of an object and the temperature change can
easily be obtained. Let the original length of the object in Fig. 6.2. be l. Suppose the
increase in length is when the temperature increases by an amount . (The symbol
represents a small change. If temperature T2 is slightly higher than T1, then T2 – T1 =
. So, is a small increase in temperature. Similarly, is a small increase in
length.)
T + T T + T
T T

l
l 2 l
2
l
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.5 Linear expansion of an object

If the object in Fig. 6.2 (a) is exactly halved, two equal parts will be obtained. Each part
will have a length l/2 and the increase in length will be / 2. Therefore, the increase in
length is directly proportional to the length l. In addition, it is known from experiments
that if the increase in temperature is 2 instead of , the increase in length also
doubles. Therefore, is directly proportional to .both l and . Both proportionalities
may be combined into one expression:
l
Therefore, = l (6.3)
In the above relation, is the coefficient of linear expansion. This coefficient is
a property of a given material and depends somewhat on the temperature. The values of
for some materials are given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1
Material Temperature (°C) (K-1)
Aluminium -23 2.21 10-5
20 2.30 10-5
77 2.41 10-5
527 2.35 10-5
Diamond 20 1.00 10-6
Celluloid 50 1.09 10-4
Glass (most types) 50 8.30 10-6
Glass (Pyrex) 50 3.20 10-6
Ice -5 5.07 10-5
Steel 20 1.27 10-5
Platinum 20 8.90 10-6
The unit of is per K. Per K can be written as K -1. The unit of was expressed in per °C
in the old physics textbooks. Now, the modern SI units are being used more and per °C is
replaced by per K. Although there is a change in unit, the value of remains the same.
 102

Although in the above equation ( = l ) is a small increase in temperature, the

equation is still correct for fairly large values of . It will still be correct even for
°
= 100 K ( = 100 C).
The following example (1) illustrates the importance of linear expansion.

Example (1) The roadbed of a steel bridge is 1280 m long. If the temperature varies from
10 °C to 35 °C during a certain year, what is the difference in lengths at those
temperatures? The road is supported by steel girders. For steel, = l.27 x10-5K-1
= 35°C- 10°C
= 25°C = 25K Here we write ΔT = 25 °C = 25 K, since
Thus, = l ΔT = ( 35 + 273) – (10 + 273) K = 25 K
= 1.27 l0-5 K-l l280 m 25 K
= 0.406 m or 40.6 cm
Hence, the change in the roadbed length due to linear expansion must be allowed for in
the design of the bridge so as not to damage the bridge.

Example (2) The length of a metal bar having coefficient of linear expansion is l at the
temperature T. What is the length of that metal bar at the temperature T + ?
The change in length due to the temperature change is
l= l
Therefore, the length of the metal bar at T + is
l' =l + l
=l+ l
= l (1 + )
Example (3) Define the coefficient of linear expansion.
l = l

Therefore, the coefficient of linear expansion is the change in length per unit length for
one degree change in temperature.
It can be expressed as

= =

In this equation, N is the number which depends upon the type of substance, N does not
depend upon the temperature change.
6.5 AREA EXPANSION AND VOLUME EXPANSION
 103

The relations analogous to the one which gives the increase in length l for the increase
in temperature can be derived for the area expansion and volume expansion. The
relations obtained are
= A (for area expansion) (6.4)
and = V T (for volume expansion) (6.5)
In these equations, is the coefficient of superficial or area expansion and is the
coefficient of cubical or volume expansion.
The derivation of the equation for the volume change only will be expressed here. The
derivation of this equation is as follows.
Consider a cube of volume V. When the temperature of the cube changes from T to T +
the length of each side will change from l to l + l. So, the change in volume is
=(l+ l) 3 _ l3. (l+ l)3 can be approximated by l3 + 3l2 l . Then the change in volume is
= 3l2 l = 3V l / l. If l = l T is used
=3 = V
where =3
Thermal expansion occurs not only in solids but also in liquids and gases. Unlike solids,
liquids and gases do not have well defined shapes. As the shape is just the shape of the
container, only the volume expansion needs to be considered for liquids and gases. The
previous equation = V can be used to calculate the volume expansion of liquids
as well as gases.
In the expansion of liquids, the volume expansion of water is quite interesting.
The anomalous behaviour of water is that it has a negative coefficient of volume
expansion at some temperatures. Fig. 6.7 shows the change in and density of water with
the temperature, varies as the temperature changes and the sign of changes at 3.98
°
C. As the temperature T rises from 0 °C, water contracts up to 3.98 °C and then expands
as the temperature increases further. The density of water is greatest at 3.98 °C.
The anomalous expansion of water is very important for aquatic animals in very cold
regions. As the temperature of air decreases in early winter, the surface water of the lake
cools. When this surface water reaches 3.98 °C, it sinks to the bottom of the lake. The
water from beneath is less dense and it floats to the surface. The cool descending water
carries fresh oxygen with it. Thus, the cold water mixes with the warm water and then the
temperature of the lake becomes uniform. The entire lake cools until it reaches 3.98 °C.
The temperature of surface water decreases further and finally ice is formed. The water
freezes from the surface downward. Fishes and other aquatic animals survive the winter
in the water beneath the ice.

Ice 0°C
1°C
2°C
3°C
4°C
 104

Fig. 6.6 Temperature in an ice covered lake

As stated above, the equation

= V
can be used for the expansion of gases. But there is a difference for solids and liquids.
In defining in the above equation there is no restriction on the temperature for the
initial volumes of solids and liquids.
coefficient of
volume expansion (K-1)
0.0002

0.0001

0.0000

-0.0001
0 4 8 12 16 20 temperature (°C)

density (kgm-3)

1000

999

998
0 4 8 12 16 20 temperature (°C)

Fig 6.7 The change in coefficient of volume and density with temperature

But there is a restriction for gases that the initial volume must be at 0 °C and that pressure
must be kept constant. Let the volume of the gas be V o at 0 °C. If the volume becomes V
when the temperature increases to T,
= V-Vo
and =T-0=T
Thus, V – Vo = VoT
 105

or = per °C or per K.

To determine experimentally, the increases in volume with temperature are measured

and plotted on a graph. By reading V o and the volume at 100 °C, V100, from the graph,
can be evaluated from the equation:

The result gives the coefficient of volume expansion of a gas. From experiments, the
coefficient of volume expansion of gases is found to be 1/273.

Example (4) The area of a metal plate is A1 at the temperature T1 and A2 at T2. If T2 > T1,
obtain the relation between A1 and A2. The coefficient of area expansion of metal is .
= A2-A1 and
T = T2-T1
Thus, A2-A1 = A1 (T2-T1)
A2 =A1+ A1(T2-T1)
=A1[1+ (T2- T1)]

Example (5) Define the coefficient of volume expansion of a liquid.

From V = V

Therefore, the coefficient of volume expansion of a liquid is the change in volume per
unit volume for one degree change in temperature.
In symbols. =
where N is the number which depends upon the type of substance; N does not depend
upon the temperature change.
 106

6.6 THERMOMETRIC LIQUIDS

The two liquids used in liquid-in-glass thermometers are mercury and alcohol. Table 6.2
and 6.3 summarise the advantages and disadvantages of these two thermometric liquids.

Table 6.2 Mercury as a thermometric liquid

Advantages Disadvantages
1. It is a good conductor of heat and 1. It is poisonous.
therefore the whole liquid reaches 2. Its expansivity is fairly low.
the temperature of the surroundings 3. It is expensive.
quickly.
4. It has a high freezing point (-39 °C).
2. It does not wet (cling to the sides of)
the tube.
Note: A high freezing point means that it
3. It has a high boiling point (357 °C).
cannot be used in places where the
4. It expands uniformly. temperature gets very low.
5. It responds quickly to temperature
changes.
6. It has a visible meniscus.

Table 6.3 Alcohol as a thermometric liquid

Advantages Disadvantages
1. It expands uniformly. 1. It wets the tube.
2. It has a low freezing point (-115 °C). 2. It has a low boiling point (78 °C).
3. It has a large expansivity. 3. It does not react quickly to changes
4. It is cheap. in temperature.
5. It is a safe liquid. 4. It needs to be dyed since it is
colourisess.

6.7 TYPES OF THERMOMETERS

Liquid-glass thermometers
Some common liquid-in-glass thermometers include:
1. The laboratory thermometer,
2. The clinical thermometer.

Table 6.4 and 6.5 summarise the main design features as well as the purpose or working
principle behind the features of these two thermometers. In discussion these features, of
we keep in mind two main considerations, i.e. responsiveness and sensitivity of the
thermometers.
 107

Table 6.4 The laboratory thermometer

Fig. 6.8 The laboratory thermometer

Main design features Purpose or working principle

1. The mercury is contained in a thin-wall 1. The thin-wall of the glass bulb allows
glass bulb. conduction of heat quickly through the
glass (a poor conductor of heat) to the
liquid.

2. The bulb is made small to contain a 2. A small amount of liquid responds more
small amount of liquid. quickly to a change in temperature.

3. The bore of the capillary tube is fine 3. The fine tube allows a noticeable
and uniform. movement of the liquid column for a
small change in temperature (i.e. good
sensitivity). The uniform tube ensures
even expansion of the liquid.

4. The walls of the long tube above the 4. This acts as a magnifying glass for easy
bulb are made thick. reading of the mercury thread in the
stem.

5. The size of the thermometer is 5. The small size allows it to be portable

relatively small. and also cheap to produce.
 108

Table 6.5 The clinical thermometer

Fig. 6.9 The clinical thermometer

Main design features Purpose or working principle

1. The glass wall of the bulb is thin. 1. This allows for rapid conduction of heat
through the thin glass wall to the
mercury contained in the bulb.

2. The bore of the capillary tube is very 2. This improves the thermometer’s
fine. sensitivity by allowing a large change
in length of the mercury thread for a
small change in temperature.

3. The scale is limited to a small range of 3. Since the normal body temperature is
between 34oC to 42oC. 36.9oC, the short range allows for
greater accuracy and the stem can be
made reasonably short.

4. A narrow constriction is found in the 4. This ensures that the maximum

tube just above the bulb. temperature of the body is recorded.
When the temperature rises, the
mercury in the bulb expands and forces
its way past the constriction. When the
thermometer is taken from the patient’s
mouth, the constriction prevents the
contracting mercury from flowing back
into the bulb by breaking the mercury
thread at the constriction.

5. The cross-section of the stem of the 5. This acts as a magnifying glass in one
thermometer is pear-shaped. direction for easy reading of the
mercury thread.

Remarks: The clinical thermometer must be sterilized in antiseptic before use and it
should not be washed in very hot water after being taken out of the patient’s mouth or
armpit.
 109

Concept Map (Temperature)

Temperature

Scale of temperature Types of thermometers

requires:
a thermometric substance
that has a physical
property which varies Liquid-in-glass Thermocouple
continuously with laboratory wide range of
temperature. clinical -1200C to 1500C
two fixed points and a able to measure
simple localized
scale between them.
cheap temperatures.
portable responsive to rapidly
direct reading changing
fragile temperatures.
limited range e.g. robust
-39C to 357C indirect reading.
for mercury-in-
glass
thermometer.

Centigrade
(Celsius) scale Kelvin (Absolute)
two fixed points: Converting scale
ice point (0C) Temperatures one fixed point: the
steam point (100C) triple point of
T/  C  T / K - 273
defining equation: water.
The Kelvin (K) is
XT  X0 the SI unit for
T/  C   100 temperature.
X100  X 0
 110

SUMMARY
 Temperature is a measure of "hotness" or "coldness" of a body.
 Heat is a form of energy. It is the energy exchanged between an object and it
surrounding due to different temperatures.
 Solids, liquid and gases expand when heated.
 Coefficient of expansion is a property of a given material and depends somewhat
on the temperature.
 Coefficient of linear expansion is defined as the change in length (of a substance)
per unit length for one degree change in temperature.
 Coefficient of area expansion is defined as the change in surface area (of a
substance) per unit area for one degree change in temperature.
 Coefficient of volume expansion is defined as the change in volume (of a
substance) per unit volume for one degree change in temperature.
 The anomalous behaviour of water is that it contracts as the temperature rises
from 0 °C to 4 °C and it expands as the temperature increases from 4 °C to 100 °C
The density of water is greatest at 4 °C.

EXERCISES
1. Nowadays, the Celsius scale rather than the Fahrenheit scale is widely used. Discuss
why this is so.
2. Choose the best answer from the following. For scientific work
(a) only the Kelvin temperature scale is used.
(b) only the Celsius scale is used.
(c) only the Fahrenheit scale is used.
3. Fill in the blanks.
The temperature 250 K is (a) than the ice point and the temperature 400 K is (b)
than the ice point.
4. Define the coefficient of linear expansion.
Express the unit of that coefficient in SI units.
"The coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 1.27 10-5 K-1."
Explain the meaning of this statement.
5. Define the coefficient of area expansion and the coefficient of volume expansion.
Express the units of those coefficient in SI units.
6. Choose the correct answer. The density of a solid decreases when it is heated because
(a) its mass decreases. (b) its mass increases. (c) its volumes decreases. (d) its
volumes increases.
7. A solid expands when heated. What happens to its (a) mass; (b) volume; (c) density?
8. Should telephone wires be fixed to their supporting poles on a hot day or on a cold
day? Explain your answer.
 111

9. Which of the following graphs shows how the volume of water changes as it is heated
from 0 C to 10 C?

volume

volume
A B

10 temp/C 10 temp/C
volume

volume
C D

10 temp/C 10 temp/C

10. Discuss the problems which may arise in construction works if the effect of linear
expansion is not taken into account.
11. If the unit of the coefficient of linear expansion is changed from per K to per °F, does
the numerical value of that coefficient change?
12. Why is it possible to open a jar of jam when its tight lid is heated?
13. The coefficient of volume expansion of pyrex glass is one-third that of ordinary
glass. Which glass can stand more thermal strain?
14. What temperature on the Celsius scale corresponds to 100° on the Fahrenheit scale?
15. The decline of average temperature of the universe with its age is given below:
t~l0-23s ....... .......... T~I012K
t~l0-4s ......... ......... T~I010K
t~l0 6 yrs ......... ......... T~3000 K
10
t~2 x l0 yrs (today) .... ..... T~3K
Convert the temperatures from K to .
16. What temperature on the Celsius scale corresponds to 104 °F, the body temperature of
a person who is gravely ill?
17. At what temperatures are the readings on a Fahrenheit and Celsius scales the same?
18. A steel railroad track is 20 m long at 20 . How much longer is it at 40 ?
19. A steel railroad track is 30 m long at 0 . How much shorter is it at -20 ?
20. An aluminium metre stick is exactly 1 m long at 20 . How much shorter is it at
0 ? Use =2.30 l0-5K-1.
21. The surface area of a solid increases with temperature according to the formula
=2 A . How much does the area of a rectangular steel plate 0.5 m by 2.5 m
increase when it is heated from 0 to 40 ?
 112

22. A heat-resistant glass at 15 is fully filled with 250 cm 3 of glycerine. If the

temperature increases to 25 how much glycerine overflows? The coefficient of
volume expansion of glycerine is 5.1 10-4 K-1 and that of heat-resistant glass is 0.09
10-4 K-1.
23 (a) State one advantage of mercury and alcohol that is common to both.
(b) State one advantage of using mercury which is also a disadvantage of using
alcohol.