Hartog 1997
Hartog 1997
Hartog 1997
Leadership has been an important topic in the social sciences for many decades. Recently
there has been a renewed interest in leadership. Meindl (1990) notes that this recent resur-
gence of interest in studying the topic of leadership appears to be accompanied by an
acceptance of the distinction between transactional and transformational leadership, with
an emphasis on the latter. Quinn (1988) compares transactional and transformational
leadership with other differentiations in leadership such as relations oriented-task ori-
ented leadership (Fiedler, 1967), consideration-initiating structure (Korman, 1966), and
directive-participative or autocratic-democratic leadership (Heller & Yukl, 1969).Bass
(19906) claims that the transactional-transformational model is a new paradigm, neither
replacing nor explained by other models such as the relations oriented-task oriented lead-
ership model. Some authors describe concepts similar to transformational leadership as
charismatic, inspirational or visionary leadership (Bryman, 1992). Although the termi-
nology used by these authors is different, more similarities than differences seem to exist
between these views of the phenomenon of leadership. Bass inspired and is still one of the
major contributors to this approach that Bryman (1992) calls ‘the New leadership’. ‘The
New leadership’ approach revived leadership as a topic of theory and research, after many
lost interest and faith in this concept (see, for instance, Miner, 1975). ‘The New leader-
ship’ integrates ideas from trait, style and contingency approaches of leadership and also
incorporates and builds on work of sociologists such as Weber (1947) and political scien-
tists such as Burns (1978).
Transformational leadership
While the transactional leader motivates subordinates to perform as expected, the trans-
formational leader typically inspires followers to do more than originally expected.
Transformational leadership theories predict followers’ emotional attachment to the
leader and emotional and motivational arousal of followers as a consequence of the leader’s
behaviour (House et al., 1988). Hater & Bass (1988)state: ‘The dynamics of transforma-
tional leadership involve strong personal identification with the leader, joining in a shared
vision of the future, or going beyond the self-interest exchange of rewards for compliance’
(p. 695). Transformational leaders broaden and elevate the interests of followers, generate
awareness and acceptance among the followers of the purposes and mission of the group
and motivate followers to go beyond their self-interests for the good of the group
(Yammarino & Bass, 1990; see also Burns, 1978). Yammarino & Bass (1990) also note ‘the
transformational leader articulates a realistic vision of the future that can be shared, stim-
ulates subordinates intellectually, and pays attention to the differences among the subor-
dinates’ (p. 151).Tichy & Devanna (1990)highlight the transforming effect these leaders
can have on organizations as well as on individuals. By defining the need for change, cre-
ating new visions, mobilizing commitment to these visions, leaders can ultimately trans-
form the organization. According to Bass (1985) this transformation of followers can be
achieved by raising the awareness of the importance and value of designed outcomes, get-
ting followers to transcend their own self-interests and altering or expanding followers’
needs.
Laissez-faire leadership
Both transformational and transactional leaders are active leaders. They actively intervene
and try to prevent problems. When researching these two active forms of leadership, they
are often contrasted with extremely passive laissez-faire leadership (see, for example,
Yammarino & Bass, 1990; Yammarino, Spangler & Bass, 1993). The laissez-faire leader
avoids decision making and supervisory responsibility. This type of leader is inactive,
rather than reactive or proactive. In a sense this extremely passive type of leadership indi-
cates the absence of leadership. Bass (199Oa)reports laissez-faire leadership usually corre-
lates negatively (-.3 to -.6) with other, more active leadership styles. Bass (1990a)
concludes that there is a negative association between laissez-faire leadership and a vari-
ety of subordinate performance, effort and attitudinal indicators. This implies that
laissez-faire leadership is always an inappropriate way to lead. When by ‘laissez-faire’ it is
meant that the leader is not sufficiently motivated or adequately skilled to perform super-
visory duties, this observation seems correct. However, one could probably define situa-
tions in which highly active leadership is not necessary and maybe not even desirable. For
instance, in their substitutes for leadership theory Kerr & Jermier (1978)propose several
subordinate, task, and, organization characteristics that could reduce the importance of
leadership. A less active role of leaders could also lead to ‘empowerment’ of followers
which could even make for a useful component of transformational leadership.
Method
Sample and procedure
The sample in this study consisted of approximately 1200 employees from eight organizations. The organi-
zations and institutions contributing to the sample are very diverse in their core business activities and size:
Two commercial businesses (catering, fast food), two welfare institutions, two health-care organizations (nurs-
ing home, psychiatric hospital), one local government organization and two departments of air traffic control.
Samples within each organization were created by randomly dividing the employees of participating deparr-
ments in the organization into two groups. One of the two groups in each department received the MLQ, rat-
ing their supervisor. Respondents either received the questionnaire with a reference letter in person at work
or the questionnaire was mailed to the respondent’s home address. Respondents were requested to send the
questionnaire back after completion. The researchers were present in the organizations at various prearranged
24 Deanne N.Den Hartog,Jaap J. Van Muijen and Paul L. Koopman
times to answer questions or could be contacted by telephone. The response was approximately 60 per cent
for the total sample (787 questionnaires were returned, not all questionnaires could be used in data analysis
due to missing values). There were considerable differences in response for individual organizations. The low-
est response was 29 per cent (in one of the organizations where the survey was done by mail); the highest
response was 80 per cent (in one of the organizations where respondents were handed the questionnaire in per-
son at work); 55.7 per cent of the respondents were male. The average age of the respondents was 36, ages
ranging from 16 years old to 64 years old. On average the respondents had worked for the organization for
five years. The range in the level and type of education was large, both respondents with a university degree
and respondents with hardly any secondary education are found in the sample.
Questionnaire
In this study a Dutch translation of the MLQ, version UY, was used to assess transformational, transactional
and laissez-faire leadership (following Bass & Avolio, 1989). The questionnaire was first translated from
English to Dutch by a Dutch native speaker then backtranslated by an English native speaker, both experts
in the field of organizational psychology. The questionnaire instructs respondents to judge how often their
manager displays 40 items of behaviour (see Fig. 1 for sample items), using a five-point scale (from 'fre-
quently, if not always' to 'not at all').
Data analysis
The first point of interest was the internal consistency of the MLQ scales for transformational, transactional
and laissez-faire leadership as empirically derived by Bass. Often only Cronbach's a(Cronbach, 195 1) is given
as an indication of internal consistency. This, however, has two problems. First, a is affected by the number
of items in a scale. In the literature (Nunally, 1967) a >.70 has been declared an adequate a.However, the
01 of a scale with many items can be high with a relatively low average inter-item correlation. In a unidi-
mensional scale a relatively high average inter-item correlation would be expected. Secondly, a is affected by
dimensionality within a scale. Although a decreases as a function of multidimensionality, a can be reason-
ably high even when items are somewhat interrelated but multidimensional (Cortina, 1993). Therefore, nor
only was the Cronbach c~calculatedbut also the average and range of inter-item correlations. Next, the cor-
relations between the eight dimensions of the MLQ as defined by Bass were calculated.
Figure 1. The MLQ-8Y measures, and examples of items (Bass & Avolio, 1989).
Transactional vs. transformational leadership 25
A principal component factor analysis of the MLQ data was done to determine whether the factors as found
by Bass would also be found in our data set. Again Cronbach’s (rand inter-item correlations were calculated.
The aggregate measures for transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership as defined by Bass were
correlated with each other and with the scales derived from factor analysis.
To assess the reliability and internal consistency of the scales several criteria were used. Items thar did not
meet the criteria were left out of subsequent analyses. This was done to increase the homogeneity of the scales.
The criteria used in this study are those more often used in research and literature. T h r first criterion used is
that the Cronbach a of the scale should be >.70 (Nunally, 1067). This seems to reflect the general idea in
literature of what an acceptable a is. The criterion used for average inter-item correlations is thar they should
be >.30. The criterion used in this study for item-rest correlations is that they should be > . 2 0 (Kline, 1086).
Criteria used for the factor loadings are: factor loadings should be > . 3 0 and the difference between factor
loadings of an item on two factors shold be >.20. If items in the scales yielded by the factor analysis did nor
meet the criteria they were removed from the scales. Therefore the scales that were found and adapted in this
study have fewer items than the scales as developed by Bass.
Results
The aggregate measures for transformationul,transactional and laissez-faire leuder.rhip
The scale statistics for the dimensions of transformational, transactional and laissez-faire
leadership as defined by Bass & Avolio (1989) are reported in Table 1. Transformational
leadership was a high a o f .95. However, transformational leadership also has most items.
The for the transactional (.60)and laissez-faire scale (.49)are below the .70 criterion.
T h e reason for the low a of the transactional measure is that passive management-by-
exception is in Bass’ transactional scale, even though the findings of the present study
show that correlations between passive management-by-exception and the other transac-
tional dimensions are negative. W h e n passive management-by-exception is left out of the
transactional scale, the a of transactional leadership increases to .79 (this scale would have
eight items).
I Transformational leadership:
24 items a = .95
Mean = 3.03
SD = .33
average inter-item correlation .44 (variance = .02)
range of item-total correlation .32 to .77
I1 Transactional leadership:
12 items a = .60
Mean = 2.48
SD = .62
average inter-item correlation .12 (variance = .06)
range of item-total correlations - .07 to .46
I I1 Laissez-faire leadership:
4 items a = .49
Mean = 2.34
SD = .59
average inter-item correlation .2 1 (variance = .04)
range of item-total correlations -09 to .44
26 Deanne N . Den Hartog, JaapJ . Van Muijen and Paul L. Koopnzan
Also, when passive management-by-exception is then included in the laissez-faire mea-
sure its a increases to .72 (this scale would have eight items). For the transactional and
the laissez-faire measure several items have item-rest correlations lower than the .20 cri-
terion. These items with the lowest item-rest correlations in the transactional measure are
the passive management-by-exception items.
TranJfvrniatronaI.scales
I Charisnia:
12 items a = .93
Mean = 2.89
SD = .32
average inter-item correlation .52 (variance = .03)
range of item-total correlation .30 to . X 1
I1 Inspiration:
4 items a = .72
Mean = 3.20
SD = . I 6
average inter-item correlation .39 (variance = .05)
range of item-total correlations .43 to .58
Ill Intellecttial rtindation:
4 items a=31
Mean = 2.98
SD = .18
average inter-item correlation .52 (variance = .004)
range of item-total correlations .56 to .70
1v Indiuidualizeci consideration:
4 items a = .75
Mean = 3.35
SD = .36
average inter-item correlation .43 (variance = .01)
range of item-total correlations .42 to .59
Transactional .scaIe.r
I Contingent reward:
4 items a = .7n
Mean = 1.75
SD = .22
average inter-item correlation .47 (variance = ,005)
range of item-total correlations .29 to .43
I1 Actiur niana~eniettt-~~-exi.eptioa:
4 items a = .78
Mean = 3.07
SD = .25
average inter-item correlation .48 (variance = .02)
range of item-total correlations .50 to .67
I I1 Pmsiue ii~~na~e,rent-h~-exr.eption:
I items a = .58
Mean = 2.63
SD = 2 9
average inter-item correlation .26 (variance = .01)
range of item-total correlations .23 to .44
Non-leadership (laissez-faire)scale:
I Laissez-faire:
4 items a = .49
Mean = 2.34
SD = .59
average inter-item correlation .21 (variance = .04)
range of item-total correlations .09 to .44
28 Deanne N . Den Hartog,Jaap J . Van Muijen and Paul L. Koopnzan
Table 3. Correlations between theoretical subdimensions of leadership
CHAR INSP INTEL INDC CNTR AMBE PMBE LAIS
~. . ____. -.. ~ -____ ~. . ~~~ ~ ~-
CHAR 1 .oo
INSP .73** 1.00
INTEL .73** .61** 1.00
INDC .75** .61** .67**
1.00
CNTR .49** .40** .50** .40** 1.00
AMBE .54** .50** .48** .47** .39** 1.00
PMBE -.24** -.22** -.13** -.19** -.05 -.25** 1.00
LAIS -.19** -.lo** -.08* -.id** -.oo -.12** .47** 1.00
*p < .05; **p < .01 (two-tailed).
Key. CHAR = charisma; INSP = inspiration; INTEL = intellectual stimulation; INDC = individualized consideration;
CNTR = contingent reward; AMBE = active management-by-exception; PMBE = passive management-by-exception;
LAIS = laissez-faire.
solutions for the number of factors can be obtained. Well-interpretable solutions were the
two-, three- and four-factor solution. When extracting more than four factors they are no
longer interpretable theoretically, although seven factors have an eigenvalue larger than
one. Two factors distinguish between active and passive leadership. The four-factor solu-
tion yields a transformational, a passive and two transactional factors, almost identical to
contingent reward and active management-by-exception. The solution deemed most
important in this study, mainly for theoretical reasons, was the three-factor solution. The
three-factor solution gives three factors that are similar to the factors that Bass and asso-
ciates describe. Thus, a transformational, a transactional and a laissez-faire factor were
found. To avoid confusion the three empiricalfactors will be referred to as inspirational, ratio-
nal-objective and passive leadership instead of transformational, transactional and laissez-
faire leadership respectively.
In Tables 4 , 5 and 6 the loadings of the items on the three empirical factors and the
scale statistics are reported. Items that did not meet the criteria specified earlier, only six
items in total, were discarded. The adapted instrument thus has 34 items. The three-fac-
tor solution explains 46.8 per cent of the total variance, 35.4 per cent is explained by the
first factor, 6.5 per cent by the second and 4.9 per cent by the third. The first factor found
is similar to the theoretical scale for transformational leadership. As stated the scale found
in this study that closely resembles Bass’ transformational leadership will be referred to
as inspirational leadership to avoid confusion. As can be seen in Table 7, the correlation
between Bass’ tranformational scale and the inspirational leadership scale found here is
high, .99. The inspirational scale has fewer items than the transformational scale, 18
items remained after carrying out factor analysis and comparison with the criteria. Factor
analysis put several ‘transformational items’ in the rational-objective factor. Only
one of these met the criteria and is thus regarded as rational-objective, or, transactional
(item 3 5 , Table 5 ) . The scale statistics for inspirational leadership are, as expected
after adapting the scale, slightly better than the same statistics for transformational
leadership.
The a o f inspirational leader&ip is .95, identical to the a o f transformational leadership,
but inspirational leadership has fewer items (18 vs. 24). The average inter-item correla-
Trmsuctional us. transformational leadership 29
Table 4. Loadings and item-total correlations of the items on Factor 1 (inspirational
leadership, ~1 = .95) and scale statistics
Item Factor Item-rest
number loading correlation
38 I have complete confidence in him/her . . . .82 .77
39 in my mind, he/she is a symbol of success and accomplishment . . . .78 .78
33 engages in words and deeds which enhances his/her image of
competence. . . .75 .78
17 serves as a role model for me . . . .75 .77
32 instills pride in being associated with him/her . . . .75 .74
40 displays extraordinary talent and competence in whatever
he/she decides . . . .75 .76
37 I am ready to trust him/her to overcome any obstacle . . . .73 .72
10 listens to my concerns . . . .72 .66
34 makes me aware of strongly held values, ideals, and aspirations
which are shared in common . . . .72 .77
28 mobilizes a collective sense of mission . . . .70 .72
36 projects a powerful, dynamic, and magnetic presence . . . .68 .72
23 Shows how to look at problems from new angles . . . .63 .70
18 makes me back up my opinions with good reasoning . . . .61 .66
9 articulates a vision of future opportunities . . . .57 .63
16 provides advice when it is needed . . . .57 .6 1
19 introduces new projects and new challenges . . . .55 .58
3 treats me as an individual rather than just a member of the group . . . .55 .43
2 talks optimistically about the future . . . .48 .49
I Inspirationul leadership:
18 items a = .95
Mean = 3.00
SD = .34
average inter-item correlation .50 (variance = 3 1 )
ranee of item-total correlations .43 to .78
I1 Rational-objrctiue leadership:
9 items ff = .79
Mean = 2.54
SD = .79
average inter-item correlation .30 (variance = .02)
range of item-total correlations .31 to .62
correlation of inspirational leadership, but considerably higher than the average inter-
item correlation of transactional leadership (. 12). The item-rest correlations of ratio-
nal-objective leadership as compared with transactional leadership are also higher. For
rational-objective the range is .31 to .62, for transactional leadership -.07 to .46. The
rational-objective scale thus has a higher internal consistency than the transactional scale.
However, some of the statistics could still be improved upon.
T h e scale found for laissez-faire leadership, named passive leadership, forms a combina-
tion of Bass’ scales for laissez-faire leadership and passive management-by-exception. O n e
item from the subscale of laissez-faire did not meet the stipulated criteria and was left out
of the passive leadership scale, seven items remained. T h e scale statistics for passive lead-
ership are, as expected after adapting the scale, better than the same statistics for Bass’
laissez-faire leadership. The a of passive leadership is .74, considerably higher than the
.49 a of laissez-faire leadership, even though passive leadership has more items (7 vs.
four). T h e average inter-item correlation of passive leadership (.30)is higher than the
average inter-item correlation of laissez-faire leadership (.2 1). The range of item-rest cor-
relations for the passive leadership items is -25 to .57 vs. a range of item-rest correlations
from .09 to .44 for laissez-faire. The passive scale thus has a higher internal consistency
than the laissez-faire scale. Some of the statistics could still be improved upon.
Cowelations between the factors found in this study and Bass’ factors
Table 7 shows the correlations of the three factors found in this study with each other and
Bass’ factors. T h e correlation of inspirational with rational-objective leadership is sub-
stantial, .62. It is higher than the correlation between Bass’ transformational and trans-
Transactional vs. transformational leadership 31
Table 6. Loadings and item-total correlations of the items on Factor 3 (passive leader-
ship, a = .72) and scale statistics
Item Factor Item-rest
number loading correlation
~ ~ - .- -
actional leadership (.47).T h e reason for the lower correlation between those two is that
the measure for passive management-by-exception, which correlates negatively with the
other transactional and transformational subdimensions, is part of the measure of trans-
actional leadership. This lowers the correlation. W h e n Bass’ transformational scale is cor-
related with r a t i o n a h b j e c t i v e leadership (similar to transactional leadership not
including passive management-by-exception) the correlation is .66, which is slightly
higher than the correlation between inspirational and rational-objective leadership. The
correlation of .62 between inspirational and rational-objective leadership is high but still
leaves 64 per cent of the variance unexplained. The correlation between inspirational and
transformational leadership (.99) is very high, as expected since the measures are very
much alike. The correlations between rational and transactional and between laissez-faire
and passive are somewhat lower (.84 and .76). This was to be expected since these scales
were altered more than the transformational scale was.
Table 7. Correlations between the theoretical leadership scales and the leadership scales
found in this study
TRF TRA LF INSP RATIO PASS
~ ~.
TRF 1.oo
TRA .47** 1.00
LF -.17** .18** 1.oo
INSP .99** .43** -. l 8 * * 1.oo
RATIO .66** .84** -.07* .62** 1.00
PASS -.36** .26** .76** -.37** -.23** 1.00
Conclusion
Bass’ framework for examining transformational and transactional leadership has pro-
duced an impressive array of findings over the last decade. Transformational leadership
has been shown to play an important part in many of the outcomes that have tradition-
ally been of interest to organizational researchers as well as practitioners. Central to Bass’
measurement-based framework is the widely used Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
analysed in this study. From the results of this study it can be concluded that the Bass’
framework distinguishing a transformational, a transactional and a laissez-faire factor is
also found through exploratory analysis on a Dutch data set. In this study the internal
consistency of two of the three scales of the MLQ as defined by Bass was not sufficient.
We feel this is a result of the assumption in Bass’ framework that passive management-
by-exception belongs in the transactional and not in the laissez-faire factor. This assump-
tion is not supported by the data. The question remains, can and should new items be
written to distinguish between management-by-exception and laissez-faire leadership?
According to Bass they refer to different components of leader behaviour, however, dis-
criminating among them may call for preparing new items.
The three scales found in this study improve the internal consistency, first and foremost
by combining passive management-by-exception and laissez-faire in one passive factor.
The separate dimensions of transformational and transactional leadership were not found.
The adapted instrument covers the same domain with fewer items.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions.
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