Module on

Psychological Theories of Values

1. Applies psychological principles of values development in personal and social experiences

2. Localize psychological principles in the Filipino setting.
3. Practice reflective/ introspective skills for self-development
4. Demonstrate personal integrity and virtues in convictions actions
5. Discuss the interplay of reason and emotions in oneself and with others
6. Apply skills in selecting effective strategies for developing healthy intra and interpersonal
relationships
7. Discuss the convergence of psychological and spiritual growth
8. Apply psycho-spiritual strategies for personal growth and development

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

I. Psychological Principles of Values Development

Becoming more aware of one’s own values and one’s actions is important. Values are
the goals towards
which one aspires. They largely define the core of one’s identity. More importantly, they are
the source of motivation
to improve oneself.

1. Psychodynamic Theories – Sigmund Freud

a. Freud developed a general theory of psychological development from infancy to adulthood.
He believed that the mind of an infant consists only of primitive drives and instincts, such as
the need for food and physical comfort, which he called the "id."

b. During the first few years of life, the self, or "ego" develops. The function of the
ego is to find safe and appropriate ways for the id to be expressed. Through the ego, a child
finds ways to get what he or she needs within the boundaries of what is acceptable to the
parents. After the initial struggle between the id and ego, the child learns to delay gratification
in response to external demands, particularly those of parents.
c. In the late preschool years, the child develops a conscience, which Freud called the
"superego." The child has now internalized the parents' values. He or she feels guilty for
misbehaving and will try to behave even when adults are not around.

d. Freud believed that a single motive governs human behavior — the desire to satisfy
biological needs and thereby discharge tension. He defined stages of development in terms
of the organs he thought were used to discharge tension at that age. From birth to adulthood,
a child develops through these stages in sequence: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
Failure to experience gratification for basic drives during a given stage could cause an
individual to become "fixated" in that stage, stuck forever in that particular
psychological mode.

e. Freud believed that adolescence is fraught with internal struggle. He viewed the pre-
adolescent "latency" period as a time when the child develops a balance between the
ego and id. Upon entering the "genital" phase of adolescence, the child is bombarded with
instinctual impulses that disrupt this balance. The ego is torn between the strong impulses
of the id and the restrictions of the superego. This conflict makes adolescence a time of
tremendous stress and turmoil.

Erik H. Erikson
Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory places importance on the social and cultural components of
an individual's developmental experiences.

Erikson proposes a series of developmental tasks that all people face and resolve in some way.
Previous developmental outcomes set the stage for upcoming issues, but an individual does
not become "stuck" in a phase. Instead, the old issue is reworked in the context of current
tasks.

Alfred Adler

Individual Psychology. Adler believed that the main motivations for human behavior are not
sexual or aggressive urges but strivings for superiority. He pointed out that children naturally
feel weak and inadequate in comparison to adults. This normal feeling of inferiority drives
them to adapt, develop skills, and master challenges. Adler used the term compensation to
refer to the attempt to shed normal feelings of inferiority.

However, some people suffer from an exaggerated sense of inferiority, or an inferiority

complex, which can be due either to being spoiled or neglected by parents. Such people
overcompensate, which means that rather than try to master challenges, they try to cover up
their sense of inferiority by focusing on outward signs of superiority such as status, wealth,
and power.
2. Behaviorial Theories

B. F. Skinner – Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner is well known for describing the principles of operant conditioning. Skinner
believed that the environment determines behavior. According to his view, people have
consistent behavior patterns because they have particular kinds of response tendencies.
This means that over time, people learn to behave in particular ways. Behaviors that
have positive consequences tend to increase, while behaviors that have negative
consequences tend to decrease. Personality develops over the whole life span. People’s
responses change as they encounter new situations.

Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Learning Theory

Albert Bandura pointed out that people learn to respond in particular ways by observing
other people, who are called models. Although Bandura agrees that personality arises through
learning, he believes that conditioning is not an automatic, mechanical process. Cognitive
processes like thinking and reasoning are important in learning.

People tend to imitate models they like or admire and models they consider attractive and
powerful. People are also more likely to imitate models who seem similar to themselves.
Furthermore, if people see models being rewarded for their behavior, they will be more
likely to imitate those models.

3. Moral Development

Jean Piaget
Piaget described development in terms of sequential changes in how children think. He
proposed that children grow through three periods of development, each distinguished by a
different way of thinking

Piaget believed that individuals construct and reconstruct their knowledge of the world as a
result of interactions with the environment.
1. Heteronomous stage of moral reasoning, characterized by a strict adherence to rules and
duties, and obedience to authority.
This heteronomy results from two factors.
 cognitive structure - According to Piaget, the thinking of young children is characterized by
egocentrism.
That is to say that young children are unable to simultaneously take into account their own
view of things with the perspective of someone else. This egocentrism leads children to
project their own thoughts and wishes onto others.

Moral realism is associated with "objective responsibility" which is valuing the letter of
the law above the purpose of the law. This is why young children are more concerned about
the outcomes of actions rather than the intentions of the person doing the act. Moral
realism is also associated with the young child's belief in "immanent justice." This is the
expectation that punishments automatically follow acts of wrong-doing.
 The second major contributor to heteronomous moral thinking in young children, is their
relative social relationship with adults. In the natural authority relationship between
adults and children, power is handed down from above. The relative powerlessness of
young children, coupled with childhood
egocentrism feeds into a heteronomous moral orientation.

2. Autonomous stage of moral reasoning, characterized by the ability to consider rules

critically, and selectively apply these rules based on a goal of mutual respect and
cooperation. The ability to act from a sense of reciprocity and mutual respect is associated
with a shift in the child's cognitive structure from egocentrism to perspective taking.

Autonomous view of morality as fairness is more compelling and leads to more consistent
behavior than the heteronomous orientation held by younger children. Thus, Piaget viewed
moral development as the result of interpersonal interactions through which individuals
work out resolutions which all deem fair. According to Piaget, cognitive development
through adolescence involves:
 movement from concrete to abstract thinking, and
 a decrease in egocentric thought.

Prior to adolescence, the thinking of a child is concrete. The acquisition of formal reasoning
skills allows older adolescents (about age 15) to think about many possible outcomes of a
situation that do not exist now. They can construct possibilities and assess probabilities.
Imagine, for instance, that you pose the hypothetical situation of an adolescent pregnancy.
An adolescent with formal reasoning skills (with appropriate guidance) could try to think
through the full implications of parenting a newborn.

The transition from concrete to completed formal operational thinking occurs in stages
between the ages of 11-14. According to Piaget and other cognitive theorists, the
predominance of egocentric thought during this period leads to some particular views and
behaviors, including:
 self-consciousness
 the imaginary audience: feeling as though one's actions and appearance are being
constantly scrutinized
 the personal fable: viewing one's thoughts and feelings as unique experiences, and
 feelings of invulnerability, leading to risk-taking behavior.
By sharing experiences with peers, adolescents learn that many of their thoughts and feelings
are shared by almost everyone. This realization helps them to feel less unique — or less
"abnormal" — and more like others. The egocentric thinking of early adolescence thus
diminishes by about the age of 15 or 16.

Lawrence Kolhberg

People understand their society's morals and mature over time. Psychologist Lawrence
Kolhberg's famous work has provided a developmental mapping of how moral
understanding tends to progress through childhood and early adulthood.
1. Pre-conventional children are essentially selfish in orientation. They do not think about what
behaviors will serve the greater good, but rather think in terms of what will most benefit
themselves. They respond primarily to power, and think of morality as a matter of following
rules so as to avoid punishment.
2. Conventional stage moral understanding. The majority of people that do make it to
the conventional moral understanding start thinking in terms of duty; a duty to do what is
necessary to promote the greater good. They orient towards behaviors that are most likely to
gain other people's respect and admiration.

Part of conventional morality is the duty to behave lawfully. Some people take this
duty further and understand it as a duty to conform to what other influential people around
them want.
3. Post-conventional morality. In order to get to this stage, people have to throw off their
sense of duty to what others around them want, and reinvest their moral sense in
higher principles, such as (but not limited to) "honesty", "reciprocity", and "social
welfare". Such people become willing to take unpopular stances and make unpopular
decisions simply because those decisions represent the right thing to do.

4. Humanistic Theories
Humanists tend to have an optimistic perspective on human nature. They focus on the ability
of human beings to think consciously and rationally, to control their biological urges, and
to achieve their full potential. In the humanistic view, people are responsible for their lives
and actions and have the freedom and will to change their attitudes and behavior.
Humanistic Values
 a belief in the worth of persons and dedication to the development of human potential
 an understanding of life as a process, change is inevitable
 an appreciation of the spiritual and intuitive
 a commitment to ecological integrity
 a recognition of the profound problems affecting our world and a responsibility to
hope and constructive change

Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers is the person with whom the phenomenological theories of personality are
most closely identified.
Rogers viewed authentic personal experience as the fundamental constituent of growth
and well-being.
Combining one’s experience and self-concept can become distorted when others make
the needed positive regard dependent on conditions that require the suppression of true
feelings.

Rogers believed that one of the most fundamental needs is that of positive regard-
being liked, warmth, being respected, obtaining sympathy. Parents are among the most
important suppliers of positive regard. He believed that greater degrees of unconditional
positive regard leads to better adjusted children later in life.

Congruence and Incongruence.

Rogers said that people’s self-concepts often do not exactly match reality. For example, a
person may consider himself to be very honest but often lies to his boss about why he
is late to work. Rogers used the term incongruence to refer to the discrepancy between
the self-concept and reality. Congruence, on the other hand, is a fairly accurate match
between the self-concept and reality.

Parents promote incongruence if they give their children conditional love. If a parent accepts a
child only when the child behaves in a particular way, the child is likely to block out
experiences that are considered unacceptable. On the other hand, if the parent shows
unconditional love, the child can develop congruence. Adults whose parents provided
conditional love would continue to distort their experiences in adulthood in order to feel
accepted.
Rogers thought that people experience anxiety when their self-concepts are threatened.
To protect themselves from anxiety, people distort their experiences so that they can hold on
to their self-concept. People who have a high degree of incongruence are likely to feel
very anxious because reality continually threatens their self-concepts.

Abraham Maslow
Maslow said that human beings strive for self-actualization, or realization of their full
potential, once they have satisfied their more basic needs.

Maslow described several characteristics that self-actualizing people share:

 Awareness and acceptance of themselves
 Openness and spontaneity
 The ability to enjoy work and see work as a mission to fulfill
 The ability to develop close friendships without being overly dependent on other people
 A good sense of humor
 The tendency to have peak experiences that are spiritually or emotionally satisfying

II. Self Development

Self refers to the cognitive representation of one's identity. The earliest formulation of the self
in modern psychology stems from the distinction between the self as I, the subjective knower,
and the self as Me, the object that is known.

In Jungian theory, the Self is one of the archetypes. It signifies the coherent whole,
unified consciousness and unconscious of a person. The Self is realized as the product of
individuation, which is the process of integrating one's personality. In Jungian psychology, the
idea is that there are two centers of the personality. The ego is the center of consciousness,
whereas the Self is the center of the total personality, which includes consciousness,
the
unconscious, and the ego.

Two of the most widely used terms are self-concept and self-esteem.

1. Self-concept is the cognitive or thinking aspect of self (related to one's self-image) and
generally refers to "the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned
beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal
existence".
Franken (1994) states that "there is a great deal of research which shows that the self-concept
is, perhaps, the basis for all motivated behavior. It is the self-concept that gives rise to possible
selves, and it is possible selves that create the motivation for behavior”).

There are several different components of self-concept:

a. Physical - The physical aspect of self-concept relates to that which is concrete: what we
look like, our sex, height, weight, etc.; what kind of clothes we wear; what kind of car we
drive; what kind of home we live in; and so forth
b. Academic - Our academic self-concept relates to how well we do in school or how well we
learn. There are
two levels: a general academic self-concept of how good we are overall and a set of specific
content-related self-concepts that describe how good we are in math, science, language arts,
social science, etc.
c. Social - The social self-concept describes how we relate to other people
d. Transpersonal - describes how we relate to the supernatural or unknown.

2. Self-Image - A simple definition of a person's self image is their answer to this question -
"What do you believe
people think about you?" Self image that is commonly used by social and cognitive
psychologists is self-schema. Like any schema, self-schemas store information and influence
the way we think and remember.

3. Self-esteem is the affective or emotional aspect of self and generally refers to how we feel
about or how we value ourselves (one's self-worth). Self-concept can also refer to the general
idea we have of ourselves and self-esteem can refer to particular measures about components
of self-concept.

Ways to enhance self-esteem

a. Live your life on the basis of what is possible for you and what feels right to you instead
of what you or others think you "should" do.

b. Respect your own needs. It will increase your sense of worth and well-being.

c. Set achievable goals. Establish goals on the basis of what you can realistically achieve, and
then work step-by-step to develop your potential.
d. Talk to yourself positively. Separate your emotional reactions--your fears and bad feelings--
from the reality of your current situation.

e. "Image" yourself succeeding. Whatever you accomplish, let yourself acknowledge and
experience success and good feelings about it.

f. Take chances. New experiences are learning experiences which can build self- confidence.
Expect to make mistakes as part of the process; don't be disappointed if you don't do it
perfectly. Feel good about trying something new, making progress and increasing your
competence.

g. Solve problems. Don't avoid problems, and don't moil about them. Face them, and identify
ways to solve them or cope with them. If you run away from problems you can solve, you
threaten your self-confidence.

h. Make decisions. Practice making and implementing positive decisions flexibly but firmly,
and trust yourself to

deal with the consequences. When you assert yourself, you enhance your sense of self,
learn more, and increase your self-confidence.

i. Develop your skills. Know what you can and can't do. Assess the skills you need; learn
and practice those.

j. Emphasize your strengths. Focus on what you can do rather than what you cannot. Accept
current limitations and live comfortably within them, even as you consider what strengths
you might want or need to develop next.

k. Rely on your own opinion of yourself. Entertain feedback from others, but don't rely on
their opinions. Depend on your own values in making decisions and deciding how you feel
about yourself and what is right for you to do.

 Franken (1994) suggests that self-concept is related to self-esteem in that "people who
have good self-esteem have a clearly differentiated self-concept.... When people know
themselves they can maximize outcomes because they know what they can and cannot do".
a. We develop and maintain our self-concept through the process of taking action and
then reflecting on what we have done and what others tell us about what we have
done.
b. That is, self-concept is not innate, but is developed or constructed by the individual through
interaction with the environment and reflecting on that interaction. This dynamic aspect of
self-concept (and, by corollary, self-esteem) is important because it indicates that it can be
modified or changed.
c. Franken (1994) states "there is a growing body of research which indicates that it is possible
to change the self-concept. Self-change is not something that people can will but rather it
depends on the process of self-reflection. Through self-reflection, people often come to view
themselves in a new, more powerful way, and it is through this new, more powerful way of
viewing the self that people can develop possible selves.

4. Self-efficacy is the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain
certain goals. It is a belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of actions
required to manage prospective situations. It is one of the best predictions of successful
achievement. He also states that one's mastery of experiences related to success is the
major influence on one's self-efficacy. Self-efficacy and self-esteem are both constructed by
one's conscious reflections.

5. Self-direction - the extent to which one's aspirations, dreams, and goals are self-selected

6. Self-regulation - one's guidance of one's goal-directed thinking, attitudes, and behavior, and

7. Self-transcendence -going beyond or above the limitations of one's ego; meaningful

connections to others,
nature, universe, Creator.

III. Personhood is the sum total of the goals, values, rules you live by, your personality, your
character, your knowledge, and your skills. Understanding, intrinsic motivation, skills, and
wisdom will help one make good decisions while they are creating themselves. It all builds
personhood.

The main goal of education should be to raise children to be very high quality people and who
have developed their knowledge and skills, to become the BEST person that they can be.

Your personhood is who you are.

a. We are responsible for who we become. We can make choices leading us to be a high
quality person, or we can make choices leading towards failure. We can decide on our own
Life-Goals and our own Life-Rules to help us reach those goals. We can make conscious
decisions about how we want to be.
b. You can select what you let into your head. You can block out the bad, and embrace
the good. You can think through ideas. You can control whom you become. You can make
yourself. Take the time, and make the effort, to do a good job!

b. People's ability to become motivated and committed to self-development is linked to:

 how optimistic or pessimistic they are (e.g., how easy or difficult it is for them to believe that
good things will happen to them), and by their degree of self-efficacy, which describes
how willing they are to believe that they can accomplish things they want to accomplish

Optimism vs. pessimism and self-efficacy are related ideas; people who are optimistic tend
to also believe that their efforts to better themselves will have some positive effect on their
lives. In contrast, pessimistic people tend to see themselves as less effective.

Self-esteem, which describes how good a person feels about themselves, is a related idea.
Optimistic people who believe that they can change their lives tend to feel pretty good about
themselves and their chances of success, while pessimistic people who feel more helpless to
influence events tend to feel less positively inclined.

When motivation and commitment are adequate, people find the strength to continue toward
self-development or change.

There is no real magic to making a self-help project successful. What is necessary is that you
believe that change is possible, that you create a good plan for change and then that you
execute that plan, doing what is necessary to bring it to completion. Together, motivation
and commitment are the fuel that makes this process possible.

Without motivation, you might not get started on a self development at all. Without
commitment (which is nothing more than sustained motivation) you might abandon your self-
help project in mid-stream.

The development of a self seems to us to be one of the important aims of schooling. Therefore
one of the assumptions central to our development of this thinking framework is that it is
desirable to develop a thinking person only if it leads to a person who can think for him or
herself, not haphazardly, but consistently, with integrity, with character.

The steps are:

1. Analyze what are the goals to be reached
2. Determine what goal or goals are not being met.
3. Analyze why those goals are not being reached.
4. Formulate plans.
5. Implement plans.
6. Monitor results.
7. Modify or fix as needed.

IV. Strategies for self-development

Among the most commonly used strategies for self-development are role modeling,
affirmations, self-assessment,
self-reflection, and visualization. Their meaning and value are summarized below.

1. Role Modeling

It helps to know or learn about people who have personal characteristics, life experiences, or
interests similar to our own and who have reached goals of interest to us. Most of
them are significant people who serve as role models. We learn vicariously through their
experiences and can better visualize ourselves as successful. We can also learn specific
strategies for reaching our goals. People can learn from these stories and choose to
incorporate attitudes and strategies into their own plans for the future.

2. Affirmations

Everyone draws conclusions about their circumstances, abilities, and performance.

Affirmations are positive statements. Repeated to ourselves regularly, they can change
negative beliefs about ourselves and, ultimately, create a more positive self-image. As we
begin to repeat affirmations, we do not need to feel that the statements are completely true
for us at the time. Rather, they can be considered as goals. Examples include the following:
 I am not easily discouraged.
 I can deal with criticism in a positive way.
 Although I have this disability, I know I can make it.

Affirmations can be repeated every day, maybe several times a day. We could write them on
cards to carry as reminders. By repeating them to ourselves, we can slowly replace
negative beliefs and thoughts with positive ones.
3. Self-Assessment
Sometimes it is useful for us to assess our current strengths and challenges regarding
learning styles, communication, conflict resolution, and other skills in order to gain insight into
the best strategies for reaching our goals.

4. Self-Reflection
Sometimes we may experience asking ourselves why we do things, why things happen to
us, and why people treat us in a certain way. However, often these questions are negative
and unproductive. Examples include the following:
 Why did I say that?
 Why am I always late?
 Why does the teacher always call on me when I don't know the answer?
 Why can't my parents be more supportive?

With practice, self-reflective questions can be more productive and lead to greater success in
the future. Here are some examples:
 What can I learn from getting that poor grade that will help me get a better grade next
time?
 How can I respond to a negative comment next time?
 What did I accomplish at school this week?
 What are my major strengths?

5. Introspection
Introspection is the self-observation and reporting of conscious inner thoughts, desires
and sensations. It is a conscious mental and usually purposive process relying on
thinking, reasoning, and examining one's own thoughts, feelings, and, in more spiritual
cases, one's soul. It can also be called contemplation of one's self

6. Visualization

Through visualization you can imagine your best self or an ideal situation. You can visualize
yourself doing well when taking a test, talking to a teacher, making friends, handling a difficult
situation, performing in a job interview.

Visualizing a specific situation and practicing various responses can help you feel
comfortable in that circumstance and increase the chances for a positive experience.
V. Effective strategies for developing healthy interpersonal relationships

Johari Window

Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham, is
one of the most useful models describing the process of human interaction. A four paned
"window," divides personal awareness into four different types: open, hidden, blind, and
unknown. The lines dividing the four panes are like window shades, which can move as an
interaction progresses.

1. The "open" quadrant represents things that both I know about myself, and that others
know about me. The knowledge that the window represents, can include not only factual
information, but my feelings, motives, behaviors, wants, needs and desires... indeed, any
information describing who I am.
2. The "blind" quadrant represents things that you know about me, but that I am unaware of.
3. The "hidden" quadrant represents things that I know about myself, that you do not know.
4. The "unknown" quadrant represents things that neither I know about myself, nor you know
about me
Self-disclosure, is the process between you and the people you interact with. Typically,
as you share something
about yourself (moving information from my hidden quadrant into the open) and if the
other party is interested in
getting to know you, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing information in their
hidden quadrant. Thus, an
interaction between two parties can be modeled dynamically as active. As one’s level of
confidence and self esteem
develops, one may actively invite others to comment on one's blind spots. Active
listening skills are helpful in this
endeavor.

The Johari window, essentially being a model for communication, can also reveal
difficulties in this area. On the simplest level, difficulties may arise due to a lack of
clarity in the interaction, such as poor grammar or choice of words, unorganized
thoughts, faulty logic etc. This induces the receiver to criticize you, the sender, by
revealing something that was in your blind quadrant. Then, if the feedback works, you correct
it immediately. Effective feedback is absolutely essential. Feedback taps basic human
needs-to improve, to compete, and to be accurate. Feedback can be reinforcing; if given
properly. Feedback is almost always appreciated and motivates people to improve.
Feedback can overcome our difficulties; it is very important and can be very rewarding
but it requires skill, understanding, courage, and respect for yourself and others.

Some are hesitant to give feedback for reasons that include fear of causing
embarrassment, discomfort, fear of an
emotional reaction, and inability to handle the reaction.

VI. Psychological and Spiritual Growth

In these stressful times, many people search for serenity and inner peace. To be able
to go inside and find that
comfort within, one has to understand the psychological blocks that keep one from
recognizing his/her True Nature
and having one’s own personal spiritual practice.

1. Characteristic of spiritual/ religious maturity

non-judgmental
content
perceptive
humble
balanced
honest
compassionate
generous
open to not knowing
forgiveness
respectful of differences
hospitality
patience
simplicity
humor

Key factors that seem to be related to spiritual and psychological maturity

 relatedness to wider world
 care and concern for others
 increasing complexity leading to simplicity
 autonomy and individuation
 responsibility
 social relationship
 ethical living
 transcendence